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58-486: The IGY encompassed fourteen Earth science disciplines: aurora , airglow , cosmic rays , geomagnetism , gravity , ionospheric physics , longitude and latitude determinations (precision mapping), meteorology , oceanography , nuclear radiation , glaciology , seismology , rockets and satellites , and solar activity . The timing of the IGY was particularly suited for studying some of these phenomena, since it covered

116-434: A "tub" atop the vehicle. The second stage was an outer ring of eleven scaled-down Sergeant rocket engines; the third stage was a cluster of three scaled-down Sergeant rockets grouped within. These were held in position by bulkheads and rings and surrounded by a cylindrical outer shell. The webbed base plate of the shell rested on a ball bearing shaft mounted on the first-stage instrument section. Two electric motors spun in

174-490: A Polar Year, especially considering recent advances in rocketry, radar, and computing. Berkner and Chapman proposed to the International Council of Scientific Unions that an International Geophysical Year (IGY) be planned for 1957–58, coinciding with an approaching period of maximum solar activity. In 1952, the IGY was announced. Joseph Stalin 's death in 1953 opened the way for international collaboration with

232-503: A branch of planetary science but with a much older history. Geology is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes. Geology is largely the study of the lithosphere , or Earth's surface, including the crust and rocks . It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy . It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology

290-597: A documentary about the project for the National Snow and Ice Data Center . The participating countries for the IGY included the following: In the end, the IGY was a resounding success, and it led to advancements that live on today. For example, the work of the IGY led directly to the Antarctic Treaty , which called for the use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes and cooperative scientific research. Since then, international cooperation has led to protecting

348-586: A field of a magnetic dipole currently tilted at an angle of about 11° with respect to Earth's rotational axis, as if there were an enormous bar magnet placed at that angle through the center of Earth. The North geomagnetic pole ( Ellesmere Island , Nunavut , Canada) actually represents the South pole of Earth's magnetic field, and conversely the South geomagnetic pole corresponds to the north pole of Earth's magnetic field (because opposite magnetic poles attract and

406-697: A free and open exchange of data among nations. ICSU-WDS goals are to preserve quality-assured scientific data and information, to facilitate open access, and promote the adoption of standards. ICSU World Data System created in 2008 superseded the World Data Centers (WDCs) and Federation of Astronomical and Geophysical data analysis Services (FAGS) created by ICSU to manage data generated by the International Geophysical Year. The IGY triggered an 18-month year of Antarctic science. The International Council of Scientific Unions ,

464-524: A parent body, broadened the proposals from polar studies to geophysical research. More than 70 existing national scientific organizations then formed IGY committees, and participated in the cooperative effort. Australia established its first permanent base on the Antarctic continent at Mawson in 1954. It is now the longest continuously operating station south of the Antarctic Circle. Davis

522-509: Is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries. Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction. Plate tectonics might be thought of as

580-522: Is distinct from human geography , which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment. Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or hot spot island chains). A foundational idea in Earth science

638-402: Is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes. Atmospheric science initially developed in the late-19th century as a means to forecast the weather through meteorology , the study of weather. Atmospheric chemistry was developed in the 20th century to measure air pollution and expanded in

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696-459: Is generated by electric currents due to the motion of convection currents of a mixture of molten iron and nickel in Earth's outer core : these convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core, a natural process called a geodynamo . The magnitude of Earth's magnetic field at its surface ranges from 25 to 65 μT (0.25 to 0.65 G). As an approximation, it is represented by

754-408: Is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time. Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies

812-420: Is the notion of uniformitarianism , which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth history to apply knowledge of how the Earth's processes operate in the present to gain insight into how

870-441: Is the study of oceans. Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater . It includes the mapping of groundwater supplies and the analysis of groundwater contaminants. Applied hydrogeology seeks to prevent contamination of groundwater and mineral springs and make it available as drinking water . The earliest exploitation of groundwater resources dates back to 3000 BC, and hydrogeology as a science was developed by hydrologists beginning in

928-576: The cryosphere (corresponding to ice ) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil ) as an active and intermixed sphere. The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth sciences: Jupiter-C The Jupiter-C was an American research and development vehicle developed from the Jupiter-A . Jupiter-C was used for three uncrewed sub-orbital spaceflights in 1956 and 1957 to test re-entry nosecones that were later to be deployed on

986-460: The solar wind . As the Earth is 4.5 billion years old, it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere. Earth's magnetic field , also known as the geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field that extends from Earth's interior out into space, where it interacts with the solar wind , a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun . The magnetic field

1044-427: The 17th century. Ecohydrology is the study of ecological systems in the hydrosphere . It can be divided into the physical study of aquatic ecosystems and the biological study of aquatic organisms. Ecohydrology includes the effects that organisms and aquatic ecosystems have on one another as well as how these ecoystems are affected by humans. Glaciology is the study of the cryosphere, including glaciers and coverage of

1102-515: The 1970s in response to acid rain . Climatology studies the climate and climate change . The troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere , thermosphere , and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. 75% of the mass in the atmosphere is located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen , 20.9% oxygen , and 0.92% argon , and small amounts of other gases including CO 2 and water vapor. Water vapor and CO 2 cause

1160-636: The Antarctic environment, preserving historic sites, and conserving the animals and plants. Today, 41 nations have signed the Treaty and international collaborative research continues. The ICSU World Data System (WDS) was created by the 29th General Assembly of the International Council for Science (ICSU) and builds on the 50-year legacy of the former ICSU World Data Centres (WDCs) and former Federation of Astronomical and Geophysical data-analysis Services (FAGS). This World Data System , hosts

1218-494: The Arctic and Antarctic. Earth science Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth . This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere , hydrosphere / cryosphere , atmosphere , and geosphere (or lithosphere ). Earth science can be considered to be

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1276-500: The Earth by ice and snow. Concerns of glaciology include access to glacial freshwater, mitigation of glacial hazards, obtaining resources that exist beneath frozen land, and addressing the effects of climate change on the cryosphere. Ecology is the study of the biosphere . This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen , water , and nutrients from

1334-425: The Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature. Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography

1392-469: The Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through the greenhouse effect . This makes Earth's surface warm enough for liquid water and life. In addition to trapping heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays . The magnetic field —created by the internal motions of the core—produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth's atmosphere from

1450-435: The Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements . The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection . This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries , those where it

1508-501: The IGY. Although the 1932 Polar Year accomplished many of its goals, it fell short on others because of the advance of World War II. In fact, because of the war, much of the data collected and scientific analyses completed during the 1932 Polar Year were lost forever, something that was particularly troubling to the IGY organizing committee. The committee resolved that "all observational data shall be available to scientists and scientific institutions in all countries." They felt that without

1566-564: The International Geophysical Year can be traced to the International Polar Years held in 1882–1883 , then in 1932–1933 and most recently from March 2007 to March 2009 . On 5 April 1950, multiple scientists (including Lloyd Berkner , Sydney Chapman , S. Fred Singer , and Harry Vestine ) met in James Van Allen 's living room and suggested that the time was ripe to have a worldwide Geophysical Year instead of

1624-511: The Jupiter-C obviated the need for a guidance system in the upper stages. The Juno I was a satellite launch vehicle based on the Jupiter-C, but with the addition of a fourth stage, atop the "tub" of the third stage and the use of Hydyne as fuel. The Juno name derived from Von Braun wishing to make the satellite launch appear as peaceable as the Vanguard rocket , which was not a weapon, but

1682-725: The Soviet Union. In 1952 the Comité Speciale de l'Année Géophysique Internationale (CSAGI), a special committee of the ICSU, was established to coordinate the International Geophysical Year (IGY) under president Sydney Chapman , a British geophysicist. On 29 July 1955, James C. Hagerty , president Dwight D. Eisenhower 's press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch "small Earth circling satellites" between 1 July 1957 and 31 December 1958 as part of

1740-562: The Soviet embassy and announced his country's intention to launch a satellite in the "near future". To the surprise of many, the USSR launched Sputnik 1 as the first artificial Earth satellite on 4 October 1957. After several failed Vanguard launches, Wernher von Braun and his team convinced President Dwight D. Eisenhower to use one of their US Army missiles for the Explorer program (there

1798-655: The United States contribution to the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Project Vanguard would be managed by the Naval Research Laboratory and to be based on developing sounding rockets , which had the advantage that they were primarily used for non-military scientific experiments. Four days later, at the Sixth Congress of International Astronautical Federation in Copenhagen, scientist Leonid I. Sedov spoke to international reporters at

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1856-411: The aurora australis (thus locating it in space), but it also permitted studies of Emperor penguins in the adjacent rookery. Two years later, Australia took over the running of Wilkes , a station built for the IGY by the United States. When Wilkes rapidly deteriorated from snow and ice accumulation, plans were made to build Casey Station , known as Repstat ("replacement station"). Opened in 1969, Repstat

1914-505: The coast of Adelie Land. The first French station, Port Martin , was completed 9 April 1950, but destroyed by fire the night of 22 to 23 January 1952. Belgium established the King Baudouin Base in 1958. The expedition was led by Gaston de Gerlache , son of Adrien de Gerlache who had led the 1897–1899 Belgian Antarctic Expedition .In December 1958, four team members were stranded several hundred kilometers inland when one of

1972-607: The dogline and survived by killing Adélie penguins in a nearby rookery (which were preserved by the low temperature). The two dogs became instant national heroes in Japan. A Japanese movie about this story was made in 1983, Antarctica . France contributed Dumont d'Urville Station and Charcot Station in Adélie Land . As a forerunner expedition, the ship Commandant Charcot of the French Navy spent nine months of 1949/50 at

2030-526: The expedition on the North Pole. At another point the ice sheet broke up and their fuel tanks started floating away from the base. They had to put pans under the plane engines as soon as they landed as any oil spots would go straight through the ice in the intense sunshine. Their only casualty was a man who got too close to the propeller with the oil pan. Norbert Untersteiner was the project leader for Drifting Station Alpha and in 2008 produced and narrated

2088-532: The fifteen World Data Centers in the United States. Each World Data Center would eventually archive a complete set of IGY data to deter losses prevalent during the International Polar Year of 1932. Each World Data Center was equipped to handle many different data formats, including computer punch cards and tape—the original computer media. In addition, each host country agreed to abide by the organizing committee's resolution that there should be

2146-413: The first stage by means of servos. Following a vertical launch from a simple steel table, the vehicle was programmed so that it was traveling at an angle of 40 degrees from the horizontal at burnout of the first stage, which occurred 157 seconds after launch. At first-stage burnout, explosive bolts fired and springs separated the instrument section from the first-stage tankage. The instrument section and

2204-505: The fourth, launched on 17 March 1958. The Soviet launches would be followed by considerable political consequences, one of which was the creation of the US space agency NASA on 29 July 1958. The British–American survey of the Atlantic, carried out between September 1954 and July 1959, discovered the full length of the mid-Atlantic ridges ( plate tectonics ); it was a major discovery during

2262-602: The free exchange of data across international borders, there would be no point in having an IGY. In April 1957, just three months before the IGY began, scientists representing the various disciplines of the IGY established the World Data Center system. The United States hosted World Data Center "A" and the Soviet Union hosted World Data Center "B". World Data Center "C" was subdivided among countries in Western Europe, Australia, and Japan. NOAA hosted seven of

2320-615: The icy crust), until it was demolished in December 2010 for safety reasons. Ice Skate 2 was a floating research station constructed and staffed by U.S. scientists. It mapped the bottom of the Arctic Ocean. Zeke Langdon was a meteorologist on the project. Ice Skate 2 was planned to be staffed in 6 month shifts, but due to soft ice surfaces for landing some crew members were stationed for much longer. At one point they lost all communications with anyone over their radios for one month except

2378-550: The more advanced PGM-19 Jupiter mobile missile. The recovered nosecone was displayed in the Oval Office as part of President Dwight D. Eisenhower's televised speech on November 7, 1957. A member of the Redstone rocket family , Jupiter-C was designed by the U.S. Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), under the direction of Wernher von Braun . Three Jupiter-C flights were made. These were followed by satellite launches with

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2436-575: The north end of a magnet, like a compass needle, points toward Earth's South magnetic field. Hydrology is the study of the hydrosphere and the movement of water on Earth . It emphasizes the study of how humans use and interact with freshwater supplies. Study of water's movement is closely related to geomorphology and other branches of Earth science. Applied hydrology involves engineering to maintain aquatic environments and distribute water supplies. Subdisciplines of hydrology include oceanography , hydrogeology , ecohydrology , and glaciology . Oceanography

2494-419: The origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands. Resource geology studies how energy resources can be obtained from minerals. Environmental geology studies how pollution and contaminants affect soil and rock. Mineralogy is the study of minerals and includes the study of mineral formation, crystal structure , hazards associated with minerals, and

2552-561: The peak of solar cycle 19 . Both the Soviet Union and the U.S. launched artificial satellites for this event; the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1 , launched on October 4, 1957, was the first successful artificial satellite. Other significant achievements of the IGY included the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts by Explorer 1 and mid-ocean submarine ridges, an important confirmation of plate-tectonic theory . The origin of

2610-425: The physical and chemical properties of minerals. Petrology is the study of rocks, including the formation and composition of rocks. Petrography is a branch of petrology that studies the typology and classification of rocks. Plate tectonics , mountain ranges , volcanoes , and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earth's crust. Beneath

2668-466: The planet has evolved and changed throughout long history. In Earth science, it is common to conceptualize the Earth's surface as consisting of several distinct layers, often referred to as spheres: the lithosphere , the hydrosphere , the atmosphere , and the biosphere , this concept of spheres is a useful tool for understanding the Earth's surface and its various processes these correspond to rocks , water , air and life . Also included by some are

2726-423: The process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of seafloor spreading , new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through subduction , oceanic crust and lithosphere vehemently returns to the convecting mantle. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that

2784-480: The repositories for data collected during the IGY. Seven of the 15 World Data Centers in the United States are co-located at NOAA National Data Centers or at NOAA affiliates. These ICSU Data Centers not only preserve historical data, but also promote research and ongoing data collection. The fourth International Polar Year on 2007–2008 focused on climate change and its effects on the polar environment. Sixty countries participated in this effort and it included studies in

2842-490: The rockets (which are not necessarily launched in order, and may be uprated as solutions to technical problems are worked out in tests) was considered a military secret. So the designation painted on the sides of the rocket was not a serial number in clear text , but employed a simple transformation cypher that the staff would be sure not to forget. The key was taken from the name of the design and test base: Huntsville, Alabama , giving HUNTSVILE, with duplicated letters dropped: H

2900-449: The ship returned a year later, it became beset offshore (stuck in the sea-ice). It was eventually freed with the assistance of the US icebreaker Burton Island but could not resupply the station. The 1957 winterers were retrieved by helicopter, but bad weather prevented going back for the station's 15 sled dogs, which were left chained up. When the ship returned a year later, two of the dogs, Taro and Jiro, were still alive. They had escaped

2958-546: The skis on their light aircraft broke on landing. After a ten-day ordeal, they were rescued by an IL-14 aircraft after a flight of 1,940 miles (3,100 km) from the Soviet base, Mirny Station . The Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was erected as the first permanent structure at the South Pole in January 1957. It survived intact for 53 years, but was slowly buried in the ice (as all structures there eventually sink into

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3016-506: The spinning tub were slowly tipped to a horizontal position by means of four air jets located at the base of the instrument section. When the apex of the vertical flight occurred after a coasting flight of about 247 seconds, a radio signal from the ground ignited the eleven-rocket cluster of the second stage, separating the tub from the instrument section. The third stage then fired to raise the apogee . Through this system, designed by Wernher von Braun in 1956 for his proposed Project Orbiter ,

3074-438: The tub at a rate varying from 450 to 750 rpm to compensate for thrust imbalance when the clustered motors fired. The rate of spin was varied by a programmer so that it did not couple with the changing resonance frequency of the first stage during flight. The upper-stage tub was visibly spun-up before launch. During first-stage flight, the vehicle was guided by a gyro-controlled autopilot controlling both air-vanes and jet vanes on

3132-565: The vehicle designated as Juno I (see Juno I below or the Juno I article). All were launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida . Each vehicle consisted of a modified Redstone ballistic missile with two solid-propellant upper stages. The tanks of the Redstone were lengthened by 8 ft (2.4 m) to provide additional propellant. The instrument compartment was also smaller and lighter than the Redstone's. The second and third stages were clustered in

3190-480: Was added in 1957, in the Vestfold Hills, 400 miles (640 km) east of Mawson. The wintering parties for the IGY numbered 29 at Mawson and 4 at Davis, all male. (Both stations now have 16 to 18 winterers, including both sexes.) As a part of the IGY activities, a two-man camp was installed beside Taylor Glacier, 60 miles (97 km) west of Mawson. Its principal purpose was to enable parallactic photography of

3248-559: Was developed from a weather study rocket, the Viking . Since the Juno I was the same height as the Jupiter-C (21.2 meters), with the added fourth stage being hidden inside the shell, this vehicle which successfully launched the first orbital satellite of the United States is often incorrectly referred to as a Jupiter-C. The Jupiter-C was part of the IRBM project, and the sequence of manufacture of

3306-527: Was not yet an inhibition about using military rockets to get into space). On 8 November 1957, the US Secretary of Defense instructed the US Army to use a modified Jupiter-C rocket to launch a satellite. The US achieved this goal only four months later with Explorer 1, on 1 February 1958, but after Sputnik 2 on 3 November 1957, making Explorer 1 the third artificial Earth satellite. Vanguard 1 became

3364-461: Was replaced by present-day Casey station in 1988. Halley Research Station was founded in 1956 for the IGY by an expedition from the (British) Royal Society . The bay where the expedition set up their base was named Halley Bay, after the astronomer Edmond Halley . Showa Station , the first Japanese base in Antarctica, was set up in January 1957, supported by the ice breaker Sōya . When

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