Misplaced Pages

#781218

110-587: Shortly after World War II, when synthetic insecticides were introduced, entomologists in California developed the concept of "supervised insect control". Around the same time, entomologists in the US Cotton Belt were advocating a similar approach. Under this scheme, insect control was "supervised" by qualified entomologists and insecticide applications were based on conclusions reached from periodic monitoring of pest and natural-enemy populations. This

220-767: A gene for the CRY toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) and was introduced in 1997. For the next ca 25 years the only insecticidal agents used in GMOs were the CRY and VIP toxins from various strains of B.t, which control a wide number of insect types. These are widely used with > 100 million hectares planted with B.t. modified crops in 2019. Since 2020 several novel agents have been engineered into plants and approved.  ipd072Aa from Pseudomonas chlororaphis , ipd079Ea from Ophioglossum pendulum , and mpp75Aa1.1 from Brevibacillus laterosporus code for protein toxins. The trait dvsnf7

330-507: A seed-treatment . Contact insecticides (non-systemic insecticides) remain on the leaf surface and act through direct contact with the insect. Insects feed from various compartments in the plant. Most of the major pests are either chewing insects or sucking insects. Chewing insects, such as caterpillars, eat whole pieces of leaf. Sucking insects use feeding tubes to feed from phloem (e.g. aphids, leafhoppers, scales and whiteflies), or to suck cell contents (e.g. thrips and mites). An insecticide

440-552: A 2003 survey found that only 5.3% of vegetable growers in California use rotenone while 1.7% use pyrethrum. These pesticides are not always more safe or environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides and can cause harm. The main criterion for organic pesticides is that they are naturally derived, and some naturally derived substances have been controversial. Controversial natural pesticides include rotenone, copper , nicotine sulfate , and pyrethrums Rotenone and pyrethrum are particularly controversial because they work by attacking

550-491: A broad range of insect species. Most strains are from Beauveria , Metarhizium , Cordyceps and Akanthomyces species. Of the many types of entomopathic viruses, only baculaviruses are used commercially, and are each specific for their target insect. They have to be grown on insects, so their production is labour-intensive. Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that

660-467: A common means for rural Asians to commit suicide. In 2001, 950 Vietnamese farmers tried IPM. In one plot, each farmer grew rice using their usual amounts of seed and fertilizer, applying pesticide as they chose. In a nearby plot, less seed and fertilizer were used and no pesticides were applied for 40 days after planting. Yields from the experimental plots were as good or better and costs were lower, generating 8% to 10% more net income. The experiment led to

770-451: A cumulative toxic effect to wildlife, so multiple exposures to the chemicals amplifies the toxicity. In the US, organophosphate use declined with the rise of substitutes. Many of these insecticides, first developed in the mid 20th century, are very poisonous. Many organophosphates do not persist in the environment. Carbamate insecticides have similar mechanisms to organophosphates, but have

880-573: A different pharmacophore. They are broad-spectrum systemic insecticides, applied as sprays, drenches, seed and soil treatments. Although the classic risk assessment considered this insecticide group (and flupyradifurone specifically) safe for bees , novel research has raised concern on their lethal and sublethal effects, alone or in combination with other chemicals or environmental factors. Diamides selectively activate insect ryanodine receptors (RyR), which are large calcium release channels present in cardiac and skeletal muscle, leading to

990-549: A few are used in agriculture. In the USA 13 are registered for use, in the EU 6. In Korea, where it is easier to register botanical pesticides, 38 are used. Most used are neem oil , chenopodium , pyrethrins , and azadirachtin . Many botanical insecticides used in past decades (e.g. rotenone , nicotine , ryanodine ) have been banned because of their toxicity. The first transgenic crop , which incorporated an insecticidal PIP, contained

1100-698: A field. Monsanto introduced the trait DvSnf7 which expresses a double-stranded RNA transcript containing a 240 bp fragment of the WCR Snf7 gene of the Western Corn Rootworm . GreenLight Biosciences introduced Ledprona, a formulation of double stranded RNA as a spray for potato fields. It targets the essential gene for proteasome subunit beta type- 5 (PSMB5) in the Colorado potato beetle . Spider venoms contain many, often hundreds, of insecticidally active toxins . Many are proteins that attack

1210-471: A fungicide may eventually result in copper accumulation to toxic levels in soil, and admonitions to avoid excessive accumulations of copper in soil appear in various organic standards and elsewhere. Environmental concerns for several kinds of biota arise at average rates of use of such substances for some crops. In the European Union, where replacement of copper-based fungicides in organic agriculture

SECTION 10

#1732772993782

1320-430: A given insect pest. Chemical insecticides were to be used in the manner least disruptive to biological control. The term "integrated" was thus synonymous with "compatible." Chemical controls were to be applied only after regular monitoring indicated that a pest population had reached a level that required treatment (the economic threshold ) to prevent the population from reaching a level at which economic losses would exceed

1430-408: A last resort. Examples of beneficial insects that are used in organic farming include ladybugs and lacewings, both of which feed on aphids. The use of IPM lowers the possibility of pest developing resistance to pesticides that are applied to crops. Organic farming encourages crop diversity by promoting polyculture (multiple crops in the same space). Planting a variety of vegetable crops supports

1540-766: A lesser extent ladybugs (which tend to fly away), all of which eat a wide range of pests. Lacewings are also effective, but tend to fly away. Praying mantis tend to move more slowly and eat less heavily. Parasitoid wasps tend to be effective for their selected prey, but like all small insects can be less effective outdoors because the wind controls their movement. Predatory mites are effective for controlling other mites. Naturally derived insecticides allowed for use on organic farms include Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacterial toxin), pyrethrum (a chrysanthemum extract), spinosad (a bacterial metabolite), neem (a tree extract) and rotenone (a legume root extract). Fewer than 10% of organic farmers use these pesticides regularly;

1650-403: A microorganism (e.g., a bacterium , fungus , virus or protozoan ) as the active ingredient. Plant-Incorporated-Protectants (PIPs) are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic material that has been added to the plant (thus producing transgenic crops ). The global bio-insecticide market was estimated to be less than 10% of the total insecticide market. The bio-insecticde market

1760-711: A minor role in the organic weed control toolbox. Weeds can be controlled by grazing. For example, geese have been used successfully to weed a range of organic crops including cotton, strawberries, tobacco, and corn, reviving the practice of keeping cotton patch geese , common in the southern U.S. before the 1950s. Similarly, some rice farmers introduce ducks and fish to wet paddy fields to eat both weeds and insects. Organisms aside from weeds that cause problems on farms include arthropods (e.g., insects, mites ), nematodes , fungi and bacteria . Practices include, but are not limited to: Examples of predatory beneficial insects include minute pirate bugs , big-eyed bugs , and to

1870-607: A much shorter duration of action and are somewhat less toxic. Pyrethroid insecticides mimic the insecticidal activity of the natural compound pyrethrin , the biopesticide found in Pyrethrum (Now Chrysanthemum and Tanacetum ) species. They have been modified to increase their stability in the environment. These compounds are nonpersistent sodium channel modulators and are less toxic than organophosphates and carbamates. Compounds in this group are often applied against household pests . Some synthetic pyrethroids are toxic to

1980-400: A naturally occurring form of potash that provides potassium. In some cases pH may need to be amended. Natural pH amendments include lime and sulfur , but in the U.S. some compounds such as iron sulfate , aluminum sulfate , magnesium sulfate , and soluble boron products are allowed in organic farming. Mixed farms with both livestock and crops can operate as ley farms , whereby

2090-422: A pest may result in ineffective actions. E.g., plant damage due to over-watering could be mistaken for fungal infection , since many fungal and viral infections arise under moist conditions. Monitoring begins immediately, before the pest's activity becomes significant. Monitoring of agricultural pests includes tracking soil /planting media fertility and water quality . Overall plant health and resistance to pests

2200-510: A request by adherent farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers. The lectures were published in November 1924; the first English translation appeared in 1928 as The Agriculture Course . In July 1939, Ehrenfried Pfeiffer , the author of the standard work on biodynamic agriculture ( Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening ), came to

2310-527: A shorter withholding period. The spectrum of control is narrow. They are less effective and prone to adverse ambient conditions. They degrade rapidly and are thus less persistant. They are slower to act. They are more expensive, have a shorter shelf-life, and are more difficult to source. They require mor specialised knowledge to use. Most or all plants produce chemical insecticides to stop insects eating them . Extracts and purified chemicals from thousands of plants have been shown to be insecticidal, however only

SECTION 20

#1732772993782

2420-1099: A single crop cannot be grown in the same location without a different, intervening crop. Organic crop rotations frequently include weed-suppressive cover crops and crops with dissimilar life cycles to discourage weeds associated with a particular crop. Research is ongoing to develop organic methods to promote the growth of natural microorganisms that suppress the growth or germination of common weeds. Other cultural practices used to enhance crop competitiveness and reduce weed pressure include selection of competitive crop varieties, high-density planting, tight row spacing, and late planting into warm soil to encourage rapid crop germination . Mechanical and physical weed control practices used on organic farms can be broadly grouped as: Some naturally sourced chemicals are allowed for herbicidal use. These include certain formulations of acetic acid (concentrated vinegar), corn gluten meal , and essential oils . A few selective bioherbicides based on fungal pathogens have also been developed. At this time, however, organic herbicides and bioherbicides play

2530-730: A wider range of beneficial insects, soil microorganisms, and other factors that add up to overall farm health. Crop diversity helps the environment to thrive and protects species from going extinct. The science of Agroecology has revealed the benefits of polyculture, which is often employed in organic farming. Agroecology is a scientific discipline that uses ecological theory to study, design, manage, and evaluate agricultural systems that are productive and resource-conserving, and that are also culturally sensitive, socially just, and economically viable. Incorporating crop diversity into organic farming practices can have several benefits. For instance, it can help to increase soil fertility by promoting

2640-557: Is a member of the latter class, used primarily to control caterpillars that are pests. Of these, methoprene is most widely used. It has no observable acute toxicity in rats and is approved by World Health Organization (WHO) for use in drinking water cisterns to combat malaria . Most of its uses are to combat insects where the adult is the pest, including mosquitoes , several fly species, and fleas . Two very similar products, hydroprene and kinoprene, are used for controlling species such as cockroaches and white flies . Methoprene

2750-488: Is a policy priority, research is seeking alternatives for organic production. Raising livestock and poultry, for meat, dairy and eggs, is another traditional farming activity that complements growing. Organic farms attempt to provide animals with natural living conditions and feed. Organic certification verifies that livestock are raised according to the USDA organic regulations throughout their lives. These regulations include

2860-416: Is a wide variety of biological insecticides with differing attributes, but in general the following has been described. They are easier, faster and cheaper to register, usually with lower mammalian toxicity. They are more specific, and thus preserve beneficial insects and biodiversity in general. This makes them compatible with IPM regimes. They degrade rapidly cause less impact on the environment. They have

2970-480: Is an RNAi agent consisting of a double-stranded RNA transcript containing a 240 bp fragment of the WCR Snf7 gene of the western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera). RNA interference (RNAi) uses segments of RNA to fatally silence crucial insect genes . In 2024 two uses of RNAi have been registered by the authorities for use:G enetic modification of a crop to introduce a gene coding for an RNAi fragment, and spraying double stranded RNA fragments onto

3080-457: Is an agricultural system that emphasizes the use of naturally occurring, non-synthetic inputs such as compost manure , green manure , and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation , companion planting , and mixed cropping . Biological pest control methods such as the fostering of insect predators are also encouraged. Organic agriculture can be defined as "an integrated farming system that strives for sustainability ,

3190-467: Is based on the principles of health, care for all living beings and the environment, ecology, and fairness. Organic methods champion sustainability , self-sufficiency , autonomy and independence , health , animal welfare, food security , and food safety . It is often seen as part of the solution to the impacts of climate change . Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by transnational organizations such as

3300-492: Is believed to have caused an 80 per cent decline in flying insects, which in turn has reduced local bird populations by one to two thirds. Instead of using chemical insecticides to avoid crop damage caused by insects, there are many alternative options available now that can protect farmers from major economic losses. Some of them are: Source: Organic farming Organic farming , also known as organic agriculture or ecological farming or biological farming ,

3410-431: Is designed around six basic components: Although originally developed for agricultural pest management, IPM programmes now encompass diseases, weeds and other pests that interfere with management objectives for sites such as residential and commercial structures, lawn and turf areas, and home and community gardens . Predictive models have proved to be suitable tools supporting the implementation of IPM programmes. IPM

Integrated pest management - Misplaced Pages Continue

3520-502: Is dominated by microbials. The bio-insecticide market is growing more that 10% yearly, which is a higher growth than the total insecticide market, mainly due to the increase in organic farming and IPM , and also due to benevolent government policies. Biopesticides are regarded by the US and European authorities as posing fewer risks of environmental and mammalian toxicity. Biopesticides are more than 10 x (often 100 x) cheaper and 3 x faster to register than synthetic pesticides. There

3630-478: Is greatly influenced by pH , alkalinity , of dissolved mineral and oxygen reduction potential. Many diseases are waterborne, spread directly by irrigation water and indirectly by splashing. Once the pest is known, knowledge of its lifecycle provides the optimal intervention points. For example, weeds reproducing from last year's seed can be prevented with mulches and pre-emergent herbicide. Pest-tolerant crops such as soybeans may not warrant interventions unless

3740-509: Is increasingly penetrating organic and heirloom seed stocks , making it difficult, if not impossible, to keep these genomes from entering the organic food supply. Differing regulations among countries limits the availability of GMOs to certain countries, as described in the article on regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms . Organic farmers use a number of traditional farm tools to do farming, and may make use of agricultural machinery in similar ways to conventional farming. In

3850-422: Is more effective if it is in the compartment the insect feeds from. The physicochemical properties of the insecticide determine how it is distributed throughout the plant. The best known organochloride , DDT , was created by Swiss scientist Paul Müller . For this discovery, he was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine . DDT was introduced in 1944. It functions by opening sodium channels in

3960-422: Is one fly in a hospital operating room is not acceptable, but one fly in a pet kennel would be acceptable. Once a threshold has been crossed by the pest population action steps need to be taken to reduce and control the pest. Integrated pest management employs a variety of actions including cultural controls such as physical barriers, biological controls such as adding and conserving natural predators and enemies of

4070-399: Is the selection and use of pest control actions that will ensure favourable economic condition, ecological and social consequences and is applicable to most agricultural, public health and amenity pest management situations. The IPM process starts with monitoring, which includes inspection and identification, followed by the establishment of economic injury levels. The economic injury levels set

4180-562: Is very bulky and is often not cost-effective to transport more than a short distance from the source. Manure for organic farms' may become scarce if a sizable number of farms become organically managed. Organic weed management promotes weed suppression, rather than weed elimination, by enhancing crop competition and phytotoxic effects on weeds. Organic farmers integrate cultural, biological, mechanical, physical and chemical tactics to manage weeds without synthetic herbicides . Organic standards require rotation of annual crops, meaning that

4290-629: The European Union and also by individual nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic farming organizations established in 1972, with regional branches such as IFOAM Organics Europe and IFOAM Asia. Since 1990, the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly, reaching $ 150 billion worldwide in 2022 – of which more than $ 64 billion

4400-782: The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) have been encouraging farmers to grow flowers, okra , and beans on rice paddy banks, instead of stripping vegetation, as was typical. The plants attract bees and wasps that eat planthopper eggs, while the vegetables diversify farm incomes. Agriculture companies offer bundles of pesticides with seeds and fertilizer, with incentives for volume purchases. A proposed law in Vietnam requires licensing pesticide dealers and government approval of advertisements to prevent exaggerated claims. Insecticides that target other pests, such as Scirpophaga incertulas (stem borer),

4510-501: The Mar del Plata Declaration , where more than 600 delegates from over 60 countries voted unanimously to exclude the use of genetically modified organisms in organic food production and agriculture. Although opposition to the use of any transgenic technologies in organic farming is strong, agricultural researchers Luis Herrera-Estrella and Ariel Alvarez-Morales continue to advocate integration of transgenic technologies into organic farming as

Integrated pest management - Misplaced Pages Continue

4620-538: The Principles of Organic Agriculture , an international guideline for certification criteria. Typically the agencies accredit certification groups rather than individual farms. Production materials used for the creation of USDA Organic certified foods require the approval of a NOP accredited certifier. EU-organic production-regulation on "organic" food labels define "organic" primarily in terms of whether "natural" or "artificial" substances were allowed as inputs in

4730-487: The Stockholm Convention . Since many decades the authorities require new insecticides to degrade in the environment and not to bioaccumulate. Solid bait and liquid insecticides, especially if improperly applied in a location, get moved by water flow. Often, this happens through nonpoint sources where runoff carries insecticides in to larger bodies of water. As snow melts and rainfall moves over and through

4840-604: The "father of organic farming" for his work in applying scientific knowledge and principles to various traditional and natural methods. In the United States J. I. Rodale , who was keenly interested both in Howard's ideas and in biodynamics, founded in the 1940s both a working organic farm for trials and experimentation, The Rodale Institute , and Rodale, Inc. in Emmaus, Pennsylvania to teach and advocate organic methods to

4950-440: The "no spray in the first 40 days" approach. By contrast early spraying kills frogs, spiders, wasps and dragonflies that prey on the later-arriving and dangerous planthopper and produced resistant strains. Planthoppers now require pesticide doses 500 times greater than originally. Overuse indiscriminately kills beneficial insects and decimates bird and amphibian populations. Pesticides are suspected of harming human health and became

5060-512: The "three reductions, three gains" campaign, claiming that cutting the use of seed, fertilizer and pesticide would boost yield, quality and income. Posters, leaflets, TV commercials and a 2004 radio soap opera that featured a rice farmer who gradually accepted the changes. It didn't hurt that a 2006 planthopper outbreak hit farmers using insecticides harder than those who didn't. Mekong Delta farmers cut insecticide spraying from five times per crop cycle to zero to one. The Plant Protection Center and

5170-494: The 1990s, a trend toward legislated standards began, most notably with the 1991 EU-Eco-regulation developed for European Union , which set standards for 12 countries, and a 1993 UK program. The EU's program was followed by a Japanese program in 2001, and in 2002 the U.S. created the National Organic Program (NOP). As of 2007 over 60 countries regulate organic farming ( IFOAM 2007:11 ). In 2005 IFOAM created

5280-431: The 1997 World Food Prize for encouraging the use of IPM. IPM is used in agriculture , horticulture , forestry , human habitations, preventive conservation of cultural property and general pest control, including structural pest management, turf pest management and ornamental pest management. IPM practices help to prevent and slow the development of resistance, known as resistance management . An American IPM system

5390-527: The IPM framework. IPM combined entomologists, plant pathologists , nematologists and weed scientists. In the United States, IPM was formulated into national policy in February 1972 as directed by President Richard Nixon . In 1979, President Jimmy Carter established an interagency IPM Coordinating Committee to ensure development and implementation of IPM practices. Perry Adkisson and Ray F. Smith received

5500-609: The UK at the invitation of Walter James, 4th Baron Northbourne as a presenter at the Betteshanger Summer School and Conference on Biodynamic Farming at Northbourne's farm in Kent. One of the chief purposes of the conference was to bring together the proponents of various approaches to organic agriculture in order that they might cooperate within a larger movement. Howard attended the conference, where he met Pfeiffer. In

5610-487: The application of insecticides and herbicides. A green pest management IPM program uses pesticides derived from plants, such as botanicals, or other naturally occurring materials. Pesticides can be classified by their modes of action. Rotating among materials with diverse modes of action minimizes pest resistance. Evaluation is the process of assessing whether the intervention was effective, whether it produced unacceptable side effects, whether to continue, revise or abandon

SECTION 50

#1732772993782

5720-404: The atmosphere. This has an added benefit of carbon sequestration , which reduces greenhouse gases and helps reverse climate change. Reducing tillage may also improve soil structure and reduce the potential for soil erosion. Plants need a large number of nutrients in various quantities to flourish. Supplying enough nitrogen and particularly synchronization, so that plants get enough nitrogen at

5830-1117: The bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus pumilus ; and the fungus Trichoderma harzianum . These are mainly effective for diseases affecting roots. Compost tea contains a mix of beneficial microbes, which may attack or out-compete certain plant pathogens, but variability among formulations and preparation methods may contribute to inconsistent results or even dangerous growth of toxic microbes in compost teas. Some naturally derived pesticides are not allowed for use on organic farms. These include nicotine sulfate, arsenic , and strychnine . Synthetic pesticides allowed for use on organic farms include insecticidal soaps and horticultural oils for insect management; and Bordeaux mixture , copper hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate for managing fungi. Copper sulfate and Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate plus lime), approved for organic use in various jurisdictions, can be more environmentally problematic than some synthetic fungicides disallowed in organic farming. Similar concerns apply to copper hydroxide. Repeated application of copper sulfate or copper hydroxide as

5940-419: The beneficials are collected, mass-reared and released seasonally to maintain the beneficial population. This is commonly used in greenhouses. In America and other western countries, inundative releases are predominant, while Asia and the eastern Europe more commonly use inoculation and occasional introductions. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is an area-wide IPM program that introduces sterile male pests into

6050-427: The competition between the legume and the crop can be problematic and wider spacing between crop rows is required. Crop residues can be ploughed back into the soil, and different plants leave different amounts of nitrogen, potentially aiding synchronization. Organic farmers also use animal manure , certain processed fertilizers such as seed meal and various mineral powders such as rock phosphate and green sand ,

6160-410: The cost of the control measures (the economic injury level). IPM extended the concept of integrated control to all classes of pests and was expanded to include all tactics. Controls such as pesticides were to be applied as in integrated control, but these now had to be compatible with tactics for all classes of pests. Other tactics, such as host-plant resistance and cultural manipulations, became part of

6270-514: The crop is harvested if the final product comes into direct contact with the soil. For products that do not directly contact soil, 90 days must pass prior to harvest. In the US, the Organic Food Production Act of 1990 (OFPA) as amended, specifies that a farm can not be certified as organic if the compost being used contains any synthetic ingredients. The OFPA singles out commercially blended fertilizers [composts] disallowing

6380-399: The developing world have converted to modern organic methods for economic reasons. The use of "organic" popularized by Howard and Rodale refers more narrowly to the use of organic matter derived from plant compost and animal manures to improve the humus content of soils, grounded in the work of early soil scientists who developed what was then called "humus farming". Since the early 1940s

6490-411: The developing world, on small organic farms, tools are normally constrained to hand tools and diesel powered water pumps. Standards regulate production methods and in some cases final output for organic agriculture. Standards may be voluntary or legislated. As early as the 1970s private associations certified organic producers. In the 1980s, governments began to produce organic production guidelines. In

6600-427: The economic threshold level. Economic Injury level is the pest population level at which crop damage exceeds the cost of treatment of pest. This can also be an action threshold level for determining an unacceptable level that is not tied to economic injury. Action thresholds are more common in structural pest management and economic injury levels in classic agricultural pest management. An example of an action threshold

6710-568: The enhancement of soil fertility and biological diversity while, with rare exceptions, prohibiting synthetic pesticides, antibiotics , synthetic fertilizers, genetically modified organisms , and growth hormones ". It originated early in the 20th century in reaction to rapidly changing farming practices. Certified organic agriculture today accounts for 70 million hectares (170 million acres) globally, with over half of that total in Australia. Organic standards are designed to allow

SECTION 60

#1732772993782

6820-432: The environment, and it is lipophilic (fat soluble). It became the first global pollutant , and the first pollutant to accumulate and magnify in the food chain . During the 1950s and 1960s these very undesirable side effects were recognized, and after some often contentious discussion, DDT was banned in many countries in the 1960s and 1970s. Finally in 2001 DDT and all other persistent insecticides were banned via

6930-463: The farmers' main target, has become increasingly resistant. Since 2008, outbreaks have devastated rice harvests throughout Asia, but not in the Mekong Delta. Reduced spraying allowed natural predators to neutralize planthoppers in Vietnam. In 2010 and 2011, massive planthopper outbreaks hit 400,000 hectares of Thai rice fields, causing losses of about $ 64 million. The Thai government is now pushing

7040-570: The field of agroecology . While conventional agriculture uses synthetic pesticides and water-soluble synthetically purified fertilizers, organic farmers are restricted by regulations to using natural pesticides and fertilizers. An example of a natural pesticide is pyrethrin , which is found naturally in the Chrysanthemum flower. The principal methods of organic farming include crop rotation , green manures and compost , biological pest control , and mechanical cultivation . These measures use

7150-414: The field of play. Possible interventions include mechanical/physical, cultural, biological and chemical. Mechanical/physical controls include picking pests off plants, or using netting or other material to exclude pests such as birds from grapes or rodents from structures. Cultural controls include keeping an area free of conducive conditions by removing waste or diseased plants, flooding, sanding, and

7260-517: The following year, Northbourne published his manifesto of organic farming, Look to the Land , in which he coined the term "organic farming". The Betteshanger conference has been described as the 'missing link' between biodynamic agriculture and other forms of organic farming. In 1940 Howard published his An Agricultural Testament . In this book he adopted Northbourne's terminology of "organic farming". Howard's work spread widely, and he became known as

7370-404: The food production process. Using manure as a fertilizer risks contaminating food with animal gut bacteria, including pathogenic strains of E. coli that have caused fatal poisoning from eating organic food. To combat this risk, USDA organic standards require that manure must be sterilized through high temperature thermophilic composting . If raw animal manure is used, 120 days must pass before

7480-470: The form of food for farmers and other animals. While today, small growing operations often do not include livestock, domesticated animals are a desirable part of the organic farming equation, especially for true sustainability, the ability of a farm to function as a self-renewing unit. A key characteristic of organic farming is the exclusion of genetically engineered plants and animals. On 19 October 1998, participants at IFOAM's 12th Scientific Conference issued

7590-436: The general population in modern times has transformed the originally supply-driven organic movement to a demand-driven one. Premium prices and some government subsidies attracted farmers. In the developing world, many producers farm according to traditional methods that are comparable to organic farming, but not certified, and that may not include the latest scientific advancements in organic agriculture. In other cases, farmers in

7700-603: The ground, the water picks applied insecticides and deposits them in to larger bodies of water, rivers, wetlands, underground sources of previously potable water, and percolates in to watersheds. This runoff and percolation of insecticides can effect the quality of water sources, harming the natural ecology and thus, indirectly effect human populations through biomagnification and bioaccumulation. Both number of insects and number of insect species have declined dramatically and continuously over past decades, causing much concern. Many causes are proposed to contribute to this decline,

7810-497: The growth of beneficial soil microorganisms . It can also help to reduce pest and disease pressure by creating a more diverse and resilient agroecosystem . Furthermore, crop diversity can help to improve the nutritional quality of food by providing a wider range of essential nutrients . Organic farming relies more heavily on the natural breakdown of organic matter than the average conventional farm, using techniques like green manure and composting , to replace nutrients taken from

7920-487: The insect's nerve cells . The contemporaneous rise of the chemical industry facilitated large-scale production of chlorinated hydrocarbons including various cyclodiene and hexachlorocyclohexane compounds. Although commonly used in the past, many older chemicals have been removed from the market due to their health and environmental effects ( e.g. DDT , chlordane , and toxaphene ). Organophosphates are another large class of contact insecticides. These also target

8030-443: The insect's nervous system. Organophosphates interfere with the enzymes acetylcholinesterase and other cholinesterases , causing an increase in synaptic acetylcholine and overstimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system . and killing or disabling the insect. Organophosphate insecticides and chemical warfare nerve agents (such as sarin , tabun , soman , and VX ) have the same mechanism of action. Organophosphates have

8140-402: The insecticide kills or inactivates a pest. It provides another way of classifying insecticides. Insecticides may be systemic or non-systemic (contact insecticides). Systemic insecticides penetrate into the plant and move (translocate) inside the plant. Translocation may be upward in the xylem , or downward in the phloem or both. Systemicity is a prerequisite for the pesticide to be used as

8250-403: The integrity, the independence and the benign dependence of an organism They based their work on Steiner's spiritually-oriented alternative agriculture which includes various esoteric concepts. "Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than

8360-581: The land gathers fertility through growing nitrogen-fixing forage grasses such as white clover or alfalfa and grows cash crops or cereals when fertility is established. Farms without livestock ("stockless") may find it more difficult to maintain soil fertility, and may rely more on external inputs such as imported manure as well as grain legumes and green manures, although grain legumes may fix limited nitrogen because they are harvested. Horticultural farms that grow fruits and vegetables in protected conditions often rely even more on external inputs. Manure

8470-1079: The larvae of moth species that feed on rice plants allegedly yield gains of 21% with proper use. Insecticide Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects . They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae , respectively. The major use of insecticides is in agriculture , but they are also used in home and garden settings, industrial buildings, for vector control , and control of insect parasites of animals and humans. Acaricides , which kill mites and ticks , are not strictly insecticides, but are usually classified together with insecticides. Some insecticides (including common bug sprays) are effective against other non-insect arthropods as well, such as scorpions , spiders , etc. Insecticides are distinct from insect repellents , which repel but do not kill. In 2016 insecticides were estimated to account for 18% of worldwide pesticide sales. Worldwide sales of insecticides in 2018 were estimated as $ 18.4 billion, of which 25% were neonicotinoids, 17% were pyrethroids, 13% were diamides, and

8580-606: The leaf folder moth, which appears early in the growing season. It causes only superficial damage and doesn't reduce yields. In 1986, Indonesia banned 57 pesticides and completely stopped subsidizing their use. Progress was reversed in the 2000s, when growing production capacity, particularly in China, reduced prices. Rice production in Asia more than doubled. But it left farmers believing more is better—whether it's seed, fertilizer, or pesticides. The brown planthopper , Nilaparvata lugens ,

8690-428: The loss of calcium crucial for biological processes. This causes insects to act lethargic, stop feeding, and eventually die. The first insecticide from this class to be registered was flubendiamide . Insect growth regulator (IGR) is a term coined to include insect hormone mimics and an earlier class of chemicals, the benzoylphenyl ureas, which inhibit chitin (exoskeleton) biosynthesis in insects Diflubenzuron

8800-533: The most agreed upon are loss of habitat , intensification of farming practices, and insecticide usage. Domestic bees were declining some years ago but population and number of colonies have now risen both in the USA and worldwide. Wild species of bees are still declining. Besides the effects of direct consumption of insecticides, populations of insectivorous birds decline due to the collapse of their prey populations. Spraying of especially wheat and corn in Europe

8910-447: The natural environment to enhance agricultural productivity: legumes are planted to fix nitrogen into the soil, natural insect predators are encouraged, crops are rotated to confuse pests and renew soil, and natural materials such as potassium bicarbonate and mulches are used to control disease and weeds . Genetically modified seeds and animals are excluded. While organic is fundamentally different from conventional because of

9020-424: The neonicotinoid family, is the most widely used insecticide in the world. In the late 1990s neonicotinoids came under increasing scrutiny over their environmental impact and were linked in a range of studies to adverse ecological effects, including honey-bee colony collapse disorder (CCD) and loss of birds due to a reduction in insect populations. In 2013, the European Union and a few non EU countries restricted

9130-938: The nervous system of the insect. Vestaron introduced for agricultural use a spray formulation of GS-omega/kappa-Hxtx-Hv1a (HXTX), derived from the venom of the Australian blue mountain funnel web spider ( Hadronyche versuta ). Entomopathic bacteria can be mass-produced. The most widely used is Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.), used since decades. There are several strains used with different applications against lepidoptera , coleoptera and diptera . Also used are Lysinibacillus sphaericus , Burkholderia spp, and Wolbachia pipientis . Avermectins and spinosyns are bacterial metabolites, mass-produced by fermentation and used as insecticides. The toxins from B.t. have been incorporated into plants through genetic engineering . Entomopathic fungi have been used since 1965 for agricultural use. Hundreds of strains are now in use. They often kill

9240-466: The nervous system, like most conventional insecticides. Rotenone is extremely toxic to fish and can induce symptoms resembling Parkinson's disease in mammals. Although pyrethrum (natural pyrethrins) is more effective against insects when used with piperonyl butoxide (which retards degradation of the pyrethrins), organic standards generally do not permit use of the latter substance. Naturally derived fungicides allowed for use on organic farms include

9350-542: The nervous system. Neonicotinoids are a class of neuro-active insecticides chemically similar to nicotine .(with much lower acute mammalian toxicity and greater field persistence). These chemicals are acetylcholine receptor agonists . They are broad-spectrum systemic insecticides, with rapid action (minutes-hours). They are applied as sprays, drenches, seed and soil treatments. Treated insects exhibit leg tremors, rapid wing motion, stylet withdrawal ( aphids ), disoriented movement, paralysis and death. Imidacloprid , of

9460-419: The optimal means to sustainable agriculture, particularly in the developing world. Organic farmer Raoul Adamchak and geneticist Pamela Ronald write that many agricultural applications of biotechnology are consistent with organic principles and have significantly advanced sustainable agriculture. Although GMOs are excluded from organic farming, there is concern that the pollen from genetically modified crops

9570-430: The pest area. This is used for an immediate reduction in host populations, generally for annual crops, but is not suitable for long run use. With inoculative release a limited number of beneficial organisms are introduced at the start of the growing season. This strategy offers long term control as the organism's progeny affect pest populations throughout the season and is common in orchards. With seasonal inoculative release

9680-530: The pest population to trick females into (unsuccessful) breeding encounters, providing a form of birth control and reducing reproduction rates. The biological controls mentioned above only appropriate in extreme cases, because in the introduction of new species, or supplementation of naturally occurring species can have detrimental ecosystem effects. Biological controls can be used to stop invasive species or pests, but they can become an introduction path for new pests. Chemical controls include horticultural oils or

9790-983: The pest, and finally chemical controls or pesticides. Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM appropriate for organic farming (excluding synthetic pesticides). These may or may not include materials listed on the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) Although the pesticides and particularly insecticides used in organic farming and organic gardening are generally safer than synthetic pesticides, they are not always more safe or environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides and can cause harm. For conventional farms IPM can reduce human and environmental exposure to hazardous chemicals, and potentially lower overall costs. Risk assessment usually includes four issues: 1) characterization of biological control agents, 2) health risks, 3) environmental risks and 4) efficacy. Mistaken identification of

9900-431: The pests are numerous or rapidly increasing. Intervention is warranted if the expected cost of damage by the pest is more than the cost of control. Health hazards may require intervention that is not warranted by economic considerations. Specific sites may also have varying requirements. E.g., white clover may be acceptable on the sides of a tee box on a golf course , but unacceptable in the fairway where it could confuse

10010-416: The program. The Green Revolution of the 1960s and '70s introduced sturdier plants that could support the heavier grain loads resulting from intensive fertilizer use. Pesticide imports by 11 Southeast Asian countries grew nearly sevenfold in value between 1990 and 2010, according to FAO statistics, with disastrous results. Rice farmers become accustomed to spraying soon after planting, triggered by signs of

10120-405: The requirement that all animal feed must be certified organic. Organic livestock may be, and must be, treated with medicine when they are sick, but drugs cannot be used to promote growth, their feed must be organic, and they must be pastured. Also, horses and cattle were once a basic farm feature that provided labour, for hauling and plowing, fertility, through recycling of manure, and fuel, in

10230-472: The rest were many other classes which sold for less than 10% each of the market. Insecticides are most usefully categorised according to their modes of action . The insecticide resistance action committee (IRAC) list s 30 modes of action plus unknowns. There can be several chemical classes of insecticide with the same mode or action. IRAC lists 56 chemical classed plus unknowns. Further Information: List of insecticides . The mode of action describes how

10340-473: The rotation of crops, erosion prevention techniques, and the systematic use of composts and manures. Stimulated by these experiences of traditional farming, when Albert Howard returned to Britain in the early 1930s he began to promulgate a system of organic agriculture. In 1924 Rudolf Steiner gave a series of eight lectures on agriculture with a focus on influences of the moon, planets, non-physical beings and elemental forces. They were held in response to

10450-845: The short-term, had serious longer-term side-effects such as soil compaction , erosion , and declines in overall soil fertility , along with health concerns about toxic chemicals entering the food supply. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, soil biology scientists began to seek ways to remedy these side effects while still maintaining higher production. In 1921 the founder and pioneer of the organic movement Albert Howard and his wife Gabrielle Howard , accomplished botanists , founded an Institute of Plant Industry to improve traditional farming methods in India. Among other things, they brought improved implements and improved animal husbandry methods from their scientific training; then by incorporating aspects of Indian traditional methods, developed protocols for

10560-406: The soil by previous crops. This biological process, driven by microorganisms such as mycorrhiza and earthworms , releases nutrients available to plants throughout the growing season. Farmers use a variety of methods to improve soil fertility, including crop rotation, cover cropping, reduced tillage, and application of compost. By reducing fuel-intensive tillage, less soil organic matter is lost to

10670-401: The time when they need it most, is a challenge for organic farmers. Crop rotation and green manure (" cover crops ") help to provide nitrogen through legumes (more precisely, the family Fabaceae ), which fix nitrogen from the atmosphere through symbiosis with rhizobial bacteria . Intercropping , which is sometimes used for insect and disease control, can also increase soil nutrients, but

10780-423: The two camps have tended to merge. Biodynamic agriculturists, on the other hand, used the term "organic" to indicate that a farm should be viewed as a living organism, in the sense of the following quotation: An organic farm, properly speaking, is not one that uses certain methods and substances and avoids others; it is a farm whose structure is formed in imitation of the structure of a natural system that has

10890-613: The use of any fertilizer [compost] that contains prohibited materials. The economics of organic farming, a subfield of agricultural economics , encompasses the entire process and effects of organic farming in terms of human society, including social costs , opportunity costs , unintended consequences , information asymmetries , and economies of scale . Labour input, carbon and methane emissions , energy use, eutrophication, acidification, soil quality, effect on biodiversity, and overall land use vary considerably between individual farms and between crops, making general comparisons between

11000-563: The use of carbon-based fertilizers compared with highly soluble synthetic based fertilizers and biological pest control instead of synthetic pesticides, organic farming and large-scale conventional farming are not entirely mutually exclusive. Many of the methods developed for organic agriculture have been borrowed by more conventional agriculture. For example, Integrated Pest Management is a multifaceted strategy that uses various organic methods of pest control whenever possible, but in conventional farming could include synthetic pesticides only as

11110-514: The use of certain neonicotinoids. and its potential to increase the susceptibility of rice to planthopper attacks. Phenylpyrazole insecticides , such as fipronil are a class of synthetic insecticides that operate by interfering with GABA receptors. Butenolide pesticides are a novel group of chemicals, similar to neonicotinoids in their mode of action, that have so far only one representative: flupyradifurone . They are acetylcholine receptor agonists , like neonicotinoids , but with

11220-529: The use of disease-resistant crop varieties. Biological controls are numerous. They include: conservation of natural predators or augmentation of natural predators, sterile insect technique (SIT). Augmentation, inoculative release and inundative release are different methods of biological control that affect the target pest in different ways. Augmentative control includes the periodic introduction of predators. With inundative release, predators are collected, mass-reared and periodically released in large numbers into

11330-436: The use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved..." Organic farming methods combine scientific knowledge of ecology and some modern technology with traditional farming practices based on naturally occurring biological processes. Organic farming methods are studied in

11440-777: The use of naturally occurring substances while prohibiting or severely limiting synthetic substances. For instance, naturally occurring pesticides such as garlic extract, bicarbonate of soda, or pyrethrin (which is found naturally in the Chrysanthemum flower) are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers and pesticides such as glyphosate are prohibited. Synthetic substances that are allowed only in exceptional circumstances may include copper sulfate , elemental sulfur , and veterinary drugs . Genetically modified organisms , nanomaterials , human sewage sludge , plant growth regulators , hormones , and antibiotic use in livestock husbandry are prohibited. Broadly, organic agriculture

11550-633: The wider public. These became important influences on the spread of organic agriculture. Further work was done by Lady Eve Balfour (the Haughley Experiment ) in the United Kingdom, and many others across the world. The term "eco-agriculture" was coined in 1970 by Charles Walters , founder of Acres Magazine , to describe agriculture which does not use "man-made molecules of toxic rescue chemistry", effectively another name for organic agriculture. Increasing environmental awareness in

11660-495: Was earned in North America and EUR 53 billion in Europe. This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed farmland, which grew by 26.6 percent from 2021 to 2022. As of 2022, organic farming is practiced in 188 countries and approximately 96,000,000 hectares (240,000,000 acres) worldwide were farmed organically by 4.5 million farmers, representing approximately 2 percent of total world farmland. Agriculture

11770-416: Was practiced for thousands of years without the use of artificial chemicals. Artificial fertilizers were first developed during the mid-19th century. These early fertilizers were cheap, powerful, and easy to transport in bulk. Similar advances occurred in chemical pesticides in the 1940s, leading to the decade being referred to as the "pesticide era". These new agricultural techniques, while beneficial in

11880-432: Was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake an insecticide granule on the ground for food and eat it. Sprayed insecticide may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially. DDT was the first organic insecticide. It was introduced during WW2 , and was widely used. One use was vector control and it was sprayed on open water. It degrades slowly in

11990-1112: Was registered with the EPA in 1975. Virtually no reports of resistance have been filed. A more recent type of IGR is the ecdysone agonist tebufenozide (MIMIC), which is used in forestry and other applications for control of caterpillars, which are far more sensitive to its hormonal effects than other insect orders. The EU defines biopesticides as "a form of pesticide based on micro-organisms or natural products". The US EPA defines biopesticides as “certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals”. Microorganisms that control pests may also be categorised as biological pest control agents together with larger organisms such as parasitic insects, entomopathic nematodes etc. Natural products may also be categorised as chemical insecticides. The US EPA describes three types of biopesticide. Biochemical pesticides (meaning bio-derived chemicals), which are naturally occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms. Microbial pesticides consisting of

12100-432: Was viewed as an alternative to calendar-based programs. Supervised control was based on knowledge of the ecology and analysis of projected trends in pest and natural-enemy populations. Supervised control formed much of the conceptual basis for the "integrated control" that University of California entomologists articulated in the 1950s. Integrated control sought to identify the best mix of chemical and biological controls for

#781218