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64-570: ICMA provides education and networking opportunities for its members and offers the Credentialed Manager program to provide professional credentialing to city and county executive managers . It also conducts research, provides technical assistance and training, and promotes professional local government excellence. ICMA's membership consists of more than 13,000 local government professionals worldwide. Members are given access to exclusive ICMA resources and support. It also hosts among

128-422: A certain period, although this is not mandatory. An X.509 public key certificate is an example of a cryptographic credential. Operators of vehicles such as automobiles , boats , and aircraft must have credentials in the form of government-issued licenses in many jurisdictions. Often the documentation of the license consists of a simple card or certificate that the operator keeps on his person while operating

192-436: A couple living together (opposite-sex or same-sex). De facto unions are defined in the federal Family Law Act 1975 . De facto relationships provide couples who are living together on a genuine domestic basis with many of the same rights and benefits as married couples. Two people can become a de facto couple by entering into a registered relationship (i.e.: civil union or domestic partnership) or by being assessed as such by

256-410: A court order awards custody, either sole or joint. A de facto monopoly is a system where many suppliers of a product are allowed but the market is so completely dominated by one that the other players are unable to compete or even survive. The related terms oligopoly and monopsony are similar in meaning and this is the type of situation that antitrust laws are intended to eliminate. In finance,

320-427: A de facto national language but no official, de jure national language. Some countries have a de facto national language in addition to an official language. In Lebanon and Morocco , Arabic is an official language (in addition to Tamazight in the case of Morocco), but an additional de facto language is also French. In New Zealand, the official languages are Māori and New Zealand Sign Language ; however, English

384-540: A form of government other than council-manager. In May 1991, members voted to change the organizational name to the International City/County Management Association, in recognition of the growing number of county managers around the country who were being hired to run county governments. In 1924, ICMA adopted its Code of Ethics , which governs all of its members. As a condition of membership, ICMA members agree to submit to

448-544: A formality, or it may require a new round of examinations and training. In military and government organizations, and some private organizations, a system of compartmentalizing information exists to prevent the uncontrolled dissemination of information considered to be sensitive or confidential. Persons with a legitimate need to have access to such information are issued security clearances , which can be tracked and verified to ensure that no unauthorized persons gain access to protected information. Security clearances are among

512-493: A new initiative aimed at strengthening local government management practices through a global learning approach. In collaboration with its partners and members throughout the world, ICMA will develop new programs, launch new services, and conduct new research in order to advance effective local government management practices throughout the world. ICMA publishes original research on a variety of topics, including cybersecurity, innovation, and smart cities. In addition, ICMA publishes

576-405: A peer review credentialing process. This self-directed program offers an opportunity for interested ICMA members to quantify the unique expertise they bring to their communities. The program also assists ICMA members in focusing and reflecting upon their lifelong professional development experience. Members who participate in the program may earn the designation of ICMA Credentialed Manager granted by

640-527: A peer-to-peer review under established enforcement procedures should there be an allegation of unethical conduct. Members working for a local government in any capacity are required to follow all 12 Tenets of the Code. Members who are students, fully retired, working for a state or federal agency, or in the private sector are required to follow Tenets 1 and 3 . Failure to adhere to these guidelines can result in censure and removal of membership. In 1972, ICMA, with

704-625: A person has been verified as working for a known publication, and holding a press pass typically allows that person special treatment or access rights. Some governments impose restrictions on who may work as a journalist, requiring anyone working for the press to carry government-issued credentials. Restricting press credentials can be problematic because of its limitations on freedom of the press, particularly if government leaders selectively grant, withhold, or withdraw press credentials to disallow critique of government policy. Any press coverage published under governments that restrict journalism in this way

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768-430: A power above the forms of law, claim to act and do really act in their stead. In politics, a de facto leader of a country or region is one who has assumed authority, regardless of whether by lawful, constitutional, or legitimate means; very frequently, the term is reserved for those whose power is thought by some faction to be held by unlawful, unconstitutional, or otherwise illegitimate means, often because it had deposed

832-682: A practice specific group. They may also be withdrawn in the event of fraud or malpractice by their holders. Typically they require continuing education validation and renewal to continue practice. Information systems commonly use credentials to control access to information or other resources. The classic combination of a user's account number or name and a secret password is a widely used example of IT credentials. An increasing number of information systems use other forms of documentation of credentials, such as biometrics ( fingerprints , voice recognition , retinal scans ), X.509 , public key certificates , and so on. Credentials in cryptography establish

896-477: A previous leader or undermined the rule of a current one. De facto leaders sometimes do not hold a constitutional office and may exercise power informally. Not all dictators are de facto rulers. For example, Augusto Pinochet of Chile initially came to power as the chairperson of a military junta , which briefly made him de facto leader of Chile, but he later amended the nation's constitution and made himself president until new elections were called, making him

960-747: A printed, formal document. The issuing institution often maintains a record of the credential as well. Academic credentials are normally valid for the lifetime of the person to whom they are issued. Professional certifications are normally valid for a limited number of years, based on the pace of change in the certified profession, and require periodic re-certification through re-examination (to demonstrate continuing competency as occupational standards of practice evolve) or continuing professional development (to demonstrate continually enhanced competency). Acquisition of these credentials often leads to increased economic mobility and work opportunity, especially for low-income people. A general term for academic credentials in

1024-472: A secure facility and verifiable on demand from authorized parties. Breaches of security involving security clearances are often punished by specific statutory law, particularly if they occur in the context of deliberate espionage , whereas most other counterfeiting and misuse of credentials is punished by law only when used with deliberate intent to defraud in specific contexts. Security clearances are regularly withdrawn when they are no longer justified, or when

1088-672: A state in Australia. This is because the power to legislate on de facto matters relies on referrals by States to the Commonwealth in accordance with Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution , where it states the new federal law can only be applied back within a state. There must be a nexus between the de facto relationship itself and the Australian state. If an Australian de facto couple moves out of

1152-604: A state, they do not take the state with them and the new federal law is tied to the territorial limits of a state. The legal status and rights and obligations of the de facto or unmarried couple would then be recognised by the laws of the country where they are ordinarily resident. This is unlike marriage and "matrimonial causes" which are recognised by sections 51(xxi) and (xxii) of the Constitution of Australia and internationally by marriage law and conventions, Hague Convention on Marriages (1978). A de facto relationship

1216-457: A subsequent legitimate government. That doctrine was nullified by the constitutional reform of 1994 . Article 36 states: Two examples of de facto leaders are Deng Xiaoping of the People's Republic of China and general Manuel Noriega of Panama . Both of these men exercised nearly all control over their respective nations for many years despite not having either legal constitutional office or

1280-517: A trade or profession, in order to control salaries and wages. Persons acting as merchants, freelancers, etc., may require special credentials in some jurisdictions as well. Here again, the purpose is mainly to control the number of people working in this way, and sometimes also to track them for tax-reporting or other purposes like people evaluation. The academic and professional world makes very extensive use of credentials, such as diplomas, degrees, certificates, and certifications, in order to attest to

1344-742: A variety of print and digital products for local government professionals, including its award-winning monthly Public Management (or "PM") magazine. Credential A credential is a piece of any document that details a qualification, competence, or authority issued to an individual by a third party with a relevant or de facto authority or assumed competence to do so. Examples of credentials include academic diplomas , academic degrees , certifications , security clearances , identification documents , badges , passwords , user names , keys , powers of attorney , and so on. Sometimes publications, such as scientific papers or books , may be viewed as similar to credentials by some people, especially if

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1408-465: Is a third de facto language. Russian was the de facto official language of the central government and, to a large extent, republican governments of the former Soviet Union , but was not declared de jure state language until 1990. A short-lived law, effected April 24, 1990, installed Russian as the sole de jure official language of the Union prior to its dissolution in 1991. In Hong Kong and Macau ,

1472-438: Is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with de jure ('by law'). In jurisprudence , a de facto law (also known as a de facto regulation ) is a law or regulation that is followed but "is not specifically enumerated by a law." By definition, de facto 'contrasts' de jure which means "as defined by law" or "as a matter of law." For example, if a particular law exists in one jurisdiction, but

1536-416: Is comparable to non-marital relationship contracts (sometimes called "palimony agreements") and certain limited forms of domestic partnership, which are found in many jurisdictions throughout the world. A de facto Relationship is not comparable to common-law marriage , which is a fully legal marriage that has merely been contracted in an irregular way (including by habit and repute). Only nine U.S. states and

1600-406: Is followed in another where it has no legal effect (such as in another country), then the law could be considered a de facto regulation (a " de facto regulation" is not an officially prescribed legal classification for a type of law in a particular jurisdiction, rather, it is a concept about law(s). A de facto regulation may be followed by an organization as a result of the market size of

1664-459: Is not a marriage and has significant differences socially, financially and emotionally." The above sense of de facto is related to the relationship between common law traditions and formal (statutory, regulatory, civil) law, and common-law marriages . Common law norms for settling disputes in practical situations, often worked out over many generations to establishing precedent , are a core element informing decision making in legal systems around

1728-425: Is often treated with skepticism by others, and may not be considered any more truthful or informative than propaganda . Some trades and professions in some jurisdictions require special credentials of anyone practicing the trade or profession. These credentials may or may not be associated with specific competencies or skills. In some cases, they exist mainly to control the number of people who are allowed to exercise

1792-531: Is used for both: to contrast obligatory standards (also known as "de jure standards"); or to express a dominant standard, when there is more than one proposed standard. In social sciences , a voluntary standard that is also a de facto standard, is a typical solution to a coordination problem . Several countries, including Australia, Japan, Mexico, the United Kingdom and the United States, have

1856-463: The Family Court or Federal Circuit Court . Couples who are living together are generally recognised as a de facto union and thus able to claim many of the rights and benefits of a married couple, even if they have not registered or officially documented their relationship, although this may vary by state. It has been noted that it is harder to prove de facto relationship status, particularly in

1920-458: The World Bank has a pertinent definition: A "de facto government" comes into, or remains in, power by means not provided for in the country's constitution, such as a coup d'état, revolution, usurpation, abrogation or suspension of the constitution. In engineering, de facto technology is a system in which the intellectual property and know-how is privately held. Usually only the owner of

1984-409: The council-manager form of government and professional local government management as the best approach for ensuring community success. The council-manager form combines the political leadership of elected officials (in the form of council, board, or other governing body) with the professional experience of an appointed local government manager or administrator. Under this form, power is concentrated in

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2048-422: The jurisdiction imposing the regulation as a proportion of the overall market; wherein the market share is so large that it results in the organization choosing to comply by implementing one standard of business with respect to the given de facto law instead of altering standards between different jurisdictions and markets (e.g. data protection, manufacturing, etc.). The decision to voluntarily comply may be

2112-527: The special administrative regions of China , the official languages are English and Portuguese respectively, together with Chinese. However, no particular variety of Chinese referred to in law is specified. Cantonese ( Hong Kong Cantonese ) in traditional Chinese characters is the de facto standard in both territories. A de facto government is a government wherein all the attributes of sovereignty have, by usurpation, been transferred from those who had been legally invested with them to others, who, sustained by

2176-426: The 20th century, the phrase de facto state of war refers to a situation where two nations are actively engaging, or are engaged, in aggressive military actions against the other without a formal declaration of war . A domestic partner outside marriage is referred to as a de facto husband or wife by some authorities. In Australian law , a de facto relationship is a legally recognized, committed relationship of

2240-587: The District of Columbia still permit common-law marriage; but common law marriages are otherwise valid and recognised by and in all jurisdictions whose rules of comity mandate the recognition of any marriage that was legally formed in the jurisdiction where it was contracted. De facto joint custody is comparable to the joint legal decision-making authority a married couple has over their child(ren) in many jurisdictions (Canada as an example). Upon separation, each parent maintains de facto joint custody, until such time

2304-564: The ICMA Executive Board. ICMA offers leadership and professional development training and fellowships across the world. It also has global programs to help build local capacity to meet economic, environmental, social, and public safety challenges, funded through a variety of federal agencies like USAID, Homeland Security , the Environmental Protection Agency, among others. In 2022, ICMA announced

2368-662: The Progressive Era, the organization helped to professionalize local government and create reforms to reduce corruption. In 1924, the organization changed its name to the International City Managers' Association, and, in 1969, to the International City Management Association. As part of the 1969 change, ICMA began recognizing local governments that provide for positions of professional management while retaining

2432-478: The Two Sicilies ). The de facto boundaries of a country are defined by the area that its government is actually able to enforce its laws in, and to defend against encroachments by other countries that may also claim the same territory de jure. The Durand Line is an example of a de facto boundary. As well as cases of border disputes , de facto boundaries may also arise in relatively unpopulated areas in which

2496-599: The United States (outside of the South) until the 1950s and 1960s was simply discrimination that was not segregation by law (de jure). " Jim Crow laws ", which were enacted in the 1870s, brought legal racial segregation against black Americans residing in the American South . These laws were legally ended in 1964 by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Most commonly used to describe large scale conflicts of

2560-505: The border was never formally established or in which the agreed border was never surveyed and its exact position is unclear. The same concepts may also apply to a boundary between provinces or other subdivisions of a federal state . In South Africa, although de jure apartheid formally began in 1948, de facto racist policies and practices discriminating against black South Africans, People of Colour, and Indians dated back decades before. De facto racial discrimination and segregation in

2624-435: The case of the death of one of the partners. In April 2014, an Australian federal court judge ruled that a heterosexual couple who had a child and lived together for 13 years were not in a de facto relationship and thus the court had no jurisdiction to divide up their property under family law following a request for separation. In his ruling, the judge stated "de facto relationship(s) may be described as 'marriage like' but it

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2688-410: The completion of specific training or education programs by students, to attest to their successful completion of tests and exams, and to provide independent validation of an individual's possession of the knowledge, skills, and ability necessary to practice a particular occupation competently, (for example: Arun Paul MSW, MPHIL). Documentation of academic and professional credentials usually consists of

2752-586: The convicted person to "live out the vast majority of their life in jail prior to their release." A de facto standard is a standard (formal or informal) that has achieved a dominant position by tradition, enforcement, or market dominance. It has not necessarily received formal approval by way of a standardization process, and may not have an official standards document. Technical standards are usually voluntary, such as ISO 9000 requirements, but may be obligatory, enforced by government norms, such as drinking water quality requirements. The term "de facto standard"

2816-532: The council-manager form remains the most popular for medium- to large-sized jurisdictions, which are largely concentrated in the Southwest and Atlantic Coast states. The ICMA Voluntary Credentialing Program recognizes professional local government managers qualified by a combination of education and experience, adherence to high standards of integrity, and an assessed commitment to lifelong learning and professional development. Managers are recognized by ICMA through

2880-406: The elected council , which hires a professional administrator to implement its policies. The administrator's authority is stipulated in the local government charter, and they are responsible for preparing the budget, directing day-to-day operations, hiring and firing personnel, and serving as the council's chief administrative officer. A 2018 ICMA survey of municipal forms of government found that

2944-864: The form of a resume is Curriculum vitae , often abbreviated as CV. Titles are credentials that identify a person as belonging to a specific group, such as nobility or aristocracy, or a specific command grade in the military, or in other largely symbolic ways. They may or may not be associated with specific authority, and they do not usually attest to any specific competence or skill (although they may be associated with other credentials that do). A partial list of such titles includes. Dynamics: De facto De facto ( / d eɪ ˈ f æ k t oʊ , d i -, d ə -/ day FAK -toh, dee -⁠, də -⁠ ; Latin: [deː ˈfaktoː] ; lit.   ' in fact ' ) describes practices that exist in reality, regardless of whether they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It

3008-629: The formal and legal ruler of Chile. Similarly, Saddam Hussein 's formal rule of Iraq is often recorded as beginning in 1979, the year he assumed the Presidency of Iraq . However, his de facto rule of the nation began earlier: during his time as vice president ; he exercised a great deal of power at the expense of the elderly Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , the de jure president. In Argentina , the successive military coups that overthrew constitutional governments installed de facto governments in 1930–1932 , 1943–1946 , 1955–1958 , 1966–1973 and 1976–1983 ,

3072-412: The greater the problem with counterfeiting and the greater the lengths to which the issuer of the credential must go to prevent fraud. In diplomacy , credentials, also known as a letter of credence , are documents that ambassadors , diplomatic ministers , plenipotentiary , and chargés d'affaires provide to the government to which they are accredited , for the purpose, chiefly, of communicating to

3136-485: The help of a Ford Foundation grant, created ICMA Retirement Corporation (ICMA-RC), an independent nonstock, nonprofit, financial services company that created a way to make city and county manager retirement assets portable between localities. In 2021, ICMA-RC rebranded to MissionSquare Retirement to better reflect its mission to support the retirement planning needs of all employees who dedicate their lives to serving their communities. Since its founding, ICMA has advocated

3200-409: The identity of a party to communication. Usually they take the form of machine-readable cryptographic keys and/or passwords. Cryptographic credentials may be self-issued, or issued by a trusted third party; in many cases the only criterion for issuance is unambiguous association of the credential with a specific, real individual or other entity. Cryptographic credentials are often designed to expire after

3264-566: The last of which combined the powers of the presidential office with those of the National Congress . The subsequent legal analysis of the validity of such actions led to the formulation of a doctrine of the de facto governments , a case law ( precedential ) formulation which essentially said that the actions and decrees of past de facto governments, although not rooted in legal legitimacy when taken, remained binding until and unless such time as they were revoked or repealed de jure by

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3328-449: The latter the envoy 's diplomatic rank . It also contains a request that full credence be accorded to his official statements. Until his credentials have been presented and found in proper order, an envoy receives no official recognition. The credentials of an ambassador or minister plenipotentiary are signed by the head of state , those of a chargé d'affaires by the foreign minister . Diplomatic credentials are granted and withdrawn at

3392-809: The legal authority to exercise power. These individuals are today commonly recorded as the "leaders" of their respective nations; recording their legal, correct title would not give an accurate assessment of their power. Another example of a de facto ruler is someone who is not the actual ruler but exerts great or total influence over the true ruler, which is quite common in monarchies. Some examples of these de facto rulers are Empress Dowager Cixi of China (for son Tongzhi Emperor and nephew Guangxu Emperor ), Prince Alexander Menshikov (for his former lover Empress Catherine I of Russia ), Cardinal Richelieu of France (for Louis XIII ), Queen Elisabeth of Parma (for her husband, King Philip V ) and Queen Maria Carolina of Naples and Sicily (for her husband King Ferdinand I of

3456-569: The most carefully guarded credentials. Often they are granted to individuals only after a lengthy investigation and only after their need to have access to protected information has been adequately justified to the issuing authority. The most elaborate security-clearance systems are found in the world's military organizations. Some credentials of this type are considered so sensitive that their holders are not even permitted to acknowledge that they have them (except to authorized parties). Documentation of security clearances usually consists of records kept at

3520-589: The oldest local government conferences annually, each in a different city. The conferences serve as a hub of continued education for local government professionals. ICMA is a member of the " Big Seven ," a group of organizations that represent local and state government policy interests in the United States. ICMA was founded in 1914 as the City Managers' Association. Working with the National Civic League , Theodore Roosevelt, and others during

3584-625: The past, to determine a risk profile for them at a new institution. It vets the practitioner for both receiving practice insurance and the ability to bill to insurance for patient care. As well, it certifies legal and administrative body requirements, such as the Joint Commission . Medical practitioners must also have credentials in the form of licenses issued by the government of the jurisdictions in which they practice, which they obtain after suitable education, training, and/or practical experience. Most medical credentials are granted for

3648-498: The person holding them is determined to be too great a security risk. In many democratic nations, press credentials are not required at the national or federal level for any publication of any kind. However, individual corporations, and certain government or military entities require press credentials, such as a press pass , as a formal invitation to members of the press which grants them rights to photographs or videos, press conferences , or interviews. Press credentials indicate that

3712-406: The pleasure of the issuing authority, based on widely varying criteria. A receiving government may reject a diplomat’s credentials by declining to receive them, but in practice this rarely happens. In medicine, the process of credentialing is a detailed review of all permissions granted a medical doctor, physician assistant or nurse practitioner at every institution at which he or she has worked in

3776-400: The presentation of letters directly from the issuer of the credential its faith in the person representing them in a negotiation or meeting. Counterfeiting of credentials is a constant and serious problem, irrespective of the type of credential. A great deal of effort goes into finding methods to reduce or prevent counterfeiting. In general, the greater the perceived value of the credential,

3840-435: The publication was peer reviewed or made in a well-known journal or reputable publisher . A person holding a credential is usually given documentation or secret knowledge ( e.g., a password or key) as proof of the credential. Sometimes this proof (or a copy of it) is held by a third, trusted party. While in some cases a credential may be as simple as a paper membership card, in other cases, such as diplomas , it involves

3904-486: The result of: a desire to simplify manufacturing processes & cost-effectiveness ( such as adopting a one size fits all approach ), consumer demand & expectation, or other factors known only to the complier. In prison sentences , the term de facto life sentence (also known as a "virtual" life sentence ) is used to describe a "non-life sentence" that is long enough to end after the convicted person would have likely died due to old age, or one long enough to cause

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3968-427: The technology manufactures the related equipment. Meanwhile, a standard technology consists of systems that have been publicly released to a certain degree so that anybody can manufacture equipment supporting the technology. For instance, in cell phone communications, CDMA1X is a de facto technology, while GSM is a standard technology. Examples of a de facto General Manager in sports include Syd Thrift who acted as

4032-433: The vehicle, backed up by an archival record of the license at some central location. Licenses are granted to operators after a period of successful training and/or examination. This type of credential often requires certification of good health and may also require psychological evaluations and screening for substance abuse . Operator licenses often expire periodically and must be renewed at intervals. Renewal may simply be

4096-656: The world. Because its early forms originated in England in the Middle Ages , this is particularly true in Anglo-American legal traditions and in former colonies of the British Empire , while also playing a role in some countries that have mixed systems with significant admixtures of civil law. Due to Australian federalism , de facto partnerships can only be legally recognised whilst the couple lives within

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