The International Rescue Corps ( IRC ) is a volunteer organisation involved in disaster rescue, based in Grangemouth , Scotland . Its motto is "United To Save Life".
84-646: Formed in 1981, the IRC has participated in relief efforts during the 1985 Armero tragedy , as well as in the aftermath of the 2003 Bam earthquake , 2005 Kashmir earthquake and 2009 Sumatra earthquakes . It also dispatched teams in response to the February 1998 Afghanistan earthquake and 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . In the UK, it has assisted following the Stockline Plastics factory explosion and during
168-637: A central vent eruption, a flank vent eruption, and a phreatic (steam) explosion . Ruiz is the second-most active volcano in Colombia after Galeras . One week before the eruption, Marxist insurgents attacked and laid siege to the Palace of Justice in Bogotá, planning to hold a trial involving Colombian president Belisario Betancur . Betancur refused to participate and sent the National Army into
252-411: A movement of soil or sediments in landslides that continue as mudflows. Floods and debris flows may also occur when strong rains on hill or mountain slopes cause extensive erosion and/or mobilize loose sediment that is located in steep mountain channels. The 2006 Sidoarjo mud flow may have been caused by rogue drilling. The point where a muddy material begins to flow depends on its grain size,
336-428: A mudflow. Mudflows can be caused by unusually heavy rains or a sudden thaw. They consist mainly of mud and water plus fragments of rock and other debris, so they often behave like floods. They can move houses off their foundations or bury a place within minutes because of incredibly strong currents. When a mudflow occurs it is given four named areas, the 'main scarp', in bigger mudflows the 'upper and lower shelves' and
420-574: A significant amount of sediment, mudflows have higher flow heights than a clear water flood for the same water discharge. Also, sediment within the mudflow increases granular friction within the flow structure of the flow relative to clear water floods, which raises the flow depth for the same water discharge. Difficulty predicting the amount and type of sediment that will be included in a mudflow makes it much more challenging to forecast and engineer structures to protect against mudflow hazards compared to clear water flood hazards. Mudflows are common even in
504-468: A significant proportion of clay, which makes them more fluid than debris flows , allowing them to travel farther and across lower slope angles. Both types of flow are generally mixtures of particles with a wide range of sizes, which typically become sorted by size upon deposition. Mudflows are often called mudslips , a term applied indiscriminately by the mass media to a variety of mass wasting events. Mudflows often start as slides, becoming flows as water
588-611: Is entrained along the flow path; such events are often called mud failures . Other types of mudflows include lahars (involving fine-grained pyroclastic deposits on the flanks of volcanoes) and jökulhlaups (outbursts from under glaciers or icecaps). A statutory definition of "flood-related mudslide" appears in the United States' National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, as amended, codified at 42 USC Sections 4001 and following. Heavy rainfall, snowmelt , or high levels of groundwater flowing through cracked bedrock may trigger
672-533: The El Tiempo newspaper featured illustrations which "gave a perception of topography to the public unfamiliar with maps, allowing them to relate hazard zones to the landscape". In spite of this presentation that was keyed to the audience, the map ended up a more artistic representation of the risk than a purely scientific one. The day of the eruption, black ash columns erupted from Ruiz at approximately 3:00 p.m. local time. The local civil defense director
756-483: The 2009 Cumbria and southwest Scotland floods . International Rescue Corps is an independent (i.e. non-governmental funded) United Nations registered disaster rescue service with an accredited UK National Open College Network qualification in Urban Search and Rescue. Being a charity, the IRC is supported entirely by donations from the public and sponsorship from industry. IRC members are unpaid volunteers and all
840-486: The Magdalena River . Ruiz has undergone three distinct eruptive periods, the first beginning 1.8 million years ago. During the present period (beginning 11,000 years ago), it has erupted at least twelve times, producing ashfalls , pyroclastic flows , and lahars. The historically recorded eruptions have primarily involved a central vent eruption (in the caldera ) followed by an explosive eruption, then
924-715: The Nevado del Ruiz stratovolcano in Tolima , Colombia , on November 13, 1985. The volcano's eruption after 69 years of dormancy caught nearby towns unprepared, even though volcanological organizations had warned the government to evacuate the area after they detected volcanic activity two months earlier. As pyroclastic flows erupted from the volcano's crater , they melted the mountain's glaciers, sending four enormous lahars (volcanically induced mudflows , landslides , and debris flows ) down its slopes at 50 km/h (30 mph). The lahars picked up speed in gullies and engulfed
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#17327985425311008-506: The Nevado del Ruiz volcano and 169 km (105 mi) from Colombia's capital of Bogotá , was the third largest town in Tolima Department , after the towns of Ibagué and Espinal . A prominent farming town before the eruption, it was responsible for roughly one-fifth of Colombia's rice production and for a large share of the cotton, sorghum , and coffee crops. Much of this prosperity can be attributed to Nevado del Ruiz, as
1092-582: The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) sent one member of the United States Geological Survey (USGS), along with an USAID disaster relief expert and twelve helicopters, with support and medical personnel from Panama. The US subsequently sent additional aircraft and supplies, including 500 tents, 2,250 blankets, and several tent repair kits. Twenty-four other nations contributed to
1176-712: The Volcano Disaster Assistance Program and the Volcano Crisis Assistance Team, which evacuated roughly 75,000 people from the area around Mount Pinatubo before its 1991 eruption . All Colombian counties, by law, have a territorial plan that includes the identification of natural threats, treatment for building permits and preparedness for the prevention and management of natural disasters through planning programs which have helped save lives in many natural disasters since Armero's tragedy. In 1988, three years after
1260-581: The hills around Los Angeles , California, where they have destroyed many homes built on hillsides without sufficient support after fires destroy vegetation holding the land. On 14 December 1999 in Vargas , Venezuela , a mudflow known as The Vargas tragedy significantly altered more than 60 kilometers (37 mi) of the coastline. It was triggered by heavy rainfall and caused estimated damages of US$ 1.79 to US$ 3.5 billion, killed between 10,000 and 30,000 people, forced 85,000 people to evacuate , and led to
1344-498: The 'toe'. The main scarp will be the original area of incidence, the toe is the last affected area(s). The upper and lower shelves are located wherever there is a large dip (due to mountain or natural drop) in the mudflow's path. A mudflow can have many shelves. The world's largest historic subareal (on land) landslide occurred during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , a volcano in the Cascade Mountain Range in
1428-559: The Armero tragedy have inspired a lahar warning system for Mt. Rainier in Washington State , which has a similar potential for lahars. Mudflow A mudflow , also known as mudslide or mud flow , is a form of mass wasting involving fast-moving flow of debris and dirt that has become liquified by the addition of water. Such flows can move at speeds ranging from 3 meters/minute to 5 meters/second. Mudflows contain
1512-589: The Colombian government created a special program, the Oficina Nacional para la Atención de Desastres (National Office for Disaster Preparedness), now known as the Dirección de Prevención y Atención de Desastres (Directorate for Disaster Prevention and Preparedness) – to prevent such incidents in the future. All Colombian cities were directed to promote prevention planning to mitigate
1596-824: The Corps tended to just attract members of the emergency services (police, fire and ambulance) but today they also include council workers, union representatives, management consultants, engineers and many others. To carry out the Corps' role, operational members are required to satisfactorily complete a three-year training programme through the UK National Open College Network. Training consists of learning about earthquakes, specialist SAR (search and rescue) equipment, building construction, medical aid and casualty handling, boat handling, advanced rope skills, orienteering and map reading, helicopter coordination, humanitarian logistics and communications. Following
1680-482: The IRC's services are provided free of charge—the Corps' aim is purely to save life. The organisation is named after the fictional emergency-response organisation, International Rescue, in Gerry Anderson ’s popular TV series, Thunderbirds . The Corps was formed in 1981 in the aftermath of the 1980 Irpinia earthquake and became operational in 1985; it has since undertaken numerous missions at home and across
1764-492: The State of Washington , US The volume of material displaced was 2.8 km (0.67 cu mi). Directly in the path of the huge mudflow was Spirit Lake . Normally a chilly 5 °C (41 °F), the lahar instantly raised the temperature to near 38 °C (100 °F). Today the bottom of Spirit Lake is 100 ft (30 m) above the original surface, and it has two and a half times more surface area than it did before
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#17327985425311848-484: The area around Nevado del Ruiz. Increased fumarole activity, deposition of sulfur on the summit of the volcano, and phreatic eruptions also alerted geologists to the possibility of an eruption. Phreatic events, when rising magma encounters water, continued well into September 1985 (one major event took place on September 11, 1985), shooting steam high into the air. Activity began to decline in October, probably because
1932-412: The attention of the reporters at the site because of her sense of dignity and courage, and caused controversy when people wondered why the photographer had not saved her (which was impossible without equipment). An appeal to the government for a pump to lower the water around Sánchez was left unanswered, and she succumbed to gangrene and hypothermia after sixty hours of being trapped. Her death epitomized
2016-446: The building. The attackers were holding several hundred prisoners, including the 24 Supreme Court justices and 20 other judges. In the ensuing battle between the two forces, more than 75 prisoners died (including 11 judges). This disaster, coupled with the Armero tragedy, spurred the Colombian government to predict and prepare for a broad range of threats. In late 1984, geologists noticed that seismic activity had begun to increase in
2100-408: The complete collapse of the state's infrastructure. Landslide is a more general term than mudflow. It refers to the gravity-driven failure and subsequent movement downslope of any types of surface movement of soil, rock, or other debris. The term incorporates earth slides, rock falls, flows, and mudslides, amongst other categories of hillslope mass movements . They do not have to be as fluid as
2184-487: The consequences of natural disasters, and evacuations due to volcanic hazards have been carried out. About 2,300 people living along five nearby rivers were evacuated when Nevado del Ruiz erupted again in 1989. When another Colombian volcano, Nevado del Huila , erupted in April 2008, thousands of people were evacuated because volcanologists worried that the eruption could be another "Nevado del Ruiz". The lessons from
2268-415: The continuing activity at Ruiz. At 9:45 p.m., after the volcano had erupted, civil defense officials from Ibagué and Murillo tried to warn Armero's officials, but could not make contact. Later they overheard conversations between individual officials of Armero and others; famously, a few heard the mayor of Armero speaking on a ham radio , saying "that he did not think there was much danger" just before he
2352-525: The danger from falling material—including ash and rock —near Murillo , Santa Isabel , and Libano , as well as the threat of lahars in Mariquita , Guayabal , Chinchiná and Armero. The map was poorly distributed to the people at high risk from Ruiz: many survivors had never heard of it, even though several of the country's major newspapers featured versions of the map. Henry Villegas of INGEOMINAS (Colombian Institute of Mining and Geology) stated that
2436-469: The degree to which the Colombian government was responsible for the disaster. A banner at a mass funeral in Ibagué read, "The volcano didn't kill 22,000 people. The government killed them." The relief efforts were hindered by the composition of the mud, which made it nearly impossible to move through without becoming stuck. By the time relief workers reached Armero twelve hours after the eruption, many of
2520-459: The disaster prompted lawmakers to campaign for Garcia to resign. In the media, similar thoughts and questions were hotly debated. One of the most aggressive campaigns came from a mass funeral in Ibagué for the victims, claiming that "The volcano didn't kill 22,000 people. The government killed them." Nevado del Ruiz continues to pose a serious threat to nearby towns and villages. Of the threats,
2604-431: The disaster, rescue efforts began to cease. Nearly 4,000 relief workers and rescue team members were still searching for survivors, with little hope of finding any. By then, the official death toll was registered at 22,540 people; additional counts showed that 3,300 were missing, 20,000 homeless, and 4,000 injured. Looters raided the ruins and survivors faced concerns of typhus and yellow fever. For most of
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2688-471: The ejected sulfur dioxide was about 700,000 metric tons, or about two percent of the mass of the erupted solid material, making the eruption unusually sulfur rich. The eruption produced pyroclastic flows that melted summit glaciers and snow, generating four thick lahars that raced down river valleys on the volcano's flanks, destroying a small lake that was observed in Arenas' crater several months before
2772-492: The eruption had ended. The noise from the storm may have prevented many from hearing the sounds of the eruption until it was too late. Nevado del Ruiz has erupted several times since 1985, and continues to threaten up to 500,000 people living along the Combeima, Chinchiná, Coello-Toche, and Guali river valleys. A lahar (or group of lahars) similar in size to the 1985 event might travel as far as 100 km (60 mi) from
2856-400: The eruption suffered from anxiety and depression , which can lead to alcohol abuse, marital problems and other social issues. Rafael Ruiz, a National Army major who briefly served as Armero's provisional mayor after the disaster, stated that there were survivors who, due to the trauma of the event, were "jittery", experienced "nightmares", and suffered from "emotional problems". He added that
2940-699: The eruption, "With the possible exception of Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington, no other volcano in the Western Hemisphere is being watched so elaborately." In response to the eruption, the USGS Volcano Crisis Assistance Team was formed in 1986, and the Volcano Disaster Assistance Program. The volcano erupted several more times between 1985 and 1994. Concerns over the alleged negligence of local officials to alert locals of
3024-460: The eruption, Stanley Williams of Louisiana State University stated that, "With the possible exception of Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington, no other volcano in the Western Hemisphere is being watched so elaborately" as Nevado del Ruiz. Communities living near the volcano have become wary of volcanic activity: when it erupted in 1989, more than 2,300 people living around it were evacuated. Armero , located 48 km (30 mi) from
3108-516: The eruption. The largest known of all prehistoric landslides was an enormous submarine landslide that disintegrated 60,000 years ago and produced the longest flow of sand and mud yet documented on Earth. The massive submarine flow travelled 1,500 km (930 mi) – the distance from London to Rome. By volume, the largest submarine landslide (the Agulhas slide off South Africa) occurred approximately 2.6 million years ago. The volume of
3192-411: The eruption. Water in such volcanic lakes tends to be extremely salty, and may contain dissolved volcanic gases. The lake's hot, acidic water significantly accelerated the melting of the ice, an effect confirmed by the large amounts of sulfates and chlorides found in the lahar flow. The lahars, formed of water, ice, pumice , and other rocks, incorporated clay from eroding soil as they traveled down
3276-578: The event came to be known, was the second-deadliest volcanic disaster of the 20th century, surpassed only by the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée , and is the fourth-deadliest volcanic eruption recorded since 1500 AD. It is also the deadliest lahar, and Colombia's worst natural disaster. The loss of life was exacerbated by the lack of an accurate timeframe for the eruption and the unwillingness of local authorities to take costly preventative measures without clear signs of imminent danger. Because its last substantial eruption had occurred 140 years earlier, it
3360-462: The eyes, ears, and mouth — and placed pressure capable of inducing traumatic asphyxia in one or two minutes upon people buried in it. Martí and Ernst state in their work Volcanoes and the Environment that they believe that many who survived the lahars succumbed to their injuries as they were trapped, or contracted hypothermia , though the latter is unlikely, given that survivors described
3444-465: The falling ash, as local officials had instructed them to do, not thinking that they might be buried by the mudflows. The disaster gained international notoriety due in part to a photograph taken by photographer Frank Fournier of a young girl named Omayra Sánchez , who was trapped beneath rubble for three days before she died. Following the eruption, relief workers gathered around the girl, speaking with her and listening to her responses. She attracted
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3528-433: The fertile volcanic soil stimulates agricultural growth. Built on top of an alluvial fan that had been host to historic lahars , the town was previously destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 1595 and by mudflows in 1845. In the 1595 eruption, three distinct Plinian eruptions produced lahars that claimed the lives of 636 people. During the 1845 event, 1,000 people were killed by earthquake-generated mudflows near
3612-732: The final hours before the eruption. Volcanologist Bernard Chouet said that "the volcano was screaming, 'I'm about to explode'", but the scientists who were studying Ruiz at the time of the eruption were not able to read the signal. The Nevado del Ruiz eruption occurred two months after the 1985 Mexico City earthquake , limiting the amount of supplies that could be sent to each of the disasters. Efforts were organized in Ibagué and Bogotá for Armero and in Cali for Chinchiná, where medical teams gathered. Makeshift triage stations were established in Lerida, Guayabal, and Mariquita, and soon were overwhelmed with
3696-677: The first year of training the member is able to participate in local and national missions in a support role; only after the full three years (with extensive assessments) will he/she be able to participate in overseas missions. They will then have one of the few recognised qualifications in Urban Search and Rescue in Europe. Equipment taken by the team will vary according to the nature of the disaster. Principal items include thermal imaging cameras, sound detectors, fibre-optic probes, portable generators and lights, cutting equipment, tents, 15 days' supply of food and water purification equipment, thus allowing
3780-408: The formation of lahars. Ruiz's earliest identified Holocene eruption was in about 6660 BC, and further eruptions occurred around 1245, 850, 200 BC, and in about 350, 675, in 1350, 1541 (perhaps), 1570, 1595, 1623, 1805, 1826, 1828 (perhaps), 1829, 1831, 1833 (perhaps), 1845, 1916, December 1984 through March 1985, 1987 through July 1991, and possibly in April 1994. Many of these eruptions involved
3864-591: The front of a mudflow surge and is pushed by finer sediment and water that pools up behind the coarse-grained moving mudflow-front. Mudflows may contain multiple surges of material as the flow scours channels and destabilizes adjacent hillslopes (potentially nucleating new mudflows). Mudflows have mobilized boulders 1–10 m across in mountain settings. Some broad mudflows are rather viscous and therefore slow; others begin very quickly and continue like an avalanche . They are composed of at least 50% silt and clay-sized materials and up to 30% water. Because mudflows mobilize
3948-427: The gases equilibrated within the volcano. The extensive degassing of the magma caused pressure to build up inside the volcano in the space above the magma, which eventually resulted in the explosive eruption. In September 1985, as earthquakes and phreatic eruptions rocked the area, local officials began planning for an evacuation. In October, a hazard map was finalized for the area around Ruiz. This map highlighted
4032-404: The government and army were preoccupied at the time of the eruption. The day after the eruption, relief workers in Armero were appalled at its impact. The lahars had left behind a gray mass which covered the entire town, which was dotted with broken trees and horribly disfigured bodies. Debris from huts and homes protruded from beneath the gray mud. A few bags filled with crops were discovered in
4116-445: The hazard maps clearly demonstrated that Armero would be affected by lahars, but that the map "met with strong opposition from economic interests". He added that because the map was not prepared long before the eruption, mass production and distribution of it in time was difficult. At least one of the hazard maps, published in the prominent El Espectador newspaper in Bogotá, included glaring errors. Without proper graphic scaling, it
4200-511: The lahar that destroyed Armero in 1985. In just hours, these lahars can travel up to 100 km (62 mi) along river valleys. Estimates show that up to 500,000 people living in the Combeima, Chinchiná, Coello-Toche, and Guali valleys are at risk, with 100,000 individuals being considered to be at high risk. Lahars pose a threat to the nearby towns of Honda, Mariquita, Chinchiná, Ambalema , Herveo , Villa Hermosa , Puerto Salgar and La Dorada . Although small eruptions are more likely,
4284-513: The lahar's duration to roughly two hours. By that point, 85 percent of Armero was enveloped in mud. Survivors described people holding on to debris from their homes in attempts to stay above the mud. Buildings collapsed, crushing people and raining down debris. The front of the lahar contained boulders and cobbles that would have crushed anyone in their path, while the slower parts were dotted by fine, sharp stones which caused lacerations. Mud moved into open wounds and other open body parts —
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#17327985425314368-424: The lahars virtually erased Armero; three-quarters of the town's 28,700 inhabitants were killed. Proceeding in three major waves, this lahar was 30 m (100 ft) deep, moved at 12 m/s (39 ft/s; 27 mph), and lasted ten to twenty minutes. Traveling at about six m/s (20 ft/s; 13 mph), the second lahar lasted thirty minutes and was followed by smaller pulses. A third major pulse brought
4452-403: The mud. Workers described an acrid smell of "rotting bodies, ... wood smoke and decaying vegetables". To the horror of these workers, who were scrambling to begin relief efforts, survivors let out moans of pain and agony. The damages were assessed at one billion dollars, an amount approximately one-fifth of Colombia's 1985 gross national product . As news of the catastrophe spread around
4536-535: The natural dam above Armero, resulting in floods. Despite Rodriguez' persistence, only one congressman managed to inquire about the reality of the situation. Reports from the Colombian Minister of Mines , the Minister of Defense , and Minister of Public Works "all asserted that the government was aware of the risk from the volcano and was acting to protect the population". The lack of responsibility for
4620-406: The new magma had finished ascending into Ruiz's volcanic edifice. An Italian volcanological mission analyzed gas samples from fumaroles along the Arenas crater floor and found them to be a mixture of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide , indicating a direct release of magma into the surface environment. Publishing a report for government officials on October 22, 1985, the scientists determined that
4704-403: The night as "quiet". Volcanic ash had been falling throughout the day, but residents were informed it was nothing to worry about. Later in the afternoon, ash began falling again after a long period of quiet. Local radio stations reported that residents should remain calm and ignore the material. One survivor reported going to the fire department to be informed that the ash was "nothing". During
4788-410: The night, the electrical power suddenly turned off and the radios went silent. Just before 11:30 p.m., a huge stream of water swept through Armero; it was powerful enough to flip cars and pick up people. A loud roar could be heard from the mountain, but the residents were panicked over what they believed to be a flood. At 11:30 p.m., the first lahar hit, followed shortly by the others. One of
4872-508: The one with the most potential for danger is that of small-volume eruptions, which can destabilize glaciers and trigger lahars. Although much of the volcano's glacier mass has retreated , a significant volume of ice still sits atop Ruiz and other volcanoes in the Ruiz–Tolima massif. Melting just ten percent of the ice would produce lahars with a volume of up to 200 × 10 ^ m (7.1 × 10 ^ cu ft) – similar to
4956-463: The populace's unawareness of the volcano's destructive history; geologists and other experts had warned authorities and media outlets about the danger in the weeks and days leading up to the eruption. Hazard maps for the vicinity were prepared but poorly distributed. On the day of the eruption, several evacuation attempts were made, but a severe storm restricted communications. Many victims stayed in their houses as they had been instructed, believing that
5040-416: The progress made by Christmas of 1985 was considerable, but that there was "still a long way to go". A lack of preparation for the disaster contributed to the high death toll. Armero had been built on an alluvial fan that had been overrun by historic mudflows; authorities had ignored a hazard-zone map that showed the potential damage to the town from lahars. Residents stayed inside their dwellings to avoid
5124-434: The regional Red Cross over the intended evacuation efforts at Armero, Mariquita, and Honda . The Ibagué Red Cross contacted Armero's officials and ordered an evacuation, which was not carried out because of electrical problems caused by a storm. The storm's heavy rain and constant thunder may have overpowered the noise of the volcano, and with no systematic warning efforts, the residents of Armero were completely unaware of
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#17327985425315208-478: The relief workers, their job was over. The eruption was used as an example for psychiatric recuperation after natural disasters by Robert Desjarlais and Leon Eisenberg in their work World Mental Health: Problems and Priorities in Low-Income Countries . The authors were concerned that only initial treatment for the survivors' psychological trauma was conducted. One study showed that the victims of
5292-478: The rescue and assistance of survivors. Ecuador supplied a mobile hospital, and Iceland's Red Cross sent $ 4,650 ($ 13,200 today). The French government sent their own medical supplies with 1,300 tents. Japan sent $ 1.25 million ($ 3.54 million today), along with eight doctors, nurses, and engineers, plus $ 50,000 ($ 141,600 today) to the United Nations for relief efforts. Another $ 50,000 ($ 141,600 today)
5376-596: The rescuers arrived. Because Armero's hospital was destroyed in the eruption, helicopters moved survivors to nearby hospitals. Six local towns set up makeshift emergency relief clinics, consisting of treatment areas and shelters for the homeless. To help with the treatment, physicians and rescue teams came from all over the country. Of the 1,244 patients spread over the clinics, 150 died from infection or associated complications . Had antibiotics been readily available and all of their lacerations been thoroughly cleaned, many of these people could have been saved. One week after
5460-476: The risk of lahars was unusually high. To prepare for the eruption, the report gave several simple preparedness techniques to local authorities. Another team gave the local officials seismographs , but no instructions on how to operate them. Volcanic activity increased again in November 1985 as magma neared the surface. Increasing quantities of gases rich in sulfur dioxide and elemental sulfur began to appear in
5544-449: The sheer number of victims. The remaining victims were directed to Ibagué's hospitals, as local institutions had already been destroyed or were at risk from further lahars. The US government spent over $ 1 million in aid (equivalent to $ 2.8 million today), and U.S. Ambassador Charles A. Gillespie, Jr. donated an initial $ 25,000 to Colombian disaster assistance institutions ($ 71,000 today). The Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance of
5628-463: The team to operate without imposing any additional strain on the host country. Satellite communication systems enables the Corps to provide a reconnaissance and co-ordination service for the United Nations (UN) and other agencies if requested. Armero tragedy The Armero tragedy (Spanish: Tragedia de Armero [tɾaˈxeðja ðe aɾˈmeɾo] ) occurred following the eruption of
5712-411: The town of Armero , killing more than 20,000 of its almost 29,000 inhabitants. Casualties in other towns, particularly Chinchiná , brought the overall death toll to 23,000. Footage and photographs of Omayra Sánchez , a young victim of the disaster, were published around the world. Other photographs of the lahars and the impact of the disaster captured attention worldwide and led to controversy over
5796-644: The tragic nature of the Armero disaster – she could have been saved had the government responded promptly and addressed the concerns over the volcano's potency. The photograph earned the World Press Photo of the Year for "capturing the event of greatest journalistic importance". Two photographers from the Miami Herald won a Pulitzer Prize for photographing the effects of the lahar. Stanley Williams of Louisiana State University said that following
5880-425: The two-million-year eruptive history of the Ruiz–Tolima massif includes numerous large eruptions, indicating that the threat of a large eruption cannot be ignored. A large eruption would have more widespread effects, including the potential closure of Bogotá's airport due to ashfall. As the Armero tragedy was exacerbated by the lack of early warnings, unwise land use, and the unpreparedness of nearby communities,
5964-426: The victims with serious injuries were dead. The relief workers were horrified by the landscape of fallen trees, disfigured human bodies, and piles of debris from entire houses. This was the second-deadliest volcanic disaster of the 20th century, surpassed only by the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée , and is the fourth-deadliest volcanic event recorded since 1500. The event was a foreseeable catastrophe exacerbated by
6048-502: The volcano and could be triggered by a small eruption. To counter this threat, the Colombian government established a specialized office which administers the national system for identification, prevention, preparedness and management of natural disasters, the National Unit for Management of Disasters Risk ( Sistema Nacional de Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres [ es ] ). The United States Geological Survey also created
6132-518: The volcano's flanks. They ran down the volcano's sides at an average speed of 60 km/h (40 mph), dislodging rock and destroying vegetation. After descending thousands of meters down the side of the volcano, the lahars followed the six river valleys leading from the volcano, where they grew to almost four times their original volume. In the Gualí River, a lahar reached a maximum width of 50 m (160 ft). Survivors in Armero described
6216-463: The volcano's threat led to controversy. The mayor of Armero, Ramon Rodriguez, and other local officials had tried to bring the volcano's potential eruption to the attention of the Colombian government, but to no avail. For months, Rodriguez appealed to various officials, including congressmen and the governor of Tolima, Eduardo Alzate Garcia. Rodriguez once referred to the volcano as a "time bomb" and told reporters that he believed an eruption would disrupt
6300-418: The volcano. The water content of the fumaroles' gases decreased, and water springs in the vicinity of Ruiz became enriched with magnesium , calcium , and potassium , which leached from the magma. The thermodynamic equilibration temperatures, corresponding to the chemical composition of the discharged gases, ranged from 200 to 600 °C (400 to 1,100 °F); this is a measure of the temperature at which
6384-608: The water as warm. Another lahar, which descended through the valley of the Chinchiná River, killed about 1,800 people and destroyed 400 homes in Chinchiná. In total, more than 23,000 people were killed, approximately 5,000 were injured, and 5,000 homes throughout thirteen villages were destroyed. Some 230,000 people were affected, 27,000 acres (11,000 ha) were disrupted, and there were nearly 20,000 survivor-refugees. The Armero tragedy, as
6468-408: The water content, and the slope of the topography. Fine grained material like mud or sand can be mobilized by shallower flows than a coarse sediment or a debris flow. Higher water content (higher precipitation/overland flow) also increases the potential to initiate a mudflow. After a mudflow forms, coarser sediment may be picked up by the flow. Coarser sediment picked up by the flow often forms
6552-464: The world, the ongoing Colombian presidential campaign was halted, and the guerrilla fighters stopped their campaign "in view of the painful tragedy that has befallen our nation". Tickets for Colombian national championship soccer games added a surcharge of five cents to go to relief efforts. Scientists who later analyzed the seismograph data noticed that several long-period earthquakes (which begin strongly and then slowly die out) had occurred in
6636-502: The world. In many cases, missions are co-operative efforts working alongside other agencies both nationally and internationally. Over the last 25 years, IRC has undertaken a variety of work both in the UK and abroad. Overseas missions include several earthquakes, hurricanes and subsequent floods, mudslides and logistical / aid work, whilst UK missions include gas explosions, train crashes, highline rescues, missing person searches and floods. Volunteers come from all walks of life. Initially,
6720-499: Was difficult for many to accept the danger presented by the volcano; locals even called it the "Sleeping Lion". Hazard maps showing that Armero would be completely flooded after an eruption were distributed more than a month before the eruption, but the Colombian Congress criticized the scientific and civil defense agencies for scaremongering. The eruption occurred at the height of guerrilla warfare in Bogotá, and so
6804-586: Was donated by the Lions Clubs International Foundation . Rescue efforts were hindered by the soft mud that was up to 4.6 m (15 ft) deep in some places, making it virtually impossible for anyone to traverse it without sinking in. To make the situation worse, the highway connected to Armero and several bridges to it had been demolished by the lahars. It took twelve hours for the first survivors to be rescued, so those with serious but treatable injuries probably died before
6888-494: Was overtaken by the lahar. At 9:09 p.m., on November 13, 1985, Nevado del Ruiz ejected dacitic tephra more than 30 km (20 mi) into the atmosphere. The total mass of the erupted material (including magma) was 35 million metric tons, only three percent of the amount that erupted from Mount St. Helens in 1980. The eruption reached 3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index . The mass of
6972-467: Was promptly alerted to the situation. He contacted INGEOMINAS, which ruled that the area should be evacuated; he was then told to contact the civil defense directors in Bogotá and Tolima. Between 5:00–7:00 p.m., the ash stopped falling, and local officials, including the town priest, instructed people to "stay calm" and go inside. Around 5:00 p.m. an emergency committee meeting was called, and when it ended at 7:00 p.m., several members contacted
7056-425: Was unclear how big the map's hazard zones really were. The lahars on the map did not have a distinct ending point, and the main threat seemed to be from pyroclastic flows, not from mudflows. Though the map was colored blue, green, red, and yellow, there was no key to indicate what each color represented, and Armero was located in the green zone, wrongly interpreted to indicate the safest area. Another map published by
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