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108-547: The IOC is the only UN body specialized in ocean science and services. It provides a focus for other UN organizations and agencies with regard to ocean science, observations and data exchange, and services such as global tsunami warning systems . Established in 1960, the Commission celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2010 and currently has 147 Member States. Since the IOC often has its own accreditation within meetings such as those of

216-440: A backbone for ecosystem-based management. Because ecosystem-based management is applied to large, diverse areas encompassing an array of interactions between species, ecosystem components, and humans, it is often perceived as a complex process that is difficult to implement. Slocombe (1998b) also noted that in addition, uncertainty is common and predictions are difficult. However, in light of significant ecosystem degradation, there

324-516: A bilateral basis or within the framework of international organizations and other fore, taking into account, in particular, the interests and needs of developing States In the CGTMT, marine technology refers to instruments, equipment, vessels, processes and methodologies required to produce and use knowledge to improve the study and understanding of the nature and resources of the ocean and coastal areas. In this sense, marine technology may include any of

432-429: A desired future of ecosystem conditions, particularly where ecosystems have undergone radical degradation and change. Slocombe (1998b) said that to move forward, ecosystem-based management should be approached through adaptive management , allowing flexibility and inclusiveness to deal with constant environmental, societal, and political change. Ecosystem-based management of marine environments has begun to move away from

540-594: A few. More effective ecosystem management would result from the collective adoption of policies by all sectors, rather than each sector creating their own isolated policies. For example, in the Gulf of Mexico there are oil rigs, recreational fisheries, commercial fisheries and multiple tourist attractions. One of the main fisheries is that of the Red Snapper which inhabits much of the Gulf and employs thousands of people in

648-570: A network of seismographs that have been installed at various locations in the IOR (Indian Ocean Region). The Indian Tsunami Buoy Type 1 System consists of 2 units – a surface buoy and a bottom pressure reader (BPR). Communication between BPR and the surface buoy is through acoustic modems and the surface buoys use the INSAT satellite system to communicate readings back to shore stations. The Tsunami warning station collates information from 17 seismic stations of

756-463: A new shell. To further complicate matters, it slows this process down as it gets older to invest more energy into reproduction thus further deviating itself from the von Bertalanffy model of growth that was applied to it. The more information we can gather about an ecosystem and all of the interconnected factors which affect it, the more capable we will be of better managing that system. Ecosystem-based management focuses on how individual actions affect

864-661: A positive outcome. Managers must be able to react and adapt as to limit the variance associated with the outcome. The Land and Resource Management Planning (LRMP) was implemented by the British Columbia Government (Canada) in the mid-1990s in the Great Bear Rainforest in order to establish a multiparty land-use planning system. The aim was to "maintain the ecological integrity of terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems and achieve high levels of human well-being ". The steps described in

972-450: A regional pilot. Regional (or local) warning system centers use seismic data about nearby recent earthquakes to determine if there is a possible local threat of a tsunami. Such systems are capable of issuing warnings to the general public (via public address systems and sirens) in less than 15 minutes. Although the epicenter and moment magnitude of an underwater quake and the probable tsunami arrival times can be quickly calculated, it

1080-446: A small portion. Japan has a nationwide tsunami warning system. The system usually issues the warning minutes after an Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) is issued, should there be expected waves. The tsunami warning was issued within 3 minutes with the most serious rating on its warning scale during the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami ; it was rated as a "major tsunami", being at least 3 m (9.8 ft) high. An improved system

1188-412: A specific species. Not all members of the public will be properly informed, or be fully aware, of current threats to marine ecosystems and it is therefore important to change public perceptions by informing people about these issues. It is important to consider the interest of the public when making decisions about ocean management and not just those who have a material interest because community support

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1296-520: A static state. Goals should also be flexible enough to incorporate a measure of uncertainty and be able to evolve as conditions and knowledge change. This may involve focusing on specific threatening processes, such as habitat loss or introduced invasive species, occurring within an ecosystem. Overall the goals should be integrative, to include the structure, organization and processes of the management of an area. Correct ecosystem-based management should be based in goals that are both "substantive", to explain

1404-842: A tsunami that resulted in 165 casualties on Hawaii and in Alaska; NTWC was founded in 1967. International coordination is achieved through the International Coordination Group for the Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific, established by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO . In 2005, Chile started to implement the Integrated Plate boundary Observatory Chile (IPOC) which in

1512-401: A typical speed of 4 km/s (around 14,400 km/h). This gives time for a possible tsunami forecast to be made and warnings to be issued to threatened areas, if warranted. Until a reliable model is able to predict which earthquakes will produce significant tsunamis, this approach will produce many more false alarms than verified warnings. Tsunami warnings ( SAME code: TSW ) for most of

1620-525: Is a collection of earth observation satellites operated by ISRO in conjunction with Oceansat ground station that covers an area of 5000 km radius around India and is capable of monitoring sea flora and fauna along with oceanic features like meandering patterns, eddies, rings, upwelling and others. Oceansat-2 was successfully deployed to predict the landfall and mitigate the effects of Cyclone Phailin , in October 2013. Detection and prediction of tsunamis

1728-613: Is a highly complex, logistically difficult, and expensive process and can thus be a contentious issue, particularly when competing parties disagree on the findings of an assessment. Accurate stock assessments require knowledge of reproductive and morphological patterns, age-at-stage progressions, and movement ecology. All members of an ecosystem are affected by other organisms within that ecosystem, and proper management of wildlife requires knowledge of an organism's trophic level and its effects on other organisms within its food web. Top-down and bottom-up controls represent one method by which

1836-420: Is a need for a holistic approach that combines environmental knowledge and co-ordination with governing agencies to initiate, sustain and enforce habitat and species protection, and include public education and involvement. As a result, ecosystem-based management will likely be increasingly used in the future as a form of environmental management. Some suggestions for implementing ecosystem-based management and what

1944-445: Is almost always impossible to know whether underwater ground shifts have occurred which will result in tsunami waves. As a result, false alarms can occur with these systems, but the disruption is small, which makes sense due to the highly localized nature of these extremely quick warnings, in combination with how difficult it would be for a false alarm to affect more than a small area of the system. Real tsunamis would affect more than just

2052-507: Is an environmental management approach that recognizes the full array of interactions within an ecosystem , including humans, rather than considering single issues, species, or ecosystem services in isolation. It can be applied to studies in the terrestrial and aquatic environments with challenges being attributed to both. In the marine realm, they are highly challenging to quantify due to highly migratory species as well as rapidly changing environmental and anthropogenic factors that can alter

2160-678: Is an autonomous organization of the Government of India, under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, located in Pragathi Nagar, Hyderabad, India. This center offers ocean information and advisory services to society, industry, government bodies in areas like Tsunami warning, ocean state forecast, fishing zones and more. This center receives data from over 35 sea level tide gauges at intervals of 5 minutes. Along with this it receives data from wave rider buoys, bottom pressure readers (BPRs) and

2268-613: Is committed to promoting gender equality and women's empowerment in ocean science. Through the Network of Women in Ocean Science (NOW in Ocean Science), the IOC hopes to mobilize women marine scientists to work with IOC to create a space for exchange of experience and opportunities for young women willing to start a career in marine science. The IOC has established a Sub-Commission for Africa and adjacent islands to reinforce

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2376-586: Is complicated by the large impact of bycatch associated with the shrimping industry. Rates of red snapper mortality are not explained by fishery landings, but are instead associated with large numbers of juvenile red snapper caught as bycatch in the fine mesh used by trawlers. At its core, ecosystem-based management is about acknowledging interdependency connections, including the linkages between marine ecosystems and human societies, economies and institutional systems, as well as those among various species within an ecosystem and among ocean places that are linked by

2484-756: Is composed of its Member States (147 in 2014), an Assembly, an Executive Council and a Secretariat. The Secretariat is based in Paris, France. Additionally the IOC has a number of Subsidiary Bodies: three regional sub-commissions (IOCARIBE, IOCAFRICA, and WESTPAC), and programme and project offices in Apia (Samoa), Bangkok (Thailand), Cartagena (Colombia), Copenhagen (Denmark), Jakarta (Indonesia), Kingston (Jamaica), Nairobi (Kenya), Muscat (Oman), Perth (Australia), and Port-au-Prince (Haiti). The JCOMM in situ Observations Programme Support Centre, currently hosted in Toulouse (France),

2592-413: Is defined as the sensitivity of an indicator to an ecological disturbance . Several models can be used to assess risk such as population viability analysis . Evaluating the effectiveness of the implemented management strategies is very important in determining how management actions are affecting the ecosystem indicators. Evaluation: This final step involves monitoring and assessing data to see how well

2700-429: Is highly unlikely and equally challenging to get them to cooperate as well as to follow the rules that need to be put in place. It is of the utmost importance to have every stakeholder involved with every step of the process to increase the cohesion of the process. Coupled social-ecological systems are constantly changing in ways that cannot be fully predicted or controlled. Understanding the resilience of ecosystems, i.e.

2808-867: Is in the process of moving to Brest (France). Additionally, IOC has a strong presence in Oostende (Belgium), where the International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange (IODE) and the Secretariat for the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) are based. Under IOC mandate, the IODE coordinates since 1961 the exchange of information and data between the IOC Member States and its national oceanographic data centers. As for OBIS, it

2916-587: Is needed by management agencies in order to make decisions. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) faced the issue of poor public awareness in their proposed management strategy which included no-take fishing zones. Olssen (2008) addressed this problem by starting a 'reef under pressure' information campaign to prove to the public that the Great Barrier Reef is under threat from human disturbances, and in doing so were successful in gaining public support. To ensure that all key players are on

3024-481: Is only half the work of the system. Of equal importance is the ability to warn the populations of the areas that will be affected. All tsunami warning systems feature multiple lines of communications (such as Cell Broadcast , SMS , e-mail , fax , radio , texting and telex , often using hardened dedicated systems) enabling emergency messages to be sent to the emergency services and armed forces , as well to population-alerting systems (e.g. sirens ) and systems like

3132-558: Is recognized in the UN-wide system for its traditional competencies in the field of Transfer of Marine Technology (Part XIV) of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). On the occasion of its first session in 2001, the IOC's Advisory Body of Experts on the Law of the Sea (IOC/ABE-LOS), an IOC subsidiary body whose function is to provide advice on the IOC's role in relation to UNCLOS upon

3240-557: Is seen as a critical planning and management framework for conserving or restoring ecosystems though it is still not widely implemented. An ecosystem approach addresses many relationships across spatial, biological, and organizational scales and is a goal-driven approach to restoring and sustaining ecosystems and functions. In addition, ecosystem-based management involves community influence as well as planning and management from local, regional and national government bodies and management agencies. All must be in collaboration in order to develop

3348-510: Is the largest dam removal project in the United States. Not only was it blocking several species of salmon from reaching their natural habitat, it also had millions of tons of sediment built up behind it. Peruvian Bay Scallop is grown in the benthic environment. Intensity of the fishery has caused concern over recent years and there has been a shift to more of an environmental management scheme. They are now using food web models to assess

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3456-507: Is to provide a sustainable fisheries while incorporating the impacts of other aspects on that resource. When managed correctly, an ecosystem-based model can greatly improve not only the resource being managed, but those associated with it. Because of the lack of control and predictability of coupled social-ecological systems, an adaptive management approach is recommended. There can be multiple different factors that must be overcome (fisheries, pollution, borders, multiple agencies, etc.) to create

3564-446: Is used to detect tsunamis in advance and issue the warnings to prevent loss of life and damage to property. It is made up of two equally important components: a network of sensors to detect tsunamis and a communications infrastructure to issue timely alarms to permit evacuation of the coastal areas. There are two distinct types of tsunami warning systems: international and regional . When operating, seismic alerts are used to instigate

3672-562: Is working to improve responses to unprecedented environmental changes and to promote ocean health via marine sciences. The IOC supports the UN World Ocean Assessment, the UNGA-led regular process for reviewing the state of the marine environment, including socio-economic aspects. Integrating existing information from different disciplines on the state of the ocean will improve policy responses from national governments and

3780-637: The Emergency Alert System . With the speed at which tsunami waves travel through open water, no system can protect against a very sudden tsunami, where the coast in question is too close to the epicenter . A devastating tsunami occurred off the coast of Hokkaidō in Japan as a result of an earthquake on July 12, 1993 . As a result, 202 people on the small island of Okushiri, Hokkaido lost their lives, and hundreds more were missing or injured. This tsunami struck just three to five minutes after

3888-779: The Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the Chilean Navy . The long-base tiltmeters (LBTs) and the STS2 seismometer of the IPOC recorded a series of long- period signals some days after the 2010 Maule earthquake . The same effect was registered by broadband seismometers of India and Japan some days after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami . Simulations held in 2013 on historical data highlighted "tiltmeters and broadband seismometers are thus valuable instruments for monitoring tsunamis in complement with tide gauge arrays." In

3996-798: The Pacific Ocean are issued by the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC), operated by the United States NOAA in Ewa Beach, Hawaii . NOAA's National Tsunami Warning Center (NTWC) in Palmer, Alaska issues warnings for North America, including Alaska, British Columbia, Oregon, California, the Gulf of Mexico, and the East coast. The PTWC was established in 1949, following the 1946 Aleutian Island earthquake and

4104-631: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), this gives UNESCO two seats and two voices at the table. The IOC has been a key player in the recent international debate on sustainable development as it relates to the ocean. The Rio+20 outcome document affirmed

4212-577: The benefits provided to humans by marine ecosystems are declining. These services include the provision of food, fuel, mineral resources, pharmaceuticals, as well as opportunities for recreation, trade , research and education . Guerry (2005) has identified an urgent need to improve the management of these declining ecosystems, particularly in coastal areas, to ensure sustainability . Human communities depend on marine ecosystems for important resources, but without holistic management, these ecosystems are likely to collapse. Olsson et al. (2008) suggest that

4320-428: The ecosystem services that flow from coupled socio-ecological systems in an integrated fashion, rather than considering these impacts in a piecemeal manner. Loss of biodiversity in marine ecosystems is an example of how cumulative effects from different sectors can impact on an ecosystem in a compounding way. Overfishing, coastal development, filling and dredging , mining and other human activities all contribute to

4428-857: The Government of Italy (the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Italian Ministry for the Environment and Protection of Land and Sea ), was attended by more than 150 participants from 24 countries, 13 organizations and numerous observers. A Caribbean-wide tsunami warning system was planned to be instituted by the year 2010, by representatives of Caribbean nations who met in Panama City in March 2008. Panama 's last major tsunami killed 4,500 people in 1882. Barbados has said it will review or test its tsunami protocol in February 2010 as

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4536-487: The IOC Project Office for IODE, based in Oostende, Belgium, and in the context of regional projects. The “Global Academy” component of OT ( OTGA ) is still being developed, but it seeks to expand the program into a worldwide training facility, with training courses related to multiple IOC fields (from ICAM to Tsunami Alert Systems) in various Regional Training Centers (RTCs), all of them connected in real time via

4644-641: The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), 10 stations of Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG) and more than 300 international stations. INDOFOS (INDian Ocean FOrecasting System) is a service that forecasts the ocean state and is capable of predicting surface and sub surface features and states of the Indian Ocean. These forecasts are made accessible through Information centers, Radio, local digital sign boards, websites, TV channels and subscription services. Oceansat 2 system

4752-603: The OceanTeacher Learning Management System, and using a multilingual approach to scientific training (English, Spanish, and other national languages, depending on the regional and national context). OTGA will change training from a “north to south” culture to a north–south, south-south, and south–north model by promoting the expertise available in developing countries. This new "OceanTeacher Global Academy" concept will be implemented during 2014. OTGA will be broadcasting from and to anywhere across

4860-877: The Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean, in the Caribbean, and in the North East Atlantic, the Mediterranean and connected seas. Through its Intergovernmental Panel on Harmful Algae (IPHAB), the IOC also works to establish systems that can predict the occurrences and mitigate the effects of HAB events. 3. Increased resiliency to climate change and variability and enhanced safety, efficiency and effectiveness of ocean-based activities through scientifically founded services, adaptation and mitigation strategies The IOC works with developed and developing countries to monitor and document changes in order to aid in

4968-558: The Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS), IOC-UNESCO is leading a global effort to establish ocean-based tsunami warning systems as part of an overall multi-hazard disaster reduction strategy. The IOC Tsunami Unit works with Member States, together with other UN agencies and NGOs, to build sustainable tsunami early warning systems. In this context, the IOC coordinates and fosters the establishment of regional intergovernmental tsunami warning and mitigation systems in

5076-575: The UN should establish an Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System . This resulted in a warning system for Indonesia and other affected areas. Indonesia's system fell out of service in 2012 because the detection buoys were no longer operational. Tsunami prediction was then limited to detection of seismic activity, with no system to predict tsunamis based on volcanic eruptions. Indonesia was hit by tsunamis in September and December 2018. The December 2018 tsunami

5184-774: The aims and importance of protecting an area, and "procedural", to explain how substantive goals will be met. As described by Tallis et al. (2010), some steps of ecosystem-based management may include: This step involves the acquisition of data and knowledge from various sources in order to provide a thorough understanding of critical ecosystem components. Sources may include literature, informal sources such as aboriginal residents, resource users , and/or environmental experts. Data may also be gained through statistical analyses, simulation models, or conceptual models. Ecological indicators are useful for tracking or monitoring an ecosystem's status and can provide feedback on management progress as stressed by Slocombe (1998a). Examples may include

5292-428: The area is not the best method for preservation. This type of management system was however an idea that began long before and evolved through the testing and challenging of common ecosystem management practices. Before its complete synthesis, the management system's historical development can be traced back to the 1930s. During this time, the scientific communities who studied ecology realized that current approaches to

5400-733: The biggest challenge is creating truly effect units for managers to compare against. Another issue is in the creation of administrative bodies. They should operate as the essence of ecosystem-based management, working together towards mutually agreed upon goals. Gaps in administration or research, competing objectives or priorities between management agencies and governments due to overlapping jurisdictions, or obscure goals such as sustainability , ecosystem integrity, or biodiversity can often result in fragmented or weak management. In addition, Tallis (2010) stated that limited knowledge of ecosystem components and function and time constraints that can often limit objectives to only those that can be addressed in

5508-525: The case of the 2010 Maule earthquake, tilt-sensors observed a discriminating signal "starting 20 min before the arrival time of the tsunami at the nearest point on the coastline." After the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami which killed almost 250,000 people, a United Nations conference was held in January 2005 in Kobe , Japan , and decided that as an initial step towards an International Early Warning Programme ,

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5616-465: The commercial and recreational fishery. During the Deepwater oil spill it became abundantly obvious that it negatively affected the population numbers as well as the integrity of the catch that was being made. The species not only suffered higher mortality rates but the market was less trusting of the product. An environmental disaster interacted with the commercial, recreational, and economic sector for

5724-422: The committee explained the importance for interagency cooperation and improved public education, as well as challenged the idea that proper park management would "improve" nature. These ideas became the foundation of modern ecosystem-based management. As the understanding of how to manage ecosystems shifted, new tenets of the management system were produced. Biologists George Wright and Ben Thompson accounted for

5832-402: The current ecological climate calls for the most holistic approach of ecological management. This is in part due to the rapid decline in biodiversity and because of the constant state of flux in societal and political views of nature. Conflicts over public interest and understanding of the natural world have created social and political climates that require interagency cooperation, which stands as

5940-407: The current situation and to calibrate the stocking levels that are needed. The impacts of the scallops on the ecosystem and on other species are now being taken into account as to limit phytoplankton blooms, overstocking, diseases and overconsumption in a given year. This study is proposed to help guide both fisherman and managers in their goal of providing long-term success for the fishery as well as

6048-492: The degradation of marine ecosystems is largely the result of poor governance and that new approaches to management are required. The Pew Oceans Commission and the United States Commission on Ocean Policy have indicated the importance of moving from current piecemeal management to a more integrated ecosystem-based approach. Stock assessment is a critically important aspect of fisheries management, but it

6156-551: The design and implementation of new Marine Spatial Planning tools, both at the political and managerial levels, for ecosystem-based management of marine and coastal areas. Through its International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange programme (IODE), the IOC facilitates the exploitation, development, and exchange of oceanographic data and information among participating Member States. IODE seeks, in particular, to train marine information specialists from developing countries. The Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) manages

6264-402: The design of adaptation and mitigation strategies. Through GOOS, the IOC monitors the physical, chemical and biological aspects and changes in the world's ocean. This unified network permits the design of adaptation and mitigation strategies and provides information and data for governments, industry, scientists and the general public. The IOC is also actively pushing to convince decision makers of

6372-609: The ecosystem they are utilizing. Scientists and numerous angling clubs have collaborated in a large-scale set of whole-lake experiments (20 gravel pit lakes monitored over a period of six years) to assess the outcomes of ecosystem-based habitat enhancement compared to alternative management practices in fisheries . In some of the lakes, additional shallow water zones were created. In other lakes, coarse wood bundles were added to enhance structural diversity. Other study lakes were stocked with five fish species of interest to fisheries. Unmanipulated lakes served as controls to allow for

6480-498: The ecosystem. Examples may include species composition within an ecosystem or the state of habitat conditions based on local observations or stakeholder interviews. Thresholds can be used to help guide management, particularly for a species by looking at the conservation status criteria established by either state or federal agencies and using models such as the minimum viable population size. A range of threats and disturbances, both natural and human, often can affect indicators. Risk

6588-481: The entire process. Slocombe (1998a) also stated that a single, end-all goal cannot be the solution, but instead a combination of goals and their relationships with each other should be the focus. As discussed by Slocombe (1998a), goals should be broadly applicable, measurable and readily observable, and ideally be collectively supported in order to be achievable. The idea is to provide direction for both thinking and action and should try to minimize managing ecosystems in

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6696-479: The environment. The only way to deal with the cumulative effects of human influences on marine ecosystems is for various contributing sectors to set common goals for the protection or management of ecosystems. While some policies may only affect a single sector, others may affect multiple sectors. A policy for the protection of endangered marine species, for example, could affect recreational and commercial fisheries , mining , shipping and tourism sectors to name

6804-451: The extent to which they can maintain structure, function, and identity in the face of disturbance, can enable better prediction of how ecosystems will respond to both natural and anthropogenic perturbations, and to changes in environmental management. With how much modification humans are doing to environments, it is important to understand these changes on a yearly basis as well. Some species are changing their life histories, Flounder , due to

6912-961: The following components: a)Information and data, in a user-friendly format, on marine sciences and related marine operations and services b)Manuals, guidelines, criteria, standards, reference materials c)Sampling and methodology equipment (e.g., for water, geological, biological, chemical samples) d)Observation facilities and equipment (e.g., remote sensing equipment, buoys, tide gauges, shipboard and other means of ocean observation) e)Equipment for in situ and laboratory observations, analysis and experimentation f)Computer and computer software, including models and modeling techniques g)Expertise, knowledge, skills, technical/scientific/legal know-how and analytical methods related to marine scientific research and observation Transfer of Marine Technology (TMT) should enable all parties concerned to benefit on an equitable basis from developments in marine science related activities, in particular, those aiming at stimulating

7020-412: The following years become a network of 14 multiparameter stations for monitoring the 600-km seismic distance between Antofagasta and Arica . Each station was provided with broadband seismometer , accelerometer , GPS antenna . In four cases, it was installed a short-base tiltmeter (pendulum). Some stations were ubicated underground at a depth of 3–4 meters. The network completed the tidal gauge of

7128-526: The general public. JCOMM is an intergovernmental body of technical experts drawn from the meteorological and oceanographic communities to provide observing capabilities, data management, and services. 2. Effective early warning systems and preparedness for tsunamis and other ocean-related hazards The IOC aids and advises policy makers and managers in the reduction of risks from tsunamis , storm surges , Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) and other coastal hazards . After close to fifty years of experience coordinating

7236-477: The global marine biodiversity knowledge base, through which hundreds of institutions and scientists contribute information on the past and current diversity, abundance and distribution of marine life. OBIS data is used worldwide for planning ocean conservation policies, and identifying biodiversity hotspots and distribution trends. It allows the IOC to provide expertise, data and information for environmental, climate change, and marine biodiversity assessments. The IOC

7344-509: The greater amount of influences, impacts, and interactions to account for, problems, obstacles and criticism often arise within ecosystem-based management. There is also a need for more data, spatially and temporally to help management make sound decisions for the sustainability of the stock being studied. The first commonly defined challenge is the need for meaningful and appropriate management units. Slocombe (1998b) noted that these units must be broad and contain value for people in and outside of

7452-477: The habitat rather quickly. To be able to manage fisheries efficiently and effectively it has become increasingly more pertinent to understand not only the biological aspects of the species being studied, but also the environmental variables they are experiencing. Population abundance and structure, life history traits, competition with other species, where the stock is in the local food web, tidal fluctuations, salinity patterns and anthropogenic influences are among

7560-475: The implementation has been lagging. In freshwater lake ecosystems, it has been shown that ecosystem-based habitat management is more effective for enhancing fish populations than management alternatives. Terrestrial ecosystem-based management (often referred to as ecosystem management ) came into its own during the conflicts over endangered species protection (particularly the northern spotted owl ), land conservation, and water , grazing and timber rights in

7668-847: The implementation of IOC programmes in Africa and mobilize extra-budgetary resources. The IOC Regional Office, established within the UNESCO Office in Nairobi, Kenya, became operational in 2012 and has formulated IOC's strategic plan for the region. The IOC seeks to empower developing countries through fund-raising, team building, and decision-making skills development to sustainably use their coastal and marine resources by encouraging 'self-driven' capacity-development. This approach aims to reduce dependence on aid while creating incentives for states to more fully integrate scientific know-how into policy design and implementation processes. The IOC of UNESCO

7776-461: The implementation of ecosystem-based management efficacious: "broad-based stakeholder involvement; commitment of top leaders; agreement on information needs and interpretation; action planning within a strategic framework; human resource development; results and indicators to measure progress; systematic review and feedback; and stakeholder satisfaction". The Elwha dam removal in Washington state

7884-403: The importance of "clearly stated management goals, interagency cooperation, monitoring of management results, and leadership at the national policy levels". Most importantly they demanded the recognition of human influence. It was argued that scientists must keep in mind the "complex social context of their work" and always be moving towards "socially desirable conditions". This need to understand

7992-632: The importance of "the ocean and coasts" to the sustainability debate, and is the basis for IOC's ongoing support to the creation of the Sustainable Development Goal 14 dedicated to the ocean. The IOC is closely involved in several international partnerships for ocean sustainability such as with the CBD, UN-Oceans and the World Ocean Assessment. 1. Healthy ocean ecosystems and sustained ecosystem services The IOC

8100-423: The importance of ecosystem-based management resurfaced in ecology from two biologists: John and Frank Craighead . The Craigheads found that grizzly bears of Yellowstone National Park could not sustain a population if only allowed to live within park boundaries. This reinforced the idea that a broader definition of what defines an ecosystem needed to be created, suggesting that it be based on the biotic requirements of

8208-480: The importance of sound scientific knowledge in designing policy on integrated coastal management, HABs, and ocean acidification (through blue carbon research and initiatives). Ocean acidification is of particular concern to the IOC, as increasing CO 2 levels in the ocean are associated with coral bleaching, changes in marine biodiversity, and other related problems. 4. Enhanced knowledge of emerging ocean science issues The IOC actively assists Member States in

8316-621: The increased pressures that humans are placing on the environment. Thus, when a manager or government does an assessment on the ecosystem for a given year, the relationship that a species has to others can change very quickly and thus negate the model that you use for an ecosystem very quickly if not redefined. Ecosystem-based management focuses on the diverse benefits provided by marine systems, rather than on single ecosystem services. Such benefits or services include vibrant commercial and recreational fisheries, biodiversity conservation, renewable energy from wind or waves and coastal protection. The goal

8424-582: The international community. The IOC-led Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and the Joint World Meteorological Organization (WMO)-IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM) are also successful examples of multilateral efforts for ocean monitoring, observation, and services. GOOS coordinates the deployment of observation technologies, rapid and universal dissemination of data flows, and delivery of marine information to managers, decision makers, and

8532-535: The largest mammal present. The idea of ecosystem-based management began to catch on and projects throughout American National Parks reflected the idea of protecting an ecosystem in its entirety and not based on legal or ecological restrictions as previously used. Jim Agee and Darryll Johnson published a book-length report on managing ecosystems in 1988 explaining the theoretical framework management. While they did not fully embrace ecosystem-based management by still calling for "ecologically defined boundaries", they stated

8640-400: The loss of biodiversity and therefore degradation of the ecosystem. Work is needed prior to the carrying out of the research to understand the total effects that each species can have on each other and also on the environment. It must be carried out every year as well as species are changing their life history traits and their relationship with the environment as humans are continually modifying

8748-415: The lowest trophic level of an ecosystem, are limited, impacting all organisms in higher trophic levels, but bottom-up changes can also be seen in higher trophic levels. For example, the decline of North Sea puffins has been attributed to overexploitation of sand eels , an important prey item. Red snapper is a species of enormous economic importance in the Gulf of Mexico . Management of this species

8856-475: The management of national parks did not provide effective protection of the species within. In 1932, The Ecological Society of America's Committee for the Study of Plant and Animal Communities recognized that US national parks needed to protect all the ecosystems contained within the park in order to create an inclusive and fully functioning sanctuary, and be prepared to handle natural fluctuations in its ecology. Also

8964-421: The management strategies chosen are performing relative to the initial objectives stated. The use of simulation models or multi-stakeholder groups can help to assess management. It is important to note that many of these steps for implementing ecosystem-based management are limited by the governance in place for a region, the data available for assessing ecosystem status and reflecting on the changes occurring, and

9072-513: The movement of species, materials, and ocean currents. Of particular importance is how these factors all react and involve each other. In the Caribbean , the spiny lobster is managed based on a classic population model that for most fishery species works quite well. However, this species will grow and then halt its growth when it need to molt its shell and thus instead of a continuous growth cycle, it will pause its growth and invest its energy in

9180-529: The numbers of wild populations of plants and animals are limited. Top-down controls have been seen in the explosion of sea urchins and subsequent decline in kelp beds due to the near-extirpation of sea otters. As otters were hunted nearly to extinction , sea urchins - preyed on by sea otters and which themselves feed on the kelp - boomed, resulting in the near-disappearance of kelp beds. Bottom-up controls are best illustrated when autotrophic primary producers such as plants and phytoplankton , which represent

9288-400: The population size of a species or the levels of toxin present in a body of water. Social indicators may also be used such as the number or types of jobs within the environmental sector or the livelihood of specific social groups such as indigenous peoples . Tallis et al. (2010) suggest setting thresholds for each indicator and setting targets that would represent a desired level of health for

9396-428: The process may involve are as follows: Defining clear and concise goals for ecosystem-based management is one of the most important steps in effective ecosystem-based management implementation. Goals must move beyond science-based or science-defined objectives to include social, cultural, economic and environmental importance. Of equal importance is to make sure that the community and stake-holders are involved throughout

9504-408: The programme included: protect old-growth forests , maintain forest structure at the stand level, protect threatened and endangered species and ecosystems, protect wetlands and apply adaptive management. MacKinnon (2008) highlighted that the main limitation of this program was the social and economic aspects related to the lack of orientation to improve human well-being. A Remedial Action Plan (RAP)

9612-493: The protected area. For example, Aberley (1993) suggests the use of "bioregions" as management units, which can allow peoples involvement with that region to come through. To define management units as inclusive regions rather that exclusive ecological zones would prevent further limitations created by narrow or restricting political and economic policy created from the units. Slocombe (1998b) suggests that better management units should be flexible and build from existing units and that

9720-851: The quake, and most victims were caught while fleeing for higher ground and secure places after surviving the earthquake. This was also the case in Aceh , Indonesia. While there remains the potential for sudden devastation from a tsunami, warning systems can be effective. For example, if there were a very large subduction zone earthquake ( moment magnitude 9.0) off the west coast of the United States, people in Japan , would therefore have more than 12 hours (and likely warnings from warning systems in Hawaii and elsewhere) before any tsunami arrived, giving them some time to evacuate areas likely to be affected. Ecosystem-based management Ecosystem-based management

9828-518: The request from the IOC governing bodies, accepted the challenge of drawing the Criteria and Guidelines on Transfer of Marine Technology (CGTMT), following the instructions set forth in Article 271 of UNCLOS: States, directly or through competent international organizations, shall promote the establishment of generally accepted guidelines, criteria and standards for the transfer of marine technology on

9936-416: The same page, it is important to have communication between managers, resource users, scientists, government bodies and other stakeholders. Leslie and McLeod (2007) stated that proper engagement between these groups will enable the development of management initiatives that are realistic and enforceable as well as effective for ecosystem management. If certain small-scale players are not involved or informed, it

10044-804: The short-term. The most challenging issue facing ecosystem-based management is that there exists little knowledge about the system and its effectiveness. Slocombe (1998b) stated that with limited resources available on how to implement the system it is hard to find support for its use. Slocombe (1998a) said that criticism of ecosystem-based management include its reliance on analogy and comparisons, too broadly applied frameworks, its overlap with or duplication of other methods such as ecosystem management , environmental management, or integrated ecosystem assessment, its vagueness in concepts and application, and its tendency to ignore historical, evolutionary or individual factors that may heavily influence ecosystem functioning. Tallis (2010) stated that ecosystem-based management

10152-453: The size and boundary limitations of parks and contributed to the re-structuring of how park lines were drawn. They explained how large mammals for example could not be supported within the restricted zones of a national park and in order to protect these animals and their ecosystems a new approach would be needed. Other scientists followed suit, but none were successful in establishing a well-defined ecosystem-based management approach. In 1979,

10260-431: The social and economic contexts in developing States. OceanTeacher (OT) has been developed as a training system for ocean data managers (working in ocean data centres), marine information managers (marine librarians) as well as for marine researchers who wish to acquire knowledge on data and/or information for planning and management. Since 2005, more than a thousand students from over a hundred countries attended courses at

10368-423: The social aspects of scientific management is the fundamental step from ecological management to ecosystem-based management. Although it continues to become recognized, a debate over ecosystem-based management continues. Grumbine (1994) believes, while the approach has evolved, it has not been fully incorporated into management practices because the most effective forms of it have yet to be seen. He articulates that

10476-436: The time frame in which to operate. Because ecosystems differ greatly and express varying degrees of vulnerability, it is difficult to apply a functional framework that can be universally applied. These outlined steps or components of ecosystem-based management can, for the most part, be applied to multiple situations and are only suggestions for improving or guiding the challenges involved with managing complex issues. Because of

10584-411: The traditional strategies which focus on conservation of single species or single sectors in favor of an integrated approach which considers all key activities, particularly anthropogenic , that affect marine environments. Management must take into account the life history of the fish being studied, its association with the surrounding environment, its place in the food web, where it prefers to reside in

10692-408: The variables that must be taken into account to fully understand the implementation of a "ecosystem-based management" approach. Interest in ecosystem-based management in the marine realm has developed more recently, in response to increasing recognition of the declining state of fisheries and ocean ecosystems . However, due to a lack of a clear definition and the diversity involved with the environment,

10800-520: The watches and warnings; then, data from observed sea level height (either shore-based tide gauges or DART buoys) are used to verify the existence of a tsunami. Other systems have been proposed to augment the warning procedures; for example, it has been suggested that the duration and frequency content of t-wave energy (which is earthquake energy trapped in the ocean SOFAR channel ) is indicative of an earthquake's tsunami potential. The first rudimentary system to alert communities of an impending tsunami

10908-554: The water column, and how it is affected by human pressures. The objective is to ensure sustainable ecosystems, thus protecting the resources and services they provide for future generations. In recent years there has been increasing recognition of anthropogenic disruption to marine ecosystems resulting from climate change , overfishing , nutrient and chemical pollution from land runoff , coastal development, bycatch , and habitat destruction . The effect of human activity on marine ecosystems has become an important issue because many of

11016-572: The western United States in the 1980s and 1990s. The systemic origins of ecosystem-based management are rooted in the ecosystem management policy applied to the Great Lakes of North America in the late 1970s. The legislation created, the "Great Lakes Basin and the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978", was based on the claim that "no park is an island", with the purpose to show how strict protection of

11124-535: The world. Project Details: The founding 40 member states were: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Cuba, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Finland, Federal Republic of Germany, France, Ghana, India, Israel, Italy, Ivory Coast, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Mauritania, Monaco, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Spain, Switzerland, Thailand, Tunisia, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, United Arab Republic, United Kingdom, United States of America, Uruguay, Viet-Nam. The IOC/UNESCO

11232-615: Was attempted in Hawaii in the 1920s. More advanced systems were developed in the wake of the April 1, 1946 (caused by the 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake ) and May 23, 1960 (caused by the 1960 Valdivia earthquake ) tsunamis which caused massive devastation in Hilo, Hawaii . While tsunamis travel at between 500 and 1,000 km/h (around 0.14 and 0.28 km/s) in open water, earthquakes can be detected almost at once as seismic waves travel with

11340-957: Was caused by a volcano. Sea level sensors were then installed by the Indonesian government to fill the prediction gap. The First United Session of the Inter-governmental Coordination Group for the Tsunami Early Warning and Mitigation System in the North Eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean and connected Seas (ICG/NEAMTWS), established by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO Assembly during its 23rd Session in June 2005, through Resolution XXIII.14, took place in Rome on 21 and 22 November 2005. The meeting, hosted by

11448-605: Was created during the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement that implemented ecosystem-based management. The transition, according to the authors, from "a narrow to a broader approach " was not easy because it required the cooperation of both the Canadian and American governments. This meant different cultural, political and regulatory perspectives were involved with regards to the lakes. Hartig et al. (1998) described eight principles required to make

11556-554: Was established by the Census of Marine Life program (www.coml.org), and developed between 2000 and 2010 as an evolving strategic alliance of people and organizations sharing a vision to make marine biogeographic data, from all over the world, freely available over the World Wide Web. Any organization, consortium, project or individual may contribute data to OBIS. Tsunami warning system A tsunami warning system ( TWS )

11664-539: Was unveiled on March 7, 2013, following the 2011 disaster to better assess imminent tsunamis. India is one of the 5 countries to have the most advanced tsunami warning systems in the world. In 2004, right after being hit by an earthquake in Sumatra, a massive tsunami devastated the coasts of India, prompting the Government of India to set up the INCOIS (Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services). The center

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