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126-415: An international zone is any area not fully subject to the border control policies of the state in which it is located. There are several types of international zones ranging from special economic zones and sterile zones at ports of entry exempt from customs rules to concessions over which administration is ceded to one or more foreign states. International zones may also maintain distinct visa policies from

252-495: A bonded logistics park will typically exempt a designated area from all or most customs regulations. The most extreme category of SEZ is a freeport (e.g. Luxembourg Freeport , Singapore Freeport , Geneva Freeport ), in which goods stored or transhipped are treated as never having entered the host jurisdiction. Uniquely, Svalbard is an entirely visa-free zone under the terms of the Svalbard Treaty , which recognises

378-754: A natural reserve of flora and fauna. The El Caguán Demilitarised zone was established in southern Colombia between 1999 and 2002, during the failed peace process that involved the Government of President Andrés Pastrana and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Under the Antarctic Treaty , Antarctica is administered as an international zone. The treaty forbids military activity in Antarctica, such as "the establishment of military bases and fortifications,

504-509: A port of entry is the area where arriving international passengers have not formally entered the country by clearing arrival customs and immigration controls, and departing passengers have formally exited the country by clearing exit immigration control. Sterile zones are most commonly found in international airports, while they also exist at certain seaports and land crossings. Despite their usual exemption from local immigration and customs laws, international zones at ports of entry are fully under

630-415: A visa . Some countries, however, require transit passengers of certain nationalities to hold a direct airside transit visa even when they would not need to pass through border controls. To exempt passengers transiting between international flights from clearing border controls, most international airports outside North America feature a sterile zone which only authorized employees and processed passengers with

756-810: A Canadian airport for nationals of countries other than Canada or the United States generally requires a visa or Electronic Travel Authorization (eTA) except for individuals proceeding to or from the United States who qualify for the China Transit Program or Transit Without Visa Program. A common feature of sterile zones at airports and occasionally land and sea borders, duty-free shops sell products tax-free to customers who have cleared exit border controls prior to boarding and, in some places, to passengers arriving from overseas. Most countries impose limits on how much of each type of duty-free goods, may be purchased by each passenger. The airport with

882-606: A Canadian engaging in sexual activity with a person above age of consent in a jurisdiction which is lower than Canada's, they will be prosecuted according to Canadian law. For example, in Poland where the age of consent is 15, were a Canadian adult to participate in such an activity, they would be prosecuted in Canadian law regardless of what local law says, for a crime committed outside Canadian jurisdiction. The same applies to China: restrictions on freedom of speech, such as criticism of

1008-528: A Field Guide to Living on the Edge , author Laren Stover breaks down the bohemian into five distinct mind-sets or styles, as follows: Aimée Crocker , an American world traveler, adventuress, heiress, and mystic, was dubbed the "queen of Bohemia" in the 1910s by the world press for living an uninhibited, sexually liberated, and aggressively non-conformist life in San Francisco, New York, and Paris. She spent

1134-549: A bilateral status of forces agreement. In maritime law , a ship in international waters is governed by the laws of the jurisdiction in which that ship is registered. This can be conceived of as a form of extraterritoriality, where a nation's jurisdiction extends beyond its border. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Italian sea republics of Genoa , Venice and Pisa obtained extraterritoriality for their merchants who operated in designated quarters ( Pera and Galata ) in

1260-466: A border established unilaterally by a state for border control purposes. Many demilitarised zones are considered neutral territory because neither side is allowed to control it, even for non-combat administration. Some zones remain demilitarised after an agreement has awarded control to a state which (under the DMZ terms) had originally ceded its right to maintain military forces in the disputed territory. It

1386-601: A formal distinction between criminal and civil law. While efforts at legal reform were pursued in earnest in the last decade of the Qing dynasty, what was actually achieved failed to meaningfully address this lack of law in the areas of contracts, trade, or commerce. After the collapse of the Chinese government in 1911 and the ensuing administrative vacuum, the Chinese members of the Mixed Court were subsequently appointed by

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1512-489: A letter to his cousin dated 6 September 1860. Unequal treaties were later signed with 12 other European powers and with Japan. Extraterritoriality came to end in 1917 with respect to the German Empire and Austria-Hungary . In 1925–1926, the treaties were revised to provide for consular jurisdiction to be terminated, and nationals of the parties to the treaty were to come under the jurisdiction of Thai courts after

1638-463: A long-standing legal edifice". Jurisdiction in Qing China , with differential treatment for Han and Manchu subjects, was not determined by geography, but rather, by the identity of the subjects. For example, the ruling Manchu elite possessed legal privileges which placed them outside the jurisdiction of local ethnically Chinese administrators. Before the 1842 Treaty of Nanking , which ended

1764-535: A reputation for tolerance, diversity of culture, religion, and bohemianism . It became a tourist hotspot for literary giants and gay men from Western countries. Many of the latter were able to live an openly "out" life in the Zone. In July 1952 the protecting powers met at Rabat to discuss the Zone's future, agreeing to abolish it. Tangier joined with the rest of Morocco following the restoration of full sovereignty in 1956. The Tomb of Suleyman Shah , grandfather of

1890-597: A tendency in the Qing legal order to impose collective responsibility; they were also resentful of the Qing practice of meting out capital punishment in cases of accidental manslaughter". After the Lady Hughes Affair – a controversial 1784 case where a British gunner was executed for killing two Chinese subjects – East India Company officials generally spirited away Britons before Qing officials could react. Grants of extraterritoriality were regular in China. In

2016-437: A valid ticket are allowed to enter. Two major exceptions are the United States and Canada, where airports typically have no international transit zones. All passengers arriving on international flights are subject to customs and immigration inspections. Nationals of countries other than the United States and Canada at a U.S. airport requires at least a C-1 transit visa , or ESTA for eligible travellers. Meanwhile, transiting at

2142-625: Is a Demilitarised Zone (DMZ) spanning the de facto border between North Korea and South Korea . The DMZ follows the effective boundaries as of the end of the Korean War in 1953. Similarly to the Frontier Closed Area in Hong Kong, this zone and the defence apparatus that exists on both sides of the border serve to curtail unauthorised passage between the two sides. In South Korea, there is an additional fenced-off area between

2268-648: Is a territory within a state over which another state has been granted jurisdiction. During the Age of Imperialism , concessions were frequently granted to colonial or imperial powers. Notably, the United Nations' headquarters in New York City and offices in Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi are administered as international concessions by the United Nations, while still subject to most local and national laws. As

2394-590: Is also liable for damages caused by its space object. Additionally, the treaty limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes and prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military manoeuvres, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Article IV). However, the treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit, and thus some highly destructive attack tactics, such as kinetic bombardment , are still potentially allowable. Furthermore,

2520-448: Is also possible for powers to agree on the demilitarisation of a zone without formally settling their respective territorial claims, enabling the dispute to be resolved by peaceful means such as diplomatic dialogue or an international court. Several demilitarised zones have also unintentionally become wildlife preserves because their land is unsafe for construction or less exposed to human disturbances (including hunting). Examples include

2646-673: Is debatable, as dwellers in a city large enough to have the somewhat cruel atmosphere of all great cities. Despite his views, Sterling associated with the Bohemian Club, and caroused with artist and industrialist alike at the Bohemian Grove . Canadian composer Oscar Ferdinand Telgmann and poet George Frederick Cameron wrote the song "The Bohemian" in the 1889 opera Leo, the Royal Cadet . The impish American writer and Bohemian Club member Gelett Burgess , who coined

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2772-637: Is defined in The American College Dictionary as "a person with artistic or intellectual tendencies, who lives and acts with no regard for conventional rules of behavior". Many prominent European and American figures of the 19th and 20th centuries belonged to the bohemian subculture , and any comprehensive "list of bohemians" would be tediously long. Bohemianism has been approved of by some bourgeois writers such as Honoré de Balzac , but most conservative cultural critics do not condone bohemian lifestyles. In Bohemian Manifesto :

2898-721: Is not enough to be one's self in Bohemia, one must allow others to be themselves, as well. ... What, then, is it that makes this mystical empire of Bohemia unique, and what is the charm of its mental fairyland? It is this: there are no roads in all Bohemia! One must choose and find one's own path, be one's own self, live one's own life. In New York City, the pianist Rafael Joseffy formed an organization of musicians in 1907 with friends, such as Rubin Goldmark , called "The Bohemians (New York Musicians' Club)". Near Times Square, Joel Rinaldo presided over "Joel's Bohemian Refreshery", where

3024-432: Is simply an artist or " littérateur " who, consciously or unconsciously, secedes from conventionality in life and in art. Henri Murger 's 1845 collection of short stories, Scènes de la vie de bohème ( Scenes of Bohemian Life ), was written to glorify and legitimize the bohemian lifestyle. Murger's collection formed the basis of Giacomo Puccini 's 1896 opera La bohème . In England, bohemian in this sense initially

3150-606: Is sometimes referred to as haute bohème (literally "Upper Bohemian"). The term bohemianism emerged in France in the early 19th century out of perceived similarities between the urban Bohemians and the Romani people ; La bohème was a common term for the Romani people of France , who were thought to have reached France in the 15th century via Bohemia (the western part of modern Czech Republic ). Bohemianism and its adjective bohemian in this specific context are not connected to

3276-610: Is the immunity granted to diplomatic missions , military bases of foreign countries, or offices of the United Nations . The three most common cases recognized today internationally relate to the persons and belongings of foreign heads of state and government , the persons and belongings of ambassadors and other diplomats , and ships in international waters . In the past, pre-modern states generally claimed sovereignty over persons, creating something known as personal jurisdiction . As people move between borders, this led, in

3402-571: The Allied Forces Ordinance, 1942 and the members of the United States Armed Forces were entirely governed by their own laws, even in criminal cases. Historically, the United States has had extraterritoriality agreements with 15 nations with non-Western legal systems: Algeria , Borneo , China, Egypt, Iran, Japan, South Korea, Libya , Madagascar , Morocco, Samoa , Tanzania , Thailand , Tunisia , and

3528-1007: The American Battle Monuments Commission . These are located in Belgium , Cuba , France , Gibraltar , Italy , Luxembourg , Mexico , Morocco , the Netherlands , Panama , Papua New Guinea , the Philippines , the Solomon Islands , Tunisia , and the United Kingdom . The most popular site among these is the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in France. Land under the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and surrounding 100 hectares

3654-665: The British Court for Japan in 1879. In 1887, only 2,389 non-Chinese foreigners lived in Japan, with strict limitations on freedom of movement . These limitations meant that foreigners in Japan were not able to commit crime with impunity, in contrast with China, where foreigners were granted the ability to travel to the interior after passporting. Rather, it was in the context of the Japanese state's desire to eliminate all competing jurisdictions and calls for legal reform based on

3780-651: The British Supreme Court for China . Similar courts were established for treaty countries, e.g. the United States Court for China . These had jurisdiction over the concession areas, which formally remained under Qing sovereignty. Initially, Chinese people who committed crimes in, say, the British zone, were remanded to Chinese authorities. By the early 20th century, some Western powers were willing to relinquish extraterritorial rights given

3906-632: The Chinese Communist Party , will be prosecuted according to Chinese law when that person steps foot on Chinese soil, regardless if said comments were made by a student in London or Vancouver. In some military and commercial agreements, nations cede legal jurisdiction for foreign bases or ports to other countries. For example, Japan cedes jurisdiction over American military bases on its soil in Okinawa to US military tribunals pursuant to

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4032-544: The First Opium War , foreign merchants were not satisfied with the state of the Qing legal system. Prior to the Treaty, British Merchants were only able to trade in the region of Canton, exclusively with Chinese Merchants called Cohongs. The Chinese Merchants benefitted significantly out of the deal, contributing to the British dissatisfaction with the Chinese. British merchants were "suspicious of what they regarded as

4158-482: The Jazz Age . In the 20th-century United States, the bohemian impulse was famously seen in the 1940s hipsters , the 1950s Beat generation (exemplified by writers such as William S. Burroughs , Allen Ginsberg , Jack Kerouac , and Lawrence Ferlinghetti ), the much more widespread 1960s counterculture , and 1960s and 1970s hippies . Rainbow Gatherings may be seen as another contemporary worldwide expression of

4284-580: The John F. Kennedy Memorial at Runnymede , England, was given to the United States by the United Kingdom, but required an Act of Parliament (the John F. Kennedy Memorial Act 1964 ) to do so, because the land was part of the Crown Estate , which cannot otherwise be given away for free. Another example of these types of special concessions are the numerous cemeteries and monuments administered by

4410-687: The Korean Demilitarised Zone , the Cypriot Demilitarised Zone ( The Green Line ), and the former Vietnamese Demilitarised Zone which divided Vietnam into two countries ( North Vietnam and South Vietnam ) from 21 July 1954 to 2 July 1976. As a result of the partition of the Korean peninsula by the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II, and exacerbated by the subsequent Korean War , there

4536-491: The Nine-Power Treaty was signed which expressed the willingness of the parties to end extraterritoriality in China once a competent legal system was established by China. As a result, a commission was established in 1926 that published a detailed report which contained its findings and recommendations for the Chinese legal system. Extraterritoriality in China for non-diplomatic personnel ended at various times in

4662-724: The Ottoman Empire . Americans in the military or civilians working on American military bases overseas generally have extraterritoriality, so they can only be tried by the U.S. military. This is regulated by a status of forces agreement . Princess Margriet of the Netherlands was born on 19 January 1943 in Ottawa Civic Hospital in Ottawa, Ontario, as the family had been living in Canada since June 1940 after

4788-527: The PRC government claims the right, under article 10 of its criminal code, to prosecute Chinese citizens for crimes against the criminal code which are committed abroad, even if already punished for the crime. These emerge from significant claims of the importance of national sovereignty, a reaction to its abridgement in the past, where almost no nations emphasise the importance of their sovereignty more than China does today. Japan recognized extraterritoriality in

4914-782: The Panama Canal Zone . Overseas military bases such as the American-administered Pituffik Space Base in Greenland and Guantanamo Bay in Cuba or the British-administered Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus are a distinct category of concession ceded by a host state solely for military purposes. The jurisdictional authority ceded to the administering military force varies from base to base depending on

5040-618: The Treaty of Shimonoseki after the First Sino-Japanese War , China gave up its extraterritorial rights in Japan, without reciprocity. By far the most important of the treaty ports established after 1842 was Shanghai, where the vague extraterritoriality provisions of the various treaties were most sophisticatedly implemented. The two main courts judging extraterritorial cases were the Shanghai Mixed Court and

5166-597: The fine arts . Club member and poet George Sterling responded to this redefinition: Any good mixer of convivial habits considers he has a right to be called a bohemian. But that is not a valid claim. There are two elements, at least, that are essential to Bohemianism. The first is devotion or addiction to one or more of the Seven Arts ; the other is poverty. Other factors suggest themselves: for instance, I like to think of my Bohemians as young, as radical in their outlook on art and life; as unconventional, and, though this

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5292-774: The mainland period of the Republic of China . In major cities like Shanghai and Tianjin, due to the existence of numerous jurisdictions, criminals could commit a crime in one jurisdiction and then easily escape to another. This became a major problem during the Republican period, with the rise of post–Imperial Warlord era and the collapse of central authority in the 1920s and the 1930s. Crime often flourished, especially organised crime by different warlord groups. The majority of concessions in Asia were treaty ports , port cities in China and Japan that were opened to foreign trade mainly by

5418-518: The occupation of the Netherlands by Nazi Germany . The maternity ward of Ottawa Civic Hospital in which Princess Margriet was born was temporarily declared to be extraterritorial by the Canadian government. Making the maternity ward outside of the Canadian domain caused it to be unaffiliated with any jurisdiction and technically international territory . This was done to ensure that the newborn would derive her citizenship from her mother only, thus making her solely Dutch, which could be very important had

5544-547: The unequal treaties forced upon them by Western powers , as well as cities in Korea opened up similarly by the Japanese Empire prior to its annexation of the Korean peninsula. The treaty port system in China lasted approximately one hundred years beginning with the 1841 Opium War . The system effectively ended when Japan took control of most of the ports in the late 1930s, The Russians relinquished their treaty rights in

5670-475: The 1830s, when the Qing government concluded a treaty with the Uzbek khanate of Khoqand, it granted extraterritorial privileges to its traders. And in dealing with foreign merchants through the centuries, the Qing government rarely attempted to impose jurisdiction based on territorial sovereignty, instead entrusting the punishment of foreigners to the respective authority in practically all cases except homicide. At

5796-506: The 20th century. Germany and Austria-Hungary lost their rights in China in 1917 after China declared war on them. The Soviet Union made secret agreements that kept its rights until 1960, although it publicly falsely stated that it gave them up in 1924. In 1937, the status of the various foreign powers was thus: In 1929 the Nationalist government announced its goal of ending extraterritoriality completely. Negotiations with Britain,

5922-493: The Bohemian crowd gathered from before the turn of the 20th century until Prohibition began to bite. Jonathan Larson 's musical Rent , and specifically the song " La Vie Boheme ", portrayed the postmodern Bohemian culture of New York in the late 20th century. In May 2014, a story on NPR suggested, after a century and a half, some Bohemian ideal of living in poverty for the sake of art had fallen in popularity among

6048-752: The Byzantine capital, Constantinople , as well as in Egypt and the Barbary states. A series of capitulations were made in the form of treaties between the Sublime Porte and Western nations, from the sixteenth through the early nineteenth centuries. The legal impenetrability of the Ottoman legal code created during the Tanzimat era began to weaken continuously through the spread of European empires and

6174-600: The CCL as armed guards to monitor the civilians as well as to protect them from North Korean intruders. Most of the tourist and media photos of the "Demilitarised Zone fence" are actually photos of the CCL fence. The actual Demilitarised Zone fence on the Southern Limit Line is completely off-limits to everybody except soldiers and it is illegal to take pictures of the Demilitarised Zone fence. Similarly,

6300-451: The Chinese authorities according to the laws of China, and citizens of the United states who may commit any crime in China shall be subject to be tried and punished only by the Consul or other public functionary of the United States thereto authorised according to the laws of the United States. The Wanghia treaty included an exception for American trading in opium and also subjected American ships trading outside treaty ports to confiscation by

6426-410: The Chinese government in articles 33 and 3. Similarly, the French also pursued protections in the Treaty of Huangpu , which further introduced a distinction between criminal and civil jurisdiction (non-existent in Qing dynasty law) and gave Frenchmen the full protections of Chinese law outside concessionary areas. The 1858 Sino-British Treaty of Tientsin , which ended the Second Opium War , expanded

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6552-404: The Chinese interior. Under imperial edict earlier in the year, these privileges were extended to most western countries. Other nations wanted reassurances and guarantees. For example, the United States negotiated the 1844 Treaty of Wanghia , which stated in article 21: Subjects of China who may be guilty of any criminal act towards citizens of the United States shall be arrested and punished by

6678-419: The Civil International Space Station. Under the agreement, each state is responsible for any liability associated with the components it contributes to the station and for the management of their programmes and use of the station. Furthermore, each participating state exercises criminal jurisdiction over its personnel on the station except where the victim of a crime is a national of another participating state and

6804-406: The Civil War and reporters spread out to report on the conflict. During the war, correspondents began to assume the title bohemian, and newspapermen in general took up the moniker. Bohemian became synonymous with newspaper writer. In 1866, war correspondent Junius Henri Browne , who wrote for the New York Tribune and Harper's Magazine , described bohemian journalists such as he was, as well as

6930-410: The Civilian Control Line (CCL) and the start of the Demilitarised Zone. The CCL is a line that designates an additional buffer zone to the Demilitarised Zone within a distance of 5 to 20 kilometres from the Southern Limit Line of the Demilitarised Zone. Its purpose is to limit and control the entrance of civilians into the area to protect and maintain the security of military facilities and operations near

7056-405: The Demilitarised Zone. The commander of the 8th US Army ordered the creation of the CCL and it was activated and first became effective in February 1954. The buffer zone that falls south of the Southern Limit Line is called the Civilian Control Zone. Barbed wire fences and manned military guard posts mark the CCLe. South Korean soldiers typically accompany tourist busses and cars travelling north of

7182-407: The Moroccan city of Tangier and its environs between 1923 and 1956. Much like the Shanghai International Settlement , the government and administration of the zone was in the hands of a number of foreign powers. The Zone had its own appointed International Legislative Assembly , which was subject to supervision by a Committee of Control consisting of the Consuls of Belgium, France, Britain, Italy,

7308-403: The Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. Executive power was vested in an Administrator, and judicial power resided in a Mixed Court of five judges, respectively appointed by the Belgian, British, Spanish, French, and Italian governments. As a result of the creation of the Mixed Court, the various European powers withdrew the consular courts that previously exercised jurisdiction there. The Zone had

7434-431: The Spanish city of Seville , is referred to as a bohémienne in Meilhac and Halévy's libretto. Her signature aria declares love itself to be a "gypsy child" ( enfant de Bohême ), going where it pleases and obeying no laws. The term bohemian has come to be very commonly accepted in our day as the description of a certain kind of literary gypsy, no matter in what language he speaks, or what city he inhabits .... A Bohemian

7560-444: The Suez Canal while the United States government administered the area surrounding the Panama Canal from 1903 to 1999. Concessionary administration of the Suez Canal was ended when Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised the company during the Suez Crisis while American administration of the Panama Canal ended as a result of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties in which the United States voluntarily renounced its concession over

7686-447: The United Nations requires delegates from all member states to be permitted to attend meetings at its headquarters, host countries maintain special visa arrangements such as the C-2 visa which enables otherwise inadmissible foreign officials to enter the United States, provided they remain within the vicinity of the UN headquarters. The Tangier International Zone was a 373 square kilometre concession administered by several countries in

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7812-466: The United States via immigration. In New York City in 1857, a group of 15 to 20 young, cultured journalists flourished as self-described bohemians until the American Civil War began in 1861. This group gathered at a German bar on Broadway called Pfaff's beer cellar . Members included their leader Henry Clapp Jr. , Ada Clare , Walt Whitman , Fitz Hugh Ludlow , and actress Adah Isaacs Menken . Similar groups in other cities were broken up as well by

7938-563: The West   ..." Mark Twain included himself and Charles Warren Stoddard in the bohemian category in 1867. By 1872, when a group of journalists and artists who gathered regularly for cultural pursuits in San Francisco were casting about for a name, the term bohemian became the main choice, and the Bohemian Club was born. Club members who were established and successful, pillars of their community, respectable family men, redefined their own form of bohemianism to include people like them who were bons vivants , sportsmen, and appreciators of

8064-418: The Western powers, placing all inhabitants of the international settlement under de facto foreign jurisdiction. The success of the Northern Expedition in strengthening the authority of the Chinese republic in the mid-1920s led many governments to give up their more minor treaty ports without a fight. However, the treaty powers were unwilling to give up Shanghai, or their privileges within it, which remained

8190-468: The agreement concluded by the host and administering state. For example, Khmeimim Air Base in Syria is leased to the Russian government for a period of 49 years and the Russian government exercises extraterritorial jurisdiction over the air base and its personnel while the British government administers Akrotiri and Dhekelia (designated as "sovereign base areas" under the treaty establishing Cyprus independence) as an overseas territory . The sterile zone at

8316-604: The airport without passing through French customs control. The airport has been jointly operated by the two countries since a 1946 treaty. Geneva Airport in Switzerland has similar facilities for French travellers. A demilitarised zone is an area in which treaties or agreements between nations, military powers or contending groups forbid military installations, activities or personnel. They often lie along de jure or de facto frontiers or boundaries between two or more military powers or alliances. Demilitarised zones should not be confused with border zones , which are areas lying along

8442-450: The artist quarter of Paris. In Spanish literature, the Bohemian impulse can be seen in Ramón del Valle-Inclán 's 1920 play Luces de Bohemia . In his song " La Bohème ", Charles Aznavour described the Bohemian lifestyle in Montmartre . The 2001 film Moulin Rouge! also imagines the Bohemian lifestyle of actors and artists in Montmartre at the turn of the 20th century. In the 1850s, Bohemian culture started to become established in

8568-574: The bohemian impulse. An American example is Burning Man , an annual participatory arts festival held in the Nevada desert. In 2001, political and cultural commentator David Brooks contended that much of the cultural ethos of well-to-do middle-class Americans is Bohemian-derived, coining the oxymoron "Bourgeois Bohemians" or "Bobos" . A similar term in Germany is Bionade-Biedermeier , a 2007 German neologism combining Bionade (a trendy lemonade brand) and Biedermeier (an era of introspective Central European culture between 1815 and 1848). The coinage

8694-545: The bulk of her fortune inherited from her father Edwin B. Crocker , a railroad tycoon and art collector, on traveling all over the world (lingering the longest in Hawaii, India, Japan, and China) and partying with famous artists of her time such as Oscar Wilde , Robert Louis Stevenson , Mark Twain , the Barrymores , Enrico Caruso , Isadora Duncan , Henri Matisse , Auguste Rodin , and Rudolph Valentino . Crocker had countless affairs and married five times in five different decades of her life, each man being in his twenties. She

8820-404: The carrying out of military maneuvers, as well as the testing of any type of weapon", although it does provide for the "use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purpose". The treaty establishes the continent as a preserve for scientific research, suspends all territorial claims over the continent, and permits all states to establish research stations on

8946-576: The child been male, and as such, the heir of Princess Juliana. The most famous cases of extraterritoriality in East Asia are those of 19th century China, Japan, and Siam, emerging from what is termed the " unequal treaties ". The practice of extraterritoriality, however, was not confined to the 19th century or these nations, as the monarchs and governments of pre-modern East Asia primarily claimed sovereignty over people rather than tracts of land. The creation of extraterritoriality for treaty nations "was not introduced into East Asia ex novo , but built atop

9072-405: The concession areas, which formally remained under Qing sovereignty. Initially, Chinese people who committed crimes in, say, the British zone, were remanded to Chinese authorities. The Suez and Panama Canals were originally established as concessions administered by the foreign powers who funded their construction. Between 1859 and 1956, the British and French owned Suez Canal Company operated

9198-404: The concessions also maintained their own military garrison and standing army. Military and police forces of the Chinese government were sometimes present. Some police forces allowed Chinese, others did not. In these concessions, the citizens of each foreign power were given the right to freely inhabit, trade, proselytize , and travel. They developed their own sub-cultures, isolated and distinct from

9324-772: The concessions were generally subject to consular law, and some of these laws applied to the Chinese residents. Notable Concessions include the Shanghai International Settlement administered by the United Kingdom and the United States, the French Concession in Shanghai , the Kwantung Leased Territory , and the Beijing Legation Quarter . The foreign concessions in China continued to exist during

9450-416: The consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty is often considered to represent an example of the common heritage of mankind principle. Outer space is generally regarded as an international zone insofar as it falls outside

9576-412: The continent. Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. Personnel present on Antarctica at any time are almost always citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there is no Antarctic sovereignty. Consequently, individuals who commit crimes in Antarctica are typically subject to the jurisdiction of their country of nationality,

9702-419: The countries of the foreign powers origin. Chinese were originally forbidden from most of the concessions, but to improve commercial activity and services, by the 1860s most concessions permitted Chinese, but treated them like second-class citizens as they were not citizens of the foreign state administering the concession. They eventually became the majority of the residents inside the concessions. Non-Chinese in

9828-589: The country in 1976. Demilitarised zones are common in Europe and the Middle East, especially in areas with territorial disputes in the aftermath of military conflicts. Contemporary : Historical : Martin García Island  – The Rio de la Plata Boundary Treaty of 1973 between Argentina and Uruguay established that the island would remain under Argentinean sovereignty but could only be used as

9954-621: The failure of the 2019 Hanoi Summit indefinitely postponed these plans. In 1962, the International Court of Justice had ordered the creation of a "provisional demilitarised zone" around the Preah Vihear Temple whose ownership is claimed by both Cambodia and Thailand . During the Japanese occupation of Manchuria , when they administered as the puppet state of Manchukuo , the Tanggu Truce of May 1933

10080-612: The fear of naval battles breaking out. This has led to firefights and sinkings of boats between Chinese fishermen and South Korean Coast Guard . On 30 January 2019, North Korean and South Korean military officials signed a landmark agreement that would open the Han River Estuary to civilian vessels for the first time since the Armistice Agreement in 1953. The agreement was scheduled to take place in April 2019 but

10206-567: The few carefree women and lighthearted men he encountered during the war years. San Francisco journalist Bret Harte first wrote as "The Bohemian" in The Golden Era in 1861, with this persona taking part in many satirical doings, the lot published in his book Bohemian Papers in 1867. Harte wrote, "Bohemia has never been located geographically, but any clear day when the sun is going down, if you mount Telegraph Hill , you shall see its pleasant valleys and cloud-capped hills glittering in

10332-596: The founder of the Ottoman Empire Osman I , has been located in northern Syria since the Empire's collapse. The 1921 Treaty of Ankara established the area surrounding the tomb as a Turkish concession. The tomb was moved in 1973 as the site was to be flooded by the creation of Lake Assad , and in 2015 it was relocated unilaterally by Turkey in response to the Syrian civil war . The Syrian government denounced

10458-509: The framework of a territorial jurisdiction, to certain persons being under the laws of countries in which they did not reside. Extraterritoriality, in this sense, emerges from the interaction of these two conceptions of jurisdiction, personal and territorial, when laws are applied based on who a person is rather than where they are. Extraterritoriality can now take various forms. Most famous are examples of diplomatic extraterritoriality, where diplomats and their belongings do not operate under

10584-780: The great powers to institute and organize their own legal structures to represent their citizens abroad. The capitulations ceased to have effect in Turkey in 1923, by virtue of the Treaty of Lausanne , and in Egypt they were abolished by the Montreux Convention in 1949. During the Second World War , the military personnel of the Allied forces within the British Raj were governed by their own military codes by

10710-520: The improved state of Chinese legal reform. For example, the 1902 Sino-British " Mackay treaty " 's article 12 read: China having expressed a strong desire to reform her judicial system ... [the United Kingdom] will ... be pretreated to relinquish her extra-territorial rights when she is satisfied that the state of the Chinese laws, the arrangement for her administration, and other considerations warrant her in so doing. Qing law did not make

10836-423: The intrinsic Chinese culture , and colonial administrations attempted to give their concessions "homeland" qualities. Churches, public houses , and various other western commercial institutions sprang up in the concessions. In the case of Japan, its own traditions and language naturally flourished. Some of these concessions eventually had more advanced architecture of each originating culture than most cities back in

10962-566: The introduction of all Thai legal codes and a period of 5 years thereafter. By 1930, extraterritoriality was in effect no longer in force. After absolute monarchy was replaced by constitutional monarchy in the bloodless Siamese revolution of 1932 , the constitutional government promulgated a set of legal codes, setting the stage for new treaties signed in 1937–1938 which canceled extraterritorial rights completely. Contrary to popular belief, diplomatic missions do not generally enjoy full extraterritorial status and are not sovereign territory of

11088-587: The island of Hong Kong and the surrounding area to the British under the Treaty of Nanjing , resulting in the area being administered as a British trading hub until 1997. During the late Qing years , significant portions of Chinese territory, primarily along the coast, were surrendered as concessions to occupying powers including many European powers as well as Japan and the United States. Each concession had its own police force, and different legal jurisdictions with their own separate laws. Thus, an activity might be legal in one concession but illegal in another. Many of

11214-438: The jurisdiction of the country where they are located and local laws apply. Persons caught committing an unlawful act (e.g. possession of contraband such as illegal drugs) in the international zone are liable for prosecution. Within international airports, transit passengers can usually take connecting international flights in the international zone without clearing customs and immigration controls, and in most cases do not require

11340-479: The latest generation of American artists. In the feature, a recent graduate of the Rhode Island School of Design related "her classmates showed little interest in living in garrets and eating ramen noodles ." The term has become associated with various artistic or academic communities and is used as a generalized adjective describing such people, environs, or situations: bohemian ( boho —informal)

11466-488: The laws of their host nations, but rather, under the laws of the diplomat's nation. Similarly, many nations claim the right to prosecute foreign combatants and violators of human rights under doctrines of universal jurisdiction , irrespective of the nationality of those persons or the place in which the alleged crimes occurred. This extends to domestic criminal codes as well: for example, the People's Republic of China claims

11592-489: The main holder of such rights, went slowly. They ended with the Japanese invasion of 1937 when Japan seized Shanghai and the main treaty ports where extraterritoriality was in operation. When both countries declared war on Japan in late 1941, they became formal allies of China and made ending extraterritoriality an urgent goal which both the U.S. and Britain fulfilled with the treaties they signed with China in 1943. The legacy of this for jurisdictional control continues to

11718-822: The milieu of young metropolitan artists and intellectuals—particularly those of the Latin Quarter in Paris —in a context of poverty, hunger, appreciation of friendship, idealization of art and contempt for money. Based on this topos, the most diverse real-world subcultures are often referred to as "bohemian" in a figurative sense, especially (but by no means exclusively) if they show traits of a precariat . Bohemians were associated with unorthodox or anti-establishment political or social viewpoints expressed through free love , frugality , and—in some cases— simple living , van dwelling or voluntary poverty . A more economically privileged, wealthy, or even aristocratic bohemian circle

11844-527: The models of those jurisdictions that Japan's government desired to abolish foreign courts. Having convinced the Western powers that its legal system was "sufficiently modern", Japan succeeded in reforming its unequal status with Britain through the 1894 Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation , in which London would relinquish its Japanese extraterritorial rights within five years. Similar treaties were signed with other extraterritorial powers around

11970-696: The modern Bohemian in his outward and visible aspect. It is a light and graceful philosophy, but it is the Gospel of the Moment, this exoteric phase of the Bohemian religion; and if, in some noble natures, it rises to a bold simplicity and naturalness, it may also lend its butterfly precepts to some very pretty vices and lovable faults, for in Bohemia one may find almost every sin save that of Hypocrisy. ... His faults are more commonly those of self-indulgence, thoughtlessness, vanity and procrastination, and these usually go hand-in-hand with generosity, love and charity; for it

12096-568: The modern day. Cassel writes, "extraterritoriality has left many policy-makers in mainland China with a legacy of deeply felt suspicions toward international law, international organisations, and more recently, human rights". With part of its legitimacy resting on claims to strengthening national sovereignty and territorial integrity, the Constitution of the People's Republic of China explicitly states that foreigners must abide by PRC law . And

12222-470: The most duty-free sales is Seoul Incheon Airport with US$ 1.85 billion in 2016. Dubai International Airport is second, recording transactions worth $ 1.82 billion in 2016. EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg , an airport located in France 20 kilometres southeast of Mulhouse and 3.5 kilometres northwest of Basel (Switzerland), contains a binational sterile zone including a customs road allowing passengers travelling to and from Switzerland to access

12348-597: The most prominent economic centre and treaty port. It was only after a confrontation between Shanghai police and Nationalist demonstrators in 1925 that Chinese authorities refused to enforce the verdicts of the Mixed Court; this led to its disestablishment in 1927 and replacement with a Chinese-run local court. In 1921, at the Conference on the Limitation of Armament in Washington , an international treaty called

12474-563: The move as incompatible with the 1921 treaty; Turkey plans to move the tomb back to the second site. The island port of Dejima was a Portuguese and, later, Dutch concession near the Japanese city of Nagasaki . Established to house Portuguese traders during the Nanban trade , it was later ceded to Dutch administration between 1641 and 1854. Under the Sakoku policy in force during the Edo period , it

12600-473: The national jurisdiction of any state. Article II of the Outer Space Treaty expressly forbids states from claiming celestial bodies such as the Moon or a planet as their own territory, whether by declaration, occupation, or "any other means". However, the state that launches a space object, such as a satellite or space station, retains jurisdiction and control over that object; by extension, a state

12726-577: The native inhabitants of the historical region of Bohemia (the Czechs ). Literary and artistic bohemians were associated in the French imagination with the roving Roma people , often pejoratively referred to as "gypsies". Romani were called bohémiens in French because they were believed to have come to France from Bohemia . The title character in Carmen (1875), a French opera by Georges Bizet set in

12852-426: The negotiations of the Treaty of Nanjing , Qing negotiators readily extended a grant of extraterritoriality. Cassel writes "the imperial commissioner and Manchu nobleman Qiying readily conceded extraterritorial privileges to the British in an exchange of notes with Pottinger [the British plenipotentiary] at the time of the conclusion of the treaty". This was in line with Qing practices at the time, where sovereignty

12978-500: The perpetrator's state of nationality does not prosecute the offence. Extraterritoriality In international law , extraterritoriality or exterritoriality is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations. Historically, this primarily applied to individuals, as jurisdiction was usually claimed on peoples rather than on lands. Extraterritoriality can also be partly applied to physical places. For example, such

13104-410: The prevalence of legal positivism . The laws and regulations created for Ottoman subjects to abide by often did not apply to European nationals conducting business and trade in the provinces of the empire, and thus various capitulations were brought into effect with respect to many foreign powers. The various overlapping governmental laws led to legal pluralism in which jurisdiction often was left up to

13230-529: The represented state. Countries which have ceded some control over their territory (for example, the right to enter at will for law enforcement purposes) without ceding sovereignty include: Special concessions are sometimes made for cemeteries and memorials. National governments can also own property or special concessions in other host countries without gaining any sort of legal jurisdiction or sovereignty, in which case they are treated similarly to other private property owners. For example, ownership of land under

13356-619: The rest of the surrounding state. A special economic zone (SEZ) is an area in which the business and trade laws are different from the rest of the jurisdiction within which it is located. SEZs are generally established to increase foreign direct investment or facilitate export-oriented manufacturing . Depending on its purpose, an SEZ typically has less strict border control policies with regard to customs. An export processing zone will typically allow for goods manufactured for export to be exempt from excise tax and for capital goods and raw materials to be exempt from customs duties upon import, while

13482-401: The right to prosecute Chinese citizens for crimes committed abroad and Canada will prosecute sexual abuse of minors by a Canadian anywhere in the world. In practice, it means Chinese national security laws and restrictions on freedom of speech apply to every Chinese citizen across the world, while in Canada's case, local ages of consent are ignored in favour of the Canadian law, meaning

13608-522: The rights of western visitors. They were permitted to enter the Chinese interior after passporting. However, extraterritorial rights were not extended outside the treaty ports. Similar rights were granted to the interested western powers due to the "most-favoured-nation" clause: all privileges the Qing empire granted to one power were automatically granted to the others. In 1868, when the Tientsin treaties were renegotiated, British merchants clamoured to lift

13734-794: The same time. These treaties all came into effect in 1899, ending extraterritoriality in Japan. After the Allied victory in 1945, the Mutual Security Assistance Pact, and its successor treaties, between the United States, to the modern day, grant US military personnel on American bases in Okinawa extraterritorial privileges. King Mongkut (Rama IV) of Siam signed the Bowring Treaty granting extraterritorial rights to Britain in 1855. Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk , British Consul-General from 1859 to 1864, gives an account of his judicial training and responsibilities in

13860-627: The sovereignty of Norway over the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard but subjects it to certain stipulations and consequently not all Norwegian law applies, including border controls. The treaty regulates the demilitarisation of the archipelago. The signatories were given equal rights to engage in commercial activities (mainly coal mining) on the islands. As of 2012, Norway and Russia are making use of this right. Similarly, simplified visa policies are in force for Iran's special economic zones of Kish and Qeshm islands, and for Iraqi Kurdistan . A concession

13986-679: The travel restrictions on the Chinese interior. The Qing position was adamantly opposed, unless extraterritoriality was also abolished. No compromise was reached; and the Qing government was successful in preventing foreigners from visiting the Chinese interior with extraterritorial privileges. Extraterritorial rights were not limited to Western nations. Under the 1871 Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty , Japan and China granted each other reciprocal extraterritorial rights. China itself imposed reciprocal extraterritoriality rights for its own citizens in Joseon Korea . However, in 1895, under

14112-406: The treaties concluded with the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Netherlands , and Russia in 1858, in connection with the concept of the " most favoured nation ". Various commercial treaties extended extraterritorial protections in Japan with various parties, including with Peru, in 1873. Most countries exercised extraterritorial jurisdiction through consular courts . Britain established

14238-650: The treaty explicitly allows the use of military personnel and resources to support peaceful uses of space, mirroring the Antarctic Treaty's position on military deployment in that continent. While most satellites and space stations are administered by the state that deployed them, the International Space Station is governed by an international framework established by the Agreement Concerning Cooperation on

14364-456: The treaty port era ended in the late 1940s when the communists took over and nearly all foreigners left. Within the concessions in China, the occupying foreign powers administered distinct legal systems. The two main courts judging extraterritorial cases were the Shanghai Mixed Court and the British Supreme Court for China . Similar courts were established for treaty countries, e.g. the United States Court for China . These had jurisdiction over

14490-446: The victim's country of nationality (if applicable), or the country administering the base in or expedition during which the crime occurred. Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce

14616-772: The wake of the Russian revolution in 1917, and the Germans were expelled in 1914. The three main treaty powers, the British, the Americans, and the French continued to hold their concessions and extraterritorial jurisdictions until the Second World War . This ended when the Japanese stormed into their concessions in late 1941. They formally relinquished their treaty rights in a new "equal treaties" agreement with Chiang Kai-shek 's Nationalist Government in exile in Chongqing in 1943. The international communities that were residues of

14742-656: The whole estuary of the Han River in the Korean Peninsula is deemed a "Neutral Zone" and is officially off-limits to all civilian vessels. Only military vessels are allowed within this neutral zone. In recent years, Chinese fishing vessels have taken advantage of the tense situation in the Han River Estuary Neutral Zone and illegally fished in this area due to both North Korean and South Korean navies never patrolling this area due to

14868-399: The word blurb , supplied this description of the amorphous place called Bohemia: To take the world as one finds it, the bad with the good, making the best of the present moment—to laugh at Fortune alike whether she be generous or unkind—to spend freely when one has money, and to hope gaily when one has none—to fleet the time carelessly, living for love and art—this is the temper and spirit of

14994-654: Was Japan's only point of interaction with the outside world. Border controls limited passage of foreign merchants from Dejima to Nagasaki and of Japanese from Nagasaki to Dejima. Similarly, the island of Macau was ceded by China during the Ming dynasty to the Portuguese, who administered it as a trading hub between 1557 and 1999. In the aftermath of the Opium Wars , the Ming Dynasty's successor Qing Dynasty ceded

15120-571: Was concluded between China and Japan, establishing a demilitarised zone between Manchukuo and China. In 1937 Japan violated this truce with an invasion of the remainder of China. In 1945, after the fall of the Japanese empire at the end of the Asia-Pacific theatre of World War II , Manchuria was re-incorporated into China. Similarly, during the Vietnam War , there was a demilitarised zone between North Vietnam and South Vietnam . The zone

15246-797: Was established in July 1954 as a result of the Geneva Conference ending the war between the Viet Minh and France. The DMZ in Vietnam officially lay at the 17th parallel but, in reality, extended about 1.5 km on either side of the Bến Hải River and west to east from the Lao border to the South China Sea . The Vietnamese demilitarised zone was abolished following the reunification of

15372-482: Was famous for her tattoos and pet snakes and was reported to have started the first Buddhist colony in Manhattan. Spiritually inquisitive, Crocker had a ten-year affair with occultist Aleister Crowley and was a devoted student of Hatha Yoga. Maxwell Bodenheim , an American poet and novelist, was known as the king of Greenwich Village Bohemians during the 1920s and his writing brought him international fame during

15498-485: Was gifted by France to Canada. A similar case is the French domains of St Helena : the Government of France bought land property on St. Helena island to commemorate the exile of Napoleon Bonaparte there. Internal cases (both parties are part of the same unitary sovereign state but have different border control and legal systems): Bohemianism Bohemian is a 19th-century historical and literary topos that places

15624-454: Was held by peoples rather than imposed on lands. A more formal declaration of extraterritoriality was concluded in the 1843 Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue , which established that "Britons were to be punished according to English law and Chinese were to be 'tried and punished by their own laws'". These provisions only applied to the treaty ports, since foreigners were barred from entering

15750-480: Was introduced in 2007 by Henning Sußebach, a German journalist, in an article that appeared in Zeitmagazin concerning Berlin's Prenzlauer Berg lifestyle. The hyphenated term gained traction and has been quoted and referred to since. A German ARD TV broadcaster used the title Boheme and Biedermeier in a 2009 documentary about Berlin's Prenzlauer Berg . The main focus was on protagonists, that contributed to

15876-490: Was popularised in William Makepeace Thackeray 's 1848 novel Vanity Fair . Public perceptions of the alternative lifestyles supposedly led by artists were further molded by George du Maurier 's romanticized best-selling novel of Bohemian culture Trilby (1894). The novel outlines the fortunes of three expatriate English artists, their Irish model, and two colourful Central European musicians, in

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