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57-508: It is the essential property of the IAPS that the stimulus set is accompanied by a detailed list of average ratings of the emotions elicited by each picture. This shall enable other researchers to select stimuli eliciting a specific range of emotions for their experiments when using the IAPS. The process of establishing such average ratings for a stimulus set is also referred to as standardization by psychologists. The normative rating procedure for

114-661: A facial expression is represented in the right posterior superior temporal sulcus and medial prefrontal cortex . "Negative" emotions like anger and fear have a negative valence . But positive emotions like joy have a positive valence . Positively valenced emotions are evoked by positively valenced events, objects, or situations. The term is also used to describe the hedonic tone of feelings , certain behaviors (for example, approach and avoidance), goal attainment or non-attainment, and conformity with or violation of norms . Ambivalence can be viewed as conflict between positive and negative valence-carriers. Theorists taking

171-510: A journal in partnership with their newly founded Tavistock Institute and his group at MIT, Lewin agreed. The Tavistock journal, Human Relations , was founded with two early papers by Lewin entitled "Frontiers in Group Dynamics". Lewin taught for a time at Duke University . Lewin coined the notion of genidentity , which has gained some importance in various theories of space-time and related fields. For instance, he introduced

228-629: A better education. From 1905 to 1908, Lewin studied at the Kaiserin Augusta Gymnasium , where he received a classical humanistic education. In 1909, he entered the University of Freiburg to study medicine, but transferred to the University of Munich to study biology. At the University of Munich, he became involved with the socialist and women's rights movements around this time. In April 1910, Lewin transferred to

285-403: A complete sentence. The term chemical valence has been used in physics and chemistry to describe the mechanism by which atoms bind to one another since the nineteenth century. Valence is an inferred criterion from instinctively generated emotions; it is the property specifying whether feelings/affects are positive, negative or neutral. The existence of at least temporarily unspecified valence

342-426: A concept dedicated to the advancement of knowledge regarding the nature of groups, their laws, establishment, development, and interactions with other groups, individuals and institutions. During the early years of research on group processes, many psychologists rejected the reality of group phenomena. Critics shared the opinion that groups did not exist as scientifically valid entities. It had been said by skeptics that

399-702: A form of coping with a dominant group's oppression represented the crisis of Lewin's own migration to the United States. Lewin, as his student and colleague Ron Lippitt described, "had a deep sensitivity to social problems and a commitment to use his resources as a social scientist to do something about them. In the early 1940s, he drew a triangle to represent the interdependence of research, training, and action in producing social change." This diagramming of an academic's interests and actions within this triangulation yields an interesting part of accessing Lewin and his contributions. Rather than noting social justice as

456-425: A framework for looking at the factors ("forces") that influence a situation, originally social situations. It looks at forces that are either driving movement toward a goal (helping forces) or blocking movement toward a goal (hindering forces). Key to this approach was Lewin's interest in gestaltism , understanding the totality and assessing a situation as a whole and not focusing only on individual aspects. Further,

513-471: A leader. Members are given choices and collectively decide the division of labor. Praise and criticism in such an environment are objective , fact minded and given by a group member without necessarily having participated extensively in the actual work. Laissez-faire environments give freedom to the group for policy determination without any participation from the leader. The leader remains uninvolved in work decisions unless asked, does not participate in

570-535: A model and that it took form after his death in 1947. While working at MIT in 1946, Lewin received a phone call from the director of the Connecticut State Inter Racial Commission, which requested his help in finding an effective way to combat religious and racial prejudices. He set up a workshop to conduct a "change" experiment, which laid the foundations for what is now known as sensitivity training . In 1947, this led to

627-450: A perception of unfriendliness with strangers. Yet once a person has gained their trust, they can be loyal friends for life. The Peach v Coconut analogy was later popularised by Fons Trompenaars , who said it "explains all sorts of animosities that bedevil cross-cultural friendships, business dealings and diplomacy." In 1917, Lewin married Maria Landsberg. In 1919, the couple had a daughter Esther Agnes, and in 1922, their son Fritz Reuven

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684-439: A professor at MIT , first coined the term action research in about 1944, and it appears in his 1946 paper "Action Research and Minority Problems". In that paper, he described action research as "a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action" that uses "a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about

741-465: A term he invented himself. Lewin was increasingly interested in the concepts of Jewish migration and identity. He was confused by the concept of how while an individual distanced themselves from performing the Jewish identity in terms of religious expression and performance, they were still considered Jewish in the eyes of Nazis . This concept of denying one's identity and the promotion of self-loathing as

798-470: A valence-based approach to study affect , judgment, and choice posit that emotions with the same valence (e.g., anger and fear or pride and surprise ) produce a similar influence on judgments and choices. Suffering is negative valence and the opposite of this is pleasure or happiness . Kurt Lewin Kurt Lewin ( / l ɛ ˈ v iː n / lə- VEEN ; 9 September 1890 – 12 February 1947)

855-448: A war wound and returned to the University of Berlin to complete his PhD . Lewin wrote a dissertation proposal asking Stumpf to be his supervisor, and Stumpf assented. Even though Lewin worked under Stumpf to complete his dissertation, their relationship did not involve much communication. Lewin studied associations, will, and intention for his dissertation, but he did not discuss it with Stumpf until his final doctoral examination. Lewin

912-442: A way of resolving a dissonance of his own passage to America and how he left his own back in present-day Poland . Prominent psychologists mentored by Lewin included Leon Festinger (1919–1989), who became known for his cognitive dissonance theory (1956), environmental psychologist Roger Barker , Bluma Zeigarnik , and Morton Deutsch , the founder of modern conflict resolution theory and practice. Force-field analysis provides

969-403: Is an issue for psychological researchers who reject the existence of neutral emotions (e.g. surprise , sublimation). However, other psychological researchers assume that neutral emotions exist. Two contrasting views in the phenomenology of valence are that of a constrained valence psychology, where the most intense experiences are generally no more than 10 times more intense than the mildest, and

1026-695: Is the one he preferred. Earlier, in 1930, he spent six months as a visiting professor at Stanford University . After his immigration to the U.S., Lewin worked at Cornell University , the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station at the University of Iowa , and as director of the Center for Group Dynamics at MIT . Following World War II , Lewin was involved in the psychological rehabilitation of former occupants of displaced persons camps with Dr. Jacob Fine at Harvard Medical School . When Trist and A T M Wilson wrote to Lewin proposing

1083-534: Is used for this rating procedure. The official normative ratings for the IAPS pictures were obtained from a sample of 100 college students (50 women, 50 men, presumably predominantly US-American) who each rated 16 sets of 60 pictures. The rating was carried out in groups using paper-and-pencil versions of the SAMs. Pictures were presented for 6 seconds each; 15 seconds were given to rate the picture. /dominance. Average valence, arousal and dominance ratings are available for

1140-726: The Institute for Social Research in Germany. But when Adolf Hitler came to power in Nazi Germany in 1933, the Institute members disbanded, and moved to England and then to the United States. The same year, he met with Eric Trist , of the London Tavistock Clinic . Trist was impressed with his theories and went on to use them in his studies on soldiers during World War II . In August 1933, Lewin immigrated to

1197-643: The Royal Friedrich-Wilhelms University of Berlin , where he was still a medical student. By the Easter semester of 1911, his interests had shifted toward philosophy . By the summer of 1911, the majority of his courses were in psychology . While at the University of Berlin, Lewin took 14 courses with Carl Stumpf (1848–1936). When World War I began, he served in the Imperial German Army , during which he sustained

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1254-408: The "goodness" or attractiveness of an object, event, or situation, making it appealing or desirable. Conversely, negative valence relates to "badness" or averseness, rendering something unappealing or undesirable. This concept is not only used to describe the intrinsic qualities of objects and events but also categorizes emotions based on their inherent attractiveness or averseness . The use of

1311-587: The 18th-most cited psychologist of the 20th century. During his career, he was affiliated with several U.S. and European universities, including the University of Berlin , Cornell University , MIT , Stanford University , and the University of Iowa . Lewin was born in 1890 into a Jewish family in Mogilno , County of Mogilno , Province of Posen , Prussia in present-day Poland , a small village with then about 5,000 residents, about 150 of whom were Jewish. Lewin received an orthodox Jewish education at home. He

1368-732: The Heavy-Tailed Valence hypothesis, which states that the range of possible degrees of valence is far more extreme. Valence could be assigned a number and treated as if it were measured, but the validity of a measurement based on a subjective report is questionable. Measurement based on observations of facial expressions, using the Facial Action Coding System and microexpressions (see Paul Ekman ) or muscle activity detected through facial electromyography , or on modern functional brain imaging may overcome this objection. The perceived emotional valence of

1425-465: The IAPS have developed a number of non-image alternatives for eliciting emotion such as the Affective Norms for English Words (ANEW) and International Affective Digitized Sounds (IADS). Valence (psychology) Valence , also known as hedonic tone , is a characteristic of emotions that determines their emotional affect (intrinsic appeal or repulsion). Positive valence corresponds to

1482-442: The IAPS in 2016. The OASIS image database consists of 900 images that have been rated on valence and arousal by a sample of US-Americans recruited via amazon mechanical Turk . As opposed to the IAPS, all OASIS images are in the public domain. A detailed description is provided on the first author's homepage . Other alternative databases of photographic images of scenes with various kinds of affective content include: The authors of

1539-503: The IAPS is based on the assumption that emotional assessments can be accounted for by the three dimensions of valence , arousal and dominance. Thus, participants taking part in the studies that are conducted to standardize the IAPS are asked to rate how pleasant/unpleasant, how calm/excited and how controlled/in-control they felt when looking at each picture. A graphic rating scale, the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) ,

1596-623: The National Institute of Mental Health have also conducted studies to establish normative ratings for the IAPS in languages other than English and cultures other than US-American culture including Hungarian, German, Portuguese, Indian, and Spanish. One of these studies also included older participants (63–77 years). IAPS pictures have been used in studies using a variety of psychophysiological measurements such as fMRI , EEG , magnetoencephalography , skin conductance , heart rate , and electromyography . The IAPS has also been used in

1653-516: The Peach v Coconut cultural distinction. Peach cultures included India, the U.S., most of Latin America , and Southern Europe . Peaches tend to be soft and friendly on the surface, even with strangers, but have a hard protective inner core. Coconut cultures include China, Russia and most of Europe except the south. Folk from coconut cultures have a soft inner core, but a tough exterior than can lead to

1710-409: The U.S., where, in 1940, became a naturalized citizen . A few years after relocating to the U.S., Lewin began asking people to pronounce his name as "Lou-in" rather than "Le-veen" because the mispronunciation of his name by Americans had led to many missed phone calls. However, shortly before his death, he began requesting students and colleagues to use the correct pronunciation ("Le-veen") because that

1767-485: The University of Berlin from 1926 to 1932, during which time he conducted experiments about tension states, needs, motivation, and learning. In 1933, Lewin had tried to negotiate a teaching position as the chair of psychology and creating a research institute at Hebrew University in Jerusalem . Lewin often associated with the early Frankfurt School , originated by an influential group of largely Jewish Marxists at

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1824-483: The actions of groups were nothing more than those of its members considered separately. Lewin applied his interactionism formula, B = ƒ ( P , E ), to explain group phenomena, where a member's personal characteristics ( P ) interact with the environmental factors of the group, ( E ) its members, and the situation to elicit behaviour ( B ). Given his background in Gestalt psychology , Lewin justified group existence using

1881-410: The beginning or the end, it was ingrained in every single academic action that Lewin took. It was this particular world view and paradigm that furthered his research and determined precisely how he was going to utilize the findings from his field research. Furthermore, it all reflected upon Lewin the man and his way of coping with the events of his time period. This devotion to action research was possibly

1938-437: The beginnings of what ended up developing into "groupthink". Lewin started to become quite interested in how ideas were created and then perpetuated by the mentality of a group. Not included in this chapter is how important this became in looking at group dynamics across disciplines – including studying John F Kennedy and the way he tried to interact with his advisors in order to prevent groupthink from occurring. Lewin conceived

1995-608: The communication discipline. Lewin and his associated researchers shifted from the pre-existing trend of individualist psychology and then expanded their work to incorporate a macro lens where they focused on the "social psychology of small group communication" (Rogers 1994). Lewin is associated with "founding research and training in group dynamics and for establishing the participative management style in organizations". He carved out this niche for himself from his various experiments. In his Berlin research, Lewin utilized "group discussions to advance his theory in research." In doing so, there

2052-568: The concept of hodological space or the simplest route achieved through the resolution of different field of forces, oppositions, and tensions according to their goals. Lewin also proposed Herbert Blumer 's interactionist perspective of 1937 as an alternative to the nature versus nurture debate. Lewin suggested that neither nature (inborn tendencies) nor nurture (how experiences in life shape individuals) alone can account for individuals' behavior and personalities, but rather that both nature and nurture interact to shape each person. This idea

2109-452: The dictum "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts". He theorized that when a group is established it becomes a unified system with supervening qualities that cannot be understood by evaluating members individually. This notion – that a group is composed of more than the sum of its individual members – quickly gained support from sociologists and psychologists who understood the significance of this emerging field. Many pioneers noted that

2166-465: The distinction was much more pronounced; Kurt Lewin argued that this was contrary to the nature of the social sciences. With the help of scholars, including Paul Lazarsfeld , there was a method through which money could be acquired for research in a sustainable manner. Lewin has encouraged researchers to develop theories that can be used to address important social problems. To demonstrate his dedication to applied research and to further prove that there

2223-447: The division of labor, and very infrequently gives praise. An early model of change developed by Lewin described change as a three-stage process. The first stage he called "unfreezing". It involved overcoming inertia and dismantling the existing "mind set". It must be part of surviving. Defense mechanisms have to be bypassed. In the second stage the change occurs. This is typically a period of confusion and transition. We are aware that

2280-557: The establishment of the National Training Laboratories , at Bethel, Maine . Carl Rogers believed that sensitivity training is "perhaps the most significant social invention of this century." Lewin's equation , B = ƒ ( P , E ), s psychological equation of behavior developed by Lewin, states that behavior is a function of the person in their environment . The equation is the psychologist's most well known formula in social psychology, of which Lewin

2337-419: The intended task is completed" in tandem with when Sigmund Freud theorized that "wishes persist until they are satisfied." This happenstance observation started the demonstration of the "existence of psychic tensions", fundamental to Lewin's field theory . While applied research helped develop Lewin into a practical theorist, what further defined him as an academic and a forerunner was his action research ,

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2394-502: The leader determines policy with techniques and steps for work tasks dictated by the leader in the division of labor . The leader is not necessarily hostile but is aloof from participation in work and commonly offers personal praise and criticism for the work done. Democratic climates are characterized where policy is determined through collective processes with decisions assisted by the leader. Before accomplishing tasks, perspectives are gained from group discussion and technical advice from

2451-469: The majority of group phenomena could be explained according to Lewin's equation and insight and opposing views were hushed. The study of group dynamics remains relevant in today's society where a vast number of professions (e.g., business and industry, clinical/counseling psychology, sports and recreation) rely on its mechanisms to thrive. The most notable of Lewin's contributions was his development of group communication and group dynamics as major facets of

2508-453: The old ways are being challenged but we do not have a clear picture as to what we are replacing them with yet. The third and final stage he called "freezing". The new mindset is crystallizing and one's comfort level is returning to previous levels. This is often misquoted as "refreezing". Lewin's three-step process is regarded as a foundational model for making change in organizations. There is now evidence, however, that Lewin never developed such

2565-404: The overall sample, men, and women. Normative ratings were also obtained from children ages 7–9 years, 10-12, and 13-14. The rating procedure for children was mildly adapted; among other modifications, children were tested in classrooms, given instructions in a more child-friendly language, and they were allotted 20 seconds to rate each picture instead of 15. Researchers from institutes other than

2622-612: The psychology laboratory to experimentally manipulate anxiety and induce negative affect , enabling researchers to investigate the impacts of negative affect on cognitive performance . To maintain novelty and efficacy of the stimulus set, the IAPS images themselves are typically not shown in any media outlet or publications. The IAPS may be received and used upon request by members of recognized, degree-granting, academic, not-for-profit research or educational institutions. A group of researchers at Harvard University has published an alternative set of images that they claim to be comparable to

2679-514: The result of the action" (this is sometimes referred to as the Lewinian spiral ). Lewin often characterized organizational management styles and cultures in terms of leadership climates defined by (1) authoritarian , (2) democratic and (3) laissez-faire work environments. He is often confused with McGregor with his work environments, but McGregor adapted them directly to leadership-theory. Authoritarian environments are characterized where

2736-400: The term in psychology entered English with the translation from German ("Valenz") in 1935 of works of Kurt Lewin . The original German word suggests "binding", and is commonly used in a grammatical context to describe the ability of one word to semantically and syntactically link another, especially the ability of a verb to require a number of additional terms (e.g. subject and object) to form

2793-457: The totality for an individual (their life space) derives from their perception of their reality, not an objective viewpoint. The approach, developed by Kurt Lewin, is a significant contribution to the fields of social science, psychology, social psychology , organizational development , process management , and change management . His theory was expanded by John R. P. French who related it to organizational and industrial settings. Lewin, then

2850-525: Was a German-American psychologist , known as one of the modern pioneers of social , organizational , and applied psychology in the United States. During his professional career, Lewin's academic research and writings focuses on applied research, action research , and group communication. Lewin is often recognized as the "founder of social psychology" and was one of the first to study group dynamics and organizational development . A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Lewin as

2907-540: Was a modern pioneer. When first presented in Lewin's book Principles of Topological Psychology , published in 1936, it contradicted most popular theories in that it gave importance to a person's momentary situation in understanding his or her behavior, rather than relying entirely on the past. In a 1947 article, Lewin coined the term " group dynamics ". He described this notion as the way that groups and individuals act and react to changing circumstances. This field emerged as

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2964-430: Was certainly the complication of not knowing exactly whom to attribute epiphanies to as an idea collectively came into fruition. In addition to group discussions, he became increasingly interested in group membership. He was curious as to how perspectives of an individual in relation to the group were solidified or weakened. He tried to come up with the way identity was constructed from standpoint and perspectives. These were

3021-418: Was developed for the perpetuation of their respective discipline or for practical application. Despite this debate within the social sciences at the time, Lewin argued that "applied research could be conducted with rigor and that one could test theoretical propositions in applied research." The root of this particular binary seemed to stem from the epistemological norms present within the hard sciences – where

3078-420: Was one of four children born into a middle-class family. His father owned a small general store, and the family lived in an apartment above the store. His father, Leopold, operated a farm jointly with his brother Max; however, the farm was legally owned by a Christian because Jews were not permitted to own farms at the time. In 1905, Lewin moved with his family to Berlin , so Lewin and his brothers could receive

3135-479: Was originally involved with schools of behavioral psychology before changing directions in research and undertaking work with psychologists of the Gestalt school of psychology , including Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler . He also joined the Psychological Institute of the University of Berlin , where he lectured and gave seminars on both philosophy and psychology. He served as a professor at

3192-415: Was presented in the form of Lewin's equation for behavior, B = ƒ ( P , E ), which means that behavior (B) is a function (f) of personal characteristics (P), and environmental characteristics (E). Scholars in the 1930s reveled in fear that, by devoting themselves to applied research, they would distract the discipline from basic research on scholarly problems and create a false binary on whether research

3249-410: Was value in testing his theoretical propositions, Lewin became a "master at transposing an everyday problem into a psychological experiment". Lewin, in his beginnings, took a seemingly banal moment between himself and a waiter and turned it into the beginnings of his field research, which Lewin reasoned that the "intention to carry out a specific task builds a psychological tension, which is released when

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