59-428: The International Food Policy Research Institute ( IFPRI ) is an international research center focused on agriculture and food systems that provides research-based policy solutions to reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition throughout low- and middle-income countries in environmentally sustainable ways. For nearly 50 years, IFPRI has worked with policymakers, academics, nongovernmental organizations ,
118-529: A monograph or in the proceedings of an academic conference . If the identities of authors are not revealed to each other, the procedure is called dual-anonymous peer review. Medical peer review may be distinguished in four classifications: Additionally, "medical peer review" has been used by the American Medical Association to refer not only to the process of improving quality and safety in health care organizations, but also to
177-610: A blog series called Making a Difference, which showcases impact stories that represent a range of research, communications, and capacity-strengthening work. Conservative estimates of IFPRI’s impact show that just a few of the Institute’s activities—in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Mexico, Tanzania , and Viet Nam—have led to economic and environmental benefits exceeding US$ 1 billion. IFPRI’s research has also been shown to have indirectly benefited more than 270 million people around
236-481: A certain threshold, and effective peer review requires a certain level of expertise. For non-professional writers, peer review feedback may be overlooked, thereby affecting its effectiveness. Elizabeth Ellis Miller, Cameron Mozafari, Justin Lohr and Jessica Enoch state, "While peer review is an integral part of writing classrooms, students often struggle to effectively engage in it." The authors illustrate some reasons for
295-557: A fundamental process in academic and professional writing, serving as a systematic means to ensure the quality, effectiveness, and credibility of scholarly work. However, despite its widespread use, it is one of the most scattered, inconsistent, and ambiguous practices associated with writing instruction. Many scholars questioning its effectiveness and specific methodologies. Critics of peer review in classrooms express concerns about its ineffectiveness due to students' lack of practice in giving constructive criticism or their limited expertise in
354-415: A longitudinal study comparing two groups of students (one majoring in writing and one not) to explore students' perceptions of authority. This research, involving extensive analysis of student texts, concludes that students majoring in non-writing fields tend to undervalue mandatory peer review in class, while those majoring in writing value classmates' comments more. This reflects that peer review feedback has
413-501: A means of critiquing each other's work, peer review is often framed as a way to build connection between students and help develop writers' identity. While widely used in English and composition classrooms, peer review has gained popularity in other disciplines that require writing as part of the curriculum including the social and natural sciences . Peer review in classrooms helps students become more invested in their work, and
472-593: A multi donor trust fund for the CGIAR, which is funded by national governments, multilateral funding and development agencies, and private foundations . IFPRI's researchers work on a range of disciplines and topics, including agricultural economics , political economy , rural poverty and transformation, social protection , women's empowerment , food environments, digital innovations and practices, and policy analysis and modeling. The Institute collaborates with hundreds of local, regional, and national partners along
531-543: A range of publications, including peer-reviewed articles, books, briefs, and reports, blogs, and interactives, and different events, including conferences and seminars, among other activities. IFPRI regularly contributes to major international meetings and events, such as the 28th UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP28) in 2023 in Dubai, where its researchers organized and participated in multiple events focusing on
590-685: A regional office in Senegal and country programs in Egypt , Ethiopia , Ghana , Kenya , Malawi , Nigeria , Rwanda , and Sudan . IFRI’s South Asia office is based in India , with country offices in Bangladesh , China , and Myanmar . The Institute also operates a country office in Papua New Guinea . IFPRI is recognized as a leader in global development research worldwide. The Institute
649-641: A set of long-term field experiments at Rothamsted Research in England, some of which are still running as of 2018. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887 , which used the term "agricultural science". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith–Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but
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#1732771775474708-448: A time and given an amount of time to present the topic that they have researched. Each speaker may or may not talk about the same topic but each speaker has something to gain or lose which can foster a competitive atmosphere. This approach allows speakers to present in a more personal tone while trying to appeal to the audience while explaining their topic. Peer seminars may be somewhat similar to what conference speakers do, however, there
767-597: Is IFPRI's flagship publication. To meet the needs of policymakers and researchers focused on food security and nutrition, this annual report presents an overview of a salient topic in the field and discusses relevant challenges and solutions in major world regions. In recent years, IFPRI’s Global Food Policy Report has focused on pressing issues facing the world’s food systems, including the role of sustainable healthy diets in human and planetary well-being, approaches to building resilience to food crises, food system actions to increase adaptation and resilience to climate change, and
826-525: Is a type of engineering review. Technical peer reviews are a well defined review process for finding and fixing defects, conducted by a team of peers with assigned roles. Technical peer reviews are carried out by peers representing areas of life cycle affected by material being reviewed (usually limited to 6 or fewer people). Technical peer reviews are held within development phases, between milestone reviews, on completed products or completed portions of products. The European Union has been using peer review in
885-479: Is common in the field of health care, where it is usually called clinical peer review . Further, since peer review activity is commonly segmented by clinical discipline, there is also physician peer review, nursing peer review, dentistry peer review, etc. Many other professional fields have some level of peer review process: accounting, law, engineering (e.g., software peer review , technical peer review ), aviation, and even forest fire management. Peer review
944-594: Is incorporated into the California Health and Safety Code Section 57004. Peer review, or student peer assessment, is the method by which editors and writers work together in hopes of helping the author establish and further flesh out and develop their own writing. Peer review is widely used in secondary and post-secondary education as part of the writing process. This collaborative learning tool involves groups of students reviewing each other's work and providing feedback and suggestions for revision. Rather than
1003-551: Is more time to present their points, and speakers can be interrupted by audience members to provide questions and feedback upon the topic or how well the speaker did in presenting their topic. Professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification. Peer review in writing is a pivotal component among various peer review mechanisms, often spearheaded by educators and involving student participation, particularly in academic settings. It constitutes
1062-655: Is ranked highly among all agricultural economics departments worldwide, in the field of African economics, and in development economics , and is listed in the top 1% of all institutions registered in Research Papers in Economics (RePEc) . Independent, peer-reviewed assessments of IFPRI's impact show that the Institute's research work has benefited 270 million people worldwide, and just a few of its efforts—including work on Mexico’s Progresa social protection program,
1121-413: Is still a method used in classrooms to help students young and old learn how to revise. With evolving and changing technology, peer review will develop as well. New tools could help alter the process of peer review. Peer seminar is a method that involves a speaker that presents ideas to an audience that also acts as a "contest". To further elaborate, there are multiple speakers that are called out one at
1180-432: Is that peer review is not just about improving writing but about helping authors achieve their writing vision." Feedback from the majority of non-professional writers during peer review sessions often tends to be superficial, such as simple grammar corrections and questions. This precisely reflects the implication in the conclusion that the focus is only on improving writing skills. Meaningful peer review involves understanding
1239-507: Is the only U.S. state to mandate scientific peer review. In 1997, the Governor of California signed into law Senate Bill 1320 (Sher), Chapter 295, statutes of 1997, which mandates that, before any CalEPA Board, Department, or Office adopts a final version of a rule-making, the scientific findings, conclusions, and assumptions on which the proposed rule are based must be submitted for independent external scientific peer review. This requirement
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#17327717754741298-450: Is the process of having a draft version of a researcher's methods and findings reviewed (usually anonymously) by experts (or "peers") in the same field. Peer review is widely used for helping the academic publisher (that is, the editor-in-chief , the editorial board or the program committee ) decide whether the work should be accepted, considered acceptable with revisions, or rejected for official publication in an academic journal ,
1357-399: Is used in education to achieve certain learning objectives, particularly as a tool to reach higher order processes in the affective and cognitive domains as defined by Bloom's taxonomy . This may take a variety of forms, including closely mimicking the scholarly peer review processes used in science and medicine. Scholarly peer review or academic peer review (also known as refereeing)
1416-506: The Prime Minister’s Rural Roads Program . Evaluations from the early 2000s and late 1990s praise the Institute’s quality and quantity of work, but critique its priorities in selecting research topics and its efforts to undertake capacity-strengthening and other outreach activities. Critics have also questioned whether IFPRI focused too much on conducting world supply-demand projections and following technical pursuits to
1475-445: The private sector , development practitioners, and others to carry out research, capacity strengthening , and policy communications on food systems , economic development , and poverty reduction . IFPRI is a Research Center of CGIAR , the world's largest international agricultural research network, and the only CGIAR center solely dedicated to food policy research. IFPRI’s research is supported by more than 185 donors, and through
1534-467: The "Open Method of Co-ordination" of policies in the fields of active labour market policy since 1999. In 2004, a program of peer reviews started in social inclusion . Each program sponsors about eight peer review meetings in each year, in which a "host country" lays a given policy or initiative open to examination by half a dozen other countries and the relevant European-level NGOs . These usually meet over two days and include visits to local sites where
1593-571: The CGIAR Research Centers have been too slow or inadequate, and some critiques have pointed to a perceived lack of clear research priorities, buy-in from the Global South , and diversity in leadership, as well as an overly bureaucratic, “business-as-usual” approach to restructuring. Agricultural science Agricultural science (or agriscience for short ) is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses
1652-871: The Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. “That’s boring.” This is also particularly evident in university classrooms, where the most common source of writing feedback during student years often comes from teachers, whose comments are often highly valued. Students may become influenced to provide research in line with the professor’s viewpoints, because of the teacher’s position of high authority. The effectiveness of feedback largely stems from its high authority. Benjamin Keating, in his article "A Good Development Thing: A Longitudinal Analysis of Peer Review and Authority in Undergraduate Writing," conducted
1711-429: The author's writing intent, posing valuable questions and perspectives, and guiding the author to achieve their writing goals. Magda Tigchelaar compares peer review with self-assessment through an experiment that divided students into three groups: self-assessment, peer review, and no review. Across four writing projects, she observed changes in each group, with surprisingly results showing significant improvement only in
1770-431: The classroom environment at large. Understanding how their work is read by a diverse readership before it is graded by the teacher may also help students clarify ideas and understand how to persuasively reach different audience members via their writing. It also gives students professional experience that they might draw on later when asked to review the work of a colleague prior to publication. The process can also bolster
1829-426: The confidence of students on both sides of the process. It has been found that students are more positive than negative when reviewing their classmates' writing. Peer review can help students not get discouraged but rather feel determined to improve their writing. Critics of peer review in classrooms say that it can be ineffective due to students' lack of practice giving constructive criticism, or lack of expertise in
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1888-663: The detriment of doing analyses of applied policies, political economy, and the impacts of agricultural subsidies and incentives for investment in agricultural research and development . IFPRI and CGIAR have also been criticized for receiving funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , with critics fearing that the Foundation’s influence will lead to the promotion of an agribusiness agenda that ignores broader social and economic factors. Critics argue that several efforts to improve collaboration, effectiveness, and efficiency among
1947-531: The feedback with either positive or negative attitudes towards the text, resulting in selective or biased feedback and review, further impacting their ability to objectively evaluate the article. It implies that subjective emotions may also affect the effectiveness of peer review feedback. Pamela Bedore and Brian O’Sullivan also hold a skeptical view of peer review in most writing contexts. The authors conclude, based on comparing different forms of peer review after systematic training at two universities, that "the crux
2006-587: The impact of policy-oriented research is a complex undertaking, considering difficulties in quantifying the impact of knowledge and ideas on reduced poverty and/or increased income or the attribution of a change in these numbers to a specific study or research project. Despite the challenges of evaluating research impact, IFPRI has commissioned 46 independent, peer-reviewed assessments of its work. The Institute also works with researchers to validate its efforts and shares these findings through peer-reviewed briefs, brochures, blogs, events, and other outputs. IFPRI publishes
2065-445: The impact of the Institute’s research and build connections across topical areas and the policy community for sustainable , resilient, and equitable agriculture and food systems. These partners include a wide range of local and national partners in low- and middle-income countries, as well as research, scaling, advocacy, and funding partners, who help provide rigorous, policy-relevant evidence and recommendations to policymakers, donors,
2124-627: The inefficiency of peer review based on research conducted during peer review sessions in university classrooms: This research demonstrates that besides issues related to expertise, numerous objective factors contribute to students' poor performance in peer review sessions, resulting in feedback from peer reviewers that may not effectively assist authors. Additionally, this study highlights the influence of emotions in peer review sessions, suggesting that both peer reviewers and authors cannot completely eliminate emotions when providing and receiving feedback. This can lead to peer reviewers and authors approaching
2183-722: The liberalization of rice markets in Viet Nam , and Ethiopia's Productive Safety Net Program , among others—have been estimated to lead to more than US$ 1 billion in economic returns and environmental benefits. The Institute's researchers and their activities have been recognized by several prestigious organizations, including the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association and the International Association of Agricultural Economists . The Institute publishes and shares its research and analysis through
2242-457: The media. IFPRI publications are open access. IFPRI’s publications and outputs include books, reports, newsletters, briefs, fact sheets, blogs, and photo essays. The Institute is also involved in the collection of primary data and the compilation and processing of secondary data. IFPRI researchers publish extensively in top journals in the fields of agricultural economics, development, food policy, nutrition, and more. The Global Food Policy Report
2301-787: The need for food systems transformation in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. IFPRI is led by Dr. Johan Swinnen and governed by its Board of Trustees. IFPRI’s research activities are organized into seven research units: Researchers from multiple units staff IFPRI’s country offices and regional offices in Africa and Asia. Other divisions within IFPRI include the Office of the Director General, Communications and Public Affairs, Finance and Administration, and Human Resources. Evaluating
2360-603: The nexus between climate change and food security and nutrition , social equity , gender equality , and resilience , among other topics. IFPRI’s research and engagement centers on a holistic three-pronged approach to contribute to reducing poverty and ensuring that all people have access to sustainable diets : (1) clarify the situation and outlook of a particular situation or challenge, (2) test and scale potential technological and policy solutions, and (3) help build an enabling environment to facilitate change. IFPRI collaborates with more than 300 partner organizations to increase
2419-429: The parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture . Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or agriculturists . In the 18th century, Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate ) as a fertilizer . In 1843, John Bennet Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert began
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2478-424: The peer review process can be segmented into groups, where students present the papers to be reviewed, while other group members take notes and analyze them. Then, the review scope can be expanded to the entire class. This widens the review sources and further enhances the level of professionalism. With evolving and changing technology, peer review is also expected to evolve. New tools have the potential to transform
2537-441: The peer review process. Mimi Li discusses the effectiveness and feedback of an online peer review software used in their freshman writing class. Unlike traditional peer review methods commonly used in classrooms, the online peer review software offers a plethora of tools for editing articles, along with comprehensive guidance. For instance, it lists numerous questions peer reviewers can ask and allows for various comments to be added to
2596-471: The policy can be seen in operation. The meeting is preceded by the compilation of an expert report on which participating "peer countries" submit comments. The results are published on the web. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe , through UNECE Environmental Performance Reviews , uses peer review, referred to as "peer learning", to evaluate progress made by its member countries in improving their environmental policies. The State of California
2655-782: The private sector, and civil society. As part of CGIAR, IFPRI also maintains strong engagement with colleagues from other CGIAR Centers. IFPRI conducts cross-cutting research on a wide range of topics, including nutrition, food prices , gender , climate change, natural resource management , agricultural innovation, social protection, and agricultural extension . The Institute’s efforts focus on research and innovation to deliver integrated policies, investments, governance processes, and capacity building that support equitable and sustainable food systems transformation, as well as improved livelihoods and healthy diets . IFPRI adapts its research and capacity strengthening work to address diverse challenges and opportunities in different countries around
2714-462: The process of rating clinical behavior or compliance with professional society membership standards. The clinical network believes it to be the most ideal method of guaranteeing that distributed exploration is dependable and that any clinical medicines that it advocates are protected and viable for individuals. Thus, the terminology has poor standardization and specificity, particularly as a database search term. In engineering , technical peer review
2773-402: The producers of the work ( peers ). It functions as a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field . Peer review methods are used to maintain quality standards, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia , scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper 's suitability for publication. Peer review can be categorized by
2832-634: The research and policy life cycle. IFPRI's regional programs for Africa , Latin America and the Caribbean , and South Asia , as well as its country-level programs, respond to national demands for food policy research, strengthen local capacities for research and policy analysis, and support country-led development. The Institute has around 600 employees from around the world working in over 80 countries, with more than half of its researchers based in low- and middle-income countries. In Africa, IFPRI maintains
2891-469: The scientific foundation had been built. For the next 44 years after 1906, federal expenditures on agricultural research in the United States outpaced private expenditures. Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy are closely related. However, they cover different concepts: Agricultural sciences include research and development on: Peer review Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competencies as
2950-579: The self-assessment group. The author's analysis suggests that self-assessment allows individuals to clearly understand the revision goals at each stage, as the author is the most familiar with their own writing. Thus, self-checking naturally follows a systematic and planned approach to revision. In contrast, the effectiveness of peer review is often limited due to the lack of structured feedback, characterized by scattered, meaningless summaries and evaluations that fail to meet author's expectations for revising their work. Stephanie Conner and Jennifer Gray highlight
3009-473: The type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs, e.g., medical peer review . It can also be used as a teaching tool to help students improve writing assignments. Henry Oldenburg (1619–1677) was a German-born British philosopher who is seen as the 'father' of modern scientific peer review. It developed over the following centuries with, for example, the journal Nature making it standard practice in 1973. The term "peer review"
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#17327717754743068-442: The value of most students' feedback during peer review. They argue that many peer review sessions fail to meet students' expectations, as students, even as reviewers themselves, feel uncertain about providing constructive feedback due to their lack of confidence in their own writing. The authors further offer numerous improvement strategies across various dimensions, such as course content and specific implementation steps. For instance,
3127-516: The world. As a Research Center of CGIAR, IFPRI’s research activities align with CGIAR’s five impact areas: nutrition, health , and food security; poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs; environmental health and biodiversity ; gender equality, youth , and social inclusion ; and climate adaptation and mitigation . IFPRI’s policy and research products are targeted to multiple audiences, including policymakers, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), civil society organizations, donors, advisors, and
3186-541: The world. In Brazil, IFPRI’s evaluation of the country’s conditional cash transfer program led to changes in the targeting approach of its successor program, Bolsa Família , which has 52 million beneficiaries. In Viet Nam, the Institute’s policy advice on rice market reforms helped create better incomes and food security for 24 million people engaged in rice farming . IFPRI’s research on the economic benefits of road building in India helped 18 million people escape poverty through
3245-505: The writer or the editor to get much out of the activity. As a response to these concerns, instructors may provide examples, model peer review with the class, or focus on specific areas of feedback during the peer review process. Instructors may also experiment with in-class peer review vs. peer review as homework, or peer review using technologies afforded by learning management systems online. Students that are older can give better feedback to their peers, getting more out of peer review, but it
3304-616: The writing craft at large. Peer review can be problematic for developmental writers, particularly if students view their writing as inferior to others in the class as they may be unwilling to offer suggestions or ask other writers for help. Peer review can impact a student's opinion of themselves as well as others as sometimes students feel a personal connection to the work they have produced, which can also make them feel reluctant to receive or offer criticism. Teachers using peer review as an assignment can lead to rushed-through feedback by peers, using incorrect praise or criticism, thus not allowing
3363-488: The writing craft overall. Academic peer review has faced considerable criticism, with many studies highlighting inherent issues in the peer review process. The editorial peer review process has been found to be strongly biased against ‘negative studies,’ i.e. studies that do not work. This then biases the information base of medicine. Journals become biased against negative studies when values come into play. “Who wants to read something that doesn’t work?” asks Richard Smith in
3422-538: Was first used in the early 1970s. Since 2017 a monument to peer review is at the Higher School of Economics in Moscow. Professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification. In academia, peer review is used to inform decisions related to faculty advancement and tenure. A prototype professional peer review process
3481-556: Was recommended in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishāq ibn ʻAlī al-Ruhāwī (854–931). He stated that a visiting physician had to make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would decide whether the treatment had met the required standards of medical care. Professional peer review
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