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89-566: The original settlers were the Lucayan people , who arrived sometime between 500 and 800 CE, crossing in dugout canoes from Hispaniola and/or Cuba to the Bahamas. The larger island was initially called by the name Heneagua , which may derive from a Spanish expression meaning 'water is to be found there'. Two names of apparent Lucayan origin, Inagua (meaning "Small Eastern Island") and Baneque (meaning "Big Water Island"), were used by

178-912: A California Endangered Species Act listing petition to the Fish and Game Commission to get protections for five populations of the western burrowing owl. The petition requests endangered status for burrowing owls in southwestern California, central-western California and the San Francisco Bay Area , and threatened status for burrowing owls in the Central Valley and southern desert range . The major reasons for declining populations in North America are loss of habitat, and control programs for prairie dogs. While some species of burrowing owl can dig their own burrows, most species rely on burrowing animals to burrow holes that

267-682: A trace element analysis. Columbus thought the Lucayans resembled the Guanche of the Canary Islands , in part because they were intermediate in skin color between Europeans and Africans. He described the Lucayans as handsome, graceful, well-proportioned, gentle, generous and peaceful, and customarily going almost completely naked. Peter Martyr d'Anghiera said that the Lucayan women were so beautiful that men from "other countries" moved to

356-435: A burrow, hence the name burrowing owl. If burrows are unavailable and the soil is not hard or rocky, the owls may excavate their own. Burrowing owls will also nest in shallow, underground, man-made structures that have easy access to the surface. During the nesting season, burrowing owls will collect a wide variety of materials to line their nest, some of which are left around the entrance to the burrow. The most common material

445-534: A burrowing owl, as well as sparrows . Regarding invertebrates, the burrowing owl seems less of a generalist . It is extremely fond of termites such as Termitidae, and Orthoptera such as Conocephalinae and Copiphorinae katydids , Jerusalem crickets (Stenopelmatidae), true crickets (Gryllidae) and grasshoppers . Bothynus and Dichotomius anaglypticus scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae) were eaten far more often than even closely related species by many burrowing owls across central São Paulo (Brazil). Similarly, it

534-901: A decline, one of the causes of this being prairie dog eradication programs. When prairie dogs dig burrows, they can uproot plants in the process. This is most common in agricultural areas, where burrows cause damage to existing crops, creating a problem for local farmers. In Nebraska and Montana, eradication programs have already been put in place to manage the population of prairie dogs. Eradication programs for ground squirrels have also been put in place. In California, California ground squirrels have been known to feed on crop seedlings as well as grasses meant for cattle, which prevents crop growth and decreases food supply for cattle. However, as burrowing animal populations decrease, burrowing owls become more vulnerable to exposure to predators. With fewer burrows available, burrowing owl populations will be more concentrated, with more owls occupying fewer burrows . As

623-470: A few hairs in back which were never cut. Columbus reported seeing scars on the bodies of some of the men, which were explained to him as resulting from attempts by people from other islands to capture them. In 1492 Christopher Columbus sailed from Spain with three ships, seeking a direct route to Asia. On October 12, 1492 Columbus reached an island in the Bahamas, an event long regarded as the 'discovery' of America. This first island to be visited by Columbus

712-426: A flattened facial disc . The owls have prominent white eyebrows and a white "chin" patch which they expand and display during certain behaviors , such as a bobbing of the head when agitated. Adults have brown heads and wings with white spotting. Their chests and abdomens are white with variable brown spotting or barring, also depending on the subspecies. Juvenile owls are similar in appearance, but they lack most of

801-629: A larger Taíno population in the Greater Antilles . The Lucayans, along with the Taínos in Jamaica , most of Cuba and parts of western Hispaniola have been classified as part of a Sub-Taíno, Western Taíno or Ciboney Taíno cultural and language group. Keegan describes any distinctions between Lucayans and Classical Taínos of Hispaniola and eastern Cuba as largely arbitrary. The Lucayans lived in smaller political units, simple chiefdoms , compared to

890-504: A later settlement wave from Hispaniola. Population density in the southernmost Bahamas remained lower, probably due to the drier climate there, less than 800 millimetres (31 in) of rain a year on Great Inagua Island and the Turks and Caicos Islands and only slightly higher on Acklins and Crooked Islands and Mayaguana. Based on Lucayan names for the islands, Granberry and Vescelius argue for two origins of settlement; one from Hispaniola to

979-443: A name. Keegan suggests that the confusion of spellings was due to grammatically differing forms of the name for the chief and for the village or island, or was simply due to Columbus's difficulty with the Lucayan language. Columbus spent three days sailing back and forth along the shore of an island seeking Samaot. At one point he sought to reach Samaot by sailing eastward, but the water was too shallow, and he felt that sailing around

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1068-704: A piece of cassava bread to participants, which were kept preserved until the following year. Burrowing owl About 20 living, see text Strix cunicularia Molina, 1782 Speotyto cunicularia Spheotyto cunicularia ( lapsus ) The burrowing owl ( Athene cunicularia ), also called the shoco , is a small, long-legged owl found throughout open landscapes of North and South America. Burrowing owls can be found in grasslands , rangelands , agricultural areas, deserts , or any other open, dry area with low vegetation. They nest and roost in burrows, such as those excavated by prairie dogs ( Cynomys spp.). Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often active during

1157-531: A reasonable estimate for Lucayan houses. While not mentioned for Lucayan houses, the houses in Cuba were described as having two doors. Classic Taíno villages in Hispaniola and eastern Cuba typically had houses arranged around a central plaza, and often located along rivers with access to good agricultural land. Lucayan villages were linear, along the coast, often on the leeward side of an island, but also found on

1246-440: A result, predators will more easily detect owl populations and be capable of eliminating larger broods of owls at once. Prairie dogs and ground squirrels also act as a buffer between owls and their predators, since they become the target prey rather than the owls. Another benefit prairie dogs in particular provide burrowing owls takes the form of their alarm calls, which alert burrowing owls if predators are nearby, therefore giving

1335-439: A slow-boiling stew that prevented the spoiling of its ingredients. The Spanish also reported that the Lucayans grew sweet potatoes, cocoyams , arrowroot, leren , yampee , peanuts, beans and cucurbits. The Lucayans probably took most, if not all, of their crops with them to the Bahamas. The Lucayans may have grown papayas, pineapples, guava, mammee apple , guinep and tamarind fruit. There were few land animals available in

1424-484: A very small portion of the meat in the Lucayan diet. The balance of dietary meat came from marine mollusks. The main meats were fishes and mollusks from the grass flat and patch reef habitats that are found between the beach and the barrier reef, and include parrotfish, grouper, snapper, bonefish, queen conch, urchins, nerites, chitons, and clams. Maize was a recent introduction to the Greater Antilles when

1513-509: A woman resided with her husband's family, but Keegan argues that this was not patrilocal residence in the strict sense, but rather residence in the husband's uncle's household ( avunculocal residence ). Lucayans, like other Taínos, lived in multi-household houses. Descriptions of Lucayan houses by the Spanish match those of houses used by Taínos in Hispaniola and Cuba: shaped like a round tent, tall, made of poles and thatch, with an opening at

1602-675: A year — the second largest solar saline operation in North America and Inagua's main industry. Great Inagua Airport ( IATA : IGA , ICAO : MYIG ) is located nearby. A large bird sanctuary in the centre of the island has a population of more than 80,000 West Indian flamingoes and many other bird species, including the Bahama parrot , Inagua woodstar , Bahama pintail , brown pelican , tricolored heron , snowy egret , reddish egret , stripe-headed tanager , double-crested cormorant , Neotropic cormorant , roseate spoonbill , American kestrel , and burrowing owl . The Union Creek National Reserve

1691-703: Is lacking, they feed essentially on crickets and prickly pear fruit, adding Clarión wrens ( Troglodytes tanneri ) and young Clarion mourning doves ( Zenaida macroura clarionensis ) on occasion. The burrowing owl is endangered in Canada and threatened in Mexico. It is a state threatened species in Colorado and Florida and a California species of special concern . It is common and widespread in open regions of many Neotropical countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering

1780-414: Is mammal dung, usually from cattle. At one time it was thought that the dung helped to mask the scent of the juvenile owls, but researchers now believe the dung helps to control the microclimate inside the burrow and to attract insects, which the owls may eat. The female lays an egg every one or two days until she has completed a clutch , which can consist of four to 12 eggs (usually 9). She then incubates

1869-486: Is no particular evidence that this was the route of the initial settlement of the Bahamas. From an initial settlement of Great Inagua Island, the Lucayans expanded throughout the Bahamas Islands in some 800 years (c. 700 – c. 1500), growing to a population of about 40,000. Population density at the time of first European contact was highest in the south central area of the Bahamas, declining towards

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1958-421: Is not a problem within those populations. Where the presence of burrowing owls conflicts with development interests, a passive relocation technique has been applied successfully: rather than capturing the birds and transporting them to a new site (which may be stressful and prone to failure), the owls are half-coerced, half-enticed to move on their own accord. The preparations need to start several months prior to

2047-431: Is not effective as a long term solution. Burrowing owls readily inhabit some anthropogenic landscapes, such as airport grasslands or golf courses , and are known to take advantage of artificial nest sites (plastic burrows with tubing for the entrance) and perches. Burrowing owls have demonstrated similar reproductive success in rural grasslands and urban settings. The urban-residing burrowing owls have also developed

2136-421: Is reportedly threatened by human encroachment and construction. Burrowing owls range from the southern portions of the western Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) and all the way through Mexico to western Panamá. They are also found across the state of Florida, as well as some Caribbean islands. In South America, they are fairly common, and are known to inhabit every country on

2225-477: Is specially set aside for the study of green sea turtles ( Chelonia mydas ). The neighbouring Little Inagua , 8 km (5 mi; 4 nmi) to the northeast, is uninhabited and occupied by a large Land and Sea Park. It has an area of 30 sq mi (78 km), with herds of feral donkeys and goats (descendants of stock introduced by the French ). Various species of endangered sea turtles breed on

2314-436: Is the second largest island in the Bahamas at 596 sq mi (1544 km) and lies about 55 miles (89 kilometres) from the eastern tip of Cuba . The island is about 55 by 19 mi (89 by 31 km) in extent and mostly flat with some sand hills, the highest points being East Hill at 132 ft (40 m), Salt Pond Hill at 102 ft (31 m), and James Hill at 90 ft (27 m). It encloses several lakes, most notably

2403-494: Is the strongest contender with the former Watling Island theory. Columbus visited several other islands in the Bahamas hunting for gold before sailing on to Cuba. Columbus spent a few days visiting other islands in the vicinity: Santa María de la Concepción, Fernandina, and Saomete. Lucayans on San Salvador had told Columbus that he could find a "king" who had a lot of gold at the village of Samaot , also spelled Samoet , Saomete or Saometo . Taíno chiefs and villages often shared

2492-469: Is vague, perhaps because he was trespassing on Columbus's discoveries, which at the time remained under Columbus. There may have been other unrecorded Spanish landfalls in the Bahamas, shipwrecks and slaving expeditions. Maps published between 1500 and 1508 appear to show details of the Bahamas, Cuba and the North American mainland that were not officially reported until later. European artifacts of

2581-937: The Amazon Rainforest they are spreading with deforestation . It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List . Burrowing owls are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in CITES Appendix II . NatureServe lists the species as Apparently Secure . In March 2024, Center for Biological Diversity , Urban Bird Foundation , Defenders of Wildlife , Burrowing Owl Preservation Society, Santa Clara Valley Audubon Society , Central Valley Bird Club and San Bernardino Valley Audubon Society submitted

2670-632: The New World , but in North America, they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since then. In parts of South America, they are expanding their range due to deforestation. The western burrowing owls ( A. c. hypugaea ) are most common in the Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge , as well as in most of the western states. Known resident populations inhabit areas of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and California, where their population

2759-548: The Parque Nacional de La Macarena of Colombia were free of blood parasites. Burrowing owls often nest and roost in the burrows made by ground squirrels, a strategy also used by rattlesnakes. When threatened, the owl retreats to the burrow and produces rattling and hissing sounds similar to those of a rattlesnake. The behavior is suggested to be an example of acoustic Batesian mimicry and has been observed to be an effective strategy against animals that are familiar with

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2848-653: The Pleistocene of the Bahamas. How these birds relate to the extant A. c. floridana – that is, whether they were among the ancestors of that subspecies, or whether they represented a more distant lineage that completely disappeared later – is unknown. In addition, prehistoric fossils of similar owls have been recovered from many islands in the Caribbean ( Barbuda , the Cayman Islands , Jamaica, Mona Island and Puerto Rico ). These birds became extinct towards

2937-591: The binomial name Strix cunicularia from a specimen collected in Chile. The specific epithet is from the Latin cunicularius meaning "burrower" or "miner". The burrowing owl is now placed in the genus Athene that was introduced by German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1822. The burrowing owl is sometimes classified in the monotypic genus Speotyto based on an overall different morphology and karyotype . Osteology and DNA sequence data, though, suggest that

3026-413: The delicate vesper mouse ( Calomys tener ) in southern Brazil. Among squamates and amphibians, small lizards like the tropical house gecko ( Hemidactylus mabouia ), snakes, frogs, and toads predominate. Generally, most vertebrate prey is in the weight class of several grams per individual. The largest prey are usually birds, such as eared doves ( Zenaida auriculata ) which may weigh almost as much as

3115-469: The 12-mile (19 km) long Lake Windsor (also called Lake Rosa) which occupies nearly a quarter of the interior. The population of Great Inagua is 913 (2010 census). The island's capital and only harbour is Matthew Town, named after George Matthew , a 19th-century Governor of the Bahamas . This town houses the Morton Salt Company ’s main facility, producing one million tonnes of sea salt

3204-430: The Bahamas ahead of the Lucayans, they left no known evidence of occupation. Some possible Ciboney archaeological sites have been found elsewhere in the Bahamas, but the only one subjected to radiocarbon dating dated to the mid- to late-12th century, contemporaneous with Lucayan presence on the islands. Christopher Columbus's diario contains the only contemporaneous observations of the Lucayans. Other information about

3293-493: The Bahamas contain more shell-tempered pottery ("Palmetto Ware"), which developed in the Bahamas. While trade in dugout canoes between Cuba and Long Island was reported by Columbus, this involved a voyage of at least 260 kilometres (160 mi) over open water, although much of that was on the very shallow waters of the Great Bahama Bank . The Taínos probably did not settle in central Cuba until after 1000, and there

3382-556: The Bahamas for hunting: hutias (Taíno utia ), rock iguanas , small lizards, land crabs and birds. While Taínos kept dogs and Muscovy ducks , only dogs were reported by early observers, or found at Lucayan sites. Less than 12% of the meat eaten by Lucayans came from land animals, of which three-quarters came from iguanas and land crabs. More than 80 percent of the meat in the Lucayan diet came from marine fishes, almost all of which grazed on seagrass and/or coral. Sea turtles and marine mammals ( West Indian monk seal and porpoise) provided

3471-645: The Bahamas. Hypothesized routes for the earliest migrations have been from Hispaniola to the Caicos Islands , from Hispaniola or eastern Cuba to Great Inagua Island , and from central Cuba to Long Island in the central Bahamas. The settlement sites in the Caicos Islands differ from those found elsewhere in the Bahamas, resembling sites in Hispaniola associated with the Classic Taíno settlements that arose after 1200. William Keegan argues that

3560-579: The British HMS Statira in 1815. As early as the 1600s, salt was being produced and shipped to Spanish colonies, and its extraction was a going business by 1803. Henri Christophe , king of northern Haiti from 1811 to 1820, built a summer retreat at the Northeast Point of Great Inagua. Local legend has it that he also buried a cache of gold there. By 1918, after the end of World War I , lower salt prices and competition had driven

3649-523: The Florida subspecies to (and its distinctness from) the Caribbean birds is not quite clear. The 18 recognised subspecies, of which two are now extinct , are: includes A. c. partridgei (Olrog, 1976) : Corrientes burrowing owl – Corrientes Province , Argentina, probably not distinct from A. c. cunicularia A paleosubspecies , A. c. providentiae , has been described from fossil remains from

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3738-882: The Lucayans, he did note that they traded a type of leaf that they regarded as valuable. Bixa was used to produce a reddish body paint and jagua ( Genipa or Mamoncillo ) for black body paint. Conch shells (pronounced as "konk", known as cobo in Taino ) were a hard material in plentiful supply on the islands. They included several species of conch, including the queen conch and the Atlantic Triton . Lucayans used them to make tools such as canoe gouges, hoes, hammers, picks, net mesh gauges, and fishhooks. They were also made into beads shaped like disks, carved into amulets, and used as inlay for sculptures. Trumpet-like instruments that were played by blowing were also made of conch. A specific term, guamo , existed for trumpets made from

3827-470: The Spanish arrived, and was only a minor component of the Taíno and, presumably, Lucayan diets. The Lucayans grew cotton ( Gossypium barbadense ) and tobacco, and used other plants such as agave, furcraea and hibiscus for fiber in fishing nets. One of Columbus's sailors received 12 kilograms (26 lb) of cotton in trade from a single Lucayan on Guanahani. Although Columbus did not see tobacco in use by

3916-687: The Spanish began capturing Lucayans in the Bahamas for use as laborers in Hispaniola. At first the Lucayans sold for no more than four gold pesos in Hispaniola, but when it was realized that the Lucayans were practiced at diving for conchs , the price rose to 100 to 150 gold pesos and the Lucayans were sent to the Isle of Cubagua as pearl divers . Within two years the southern Bahamas were largely depopulated. The Spanish may have carried away as many as 40,000 Lucayans by 1513. Carl O. Sauer described Ponce de León's 1513 expedition in which he encountered Florida as simply "an extension of slave hunting beyond

4005-664: The Spanish of encountering Indians using bows and arrows was at Samaná Bay in northeastern Hispaniola. One of the few artifacts of Lucayan life that has been found in a variety of areas in the Bahama archipelago is the duho . Duhos are carved seats found in the houses of Taíno caciques or chiefs throughout the Caribbean region. Duhos "figured prominently in the maintenance of Taíno political and ideological systems . . . [and were] . . . literally seats of power, prestige, and ritual." Duhos made of wood and stone have both been found, though those made of wood tend not to last as well as

4094-758: The Spanish to refer to Great Inagua. Between the years of 1500 and 1825, many documented treasure laden ships were destroyed on Inaguan reefs. The two most valuable wrecks lost off the Inaguas were treasure-laden Spanish galleons : the Santa Rosa in 1599; and the Infanta in 1788. Other ships of considerable value that were wrecked there include the French Le Count De Paix in 1713, the British HMS Lowestoffe in 1801, and

4183-667: The Turks and Caicos Islands through Mayaguana and Acklins and Crooked Islands to Long Island and the Great and Little Exuma Islands, and another from Cuba through Great Inagua Island, Little Inagua Island and Ragged Island to Long Island and the Exumas. Granberry and Vescelius also state that around 1200 the Turks and Caicos Islands were resettled from Hispaniola and were thereafter part of the Classical Taíno culture and language area, and no longer Lucayan. The Lucayans were part of

4272-415: The anticipated disturbance with observing the owl colony and noting especially their local movements and site preferences. After choosing a location nearby that has suitable ground and provides good burrowing owl breeding habitat, this new site is enhanced by adding burrows, perches, etc. Once the owls have accustomed to the changes and are found to be interested in the location – if possible, this should be at

4361-399: The behavior of digging their own burrows and exhibit different fear responses to human and domestic dogs compared to their rural counterparts. Research has suggested that this species has made adaptations to the rapid urbanization of their usual habitat, and conservation efforts should be considered accordingly. Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that inbreeding

4450-432: The burrow during daylight, and their feathers become "sun-bleached". The burrowing owl measures 19–28 cm (7–11 in) long and spans 50.8–61 cm (20–24 in) across the wings, and weighs 140–240 g (5–8 oz). As a size comparison, an average adult is slightly larger than an American robin ( Turdus migratorius ). Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of

4539-522: The burrowing owl is a terrestrial member of the little owls ( Athene ), and it is today placed in that genus by most authorities. A considerable number of subspecies have been described, but they differ little in appearance and the taxonomy of several of them needs to be validated. Most subspecies are found in/near the Andes and in the Antilles . Although distinct from each other, the relationship of

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4628-803: The complete eradication of the Lucayan people from the Bahamas by 1520. The name "Lucayan" is an Anglicization of the Spanish Lucayos , itself a hispanicization derived from the Lucayan Lukku-Cairi , which the people used for themselves, meaning "people of the islands". The Taíno word for "island", cairi , became cayo in Spanish and " cay " / ˈ k iː / in English [spelled "key" in American English]. Some crania and artifacts of " Ciboney type" were reportedly found on Andros Island , but if some Ciboney did reach

4717-656: The continent, with the exception of the dense Amazon rainforest interior and the highest ranges of the Andes Mountains. Their preference is for the cooler, possibly sub-tropical coastal and temperate regions. South of the Amazon, their population seems to again rebound, as they are widely distributed from southern Brazil and the Pantanal down to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego . Burrowing owls are year-round residents in most of their range. Birds that breed in Canada and

4806-473: The customs of the Lucayans has come from archaeological investigations and comparison with what is known of Taíno culture in Cuba and Hispaniola. The Lucayans were distinguished from the Taínos of Cuba and Hispaniola in the size of their houses, the organization and location of their villages, the resources they used, and the materials used in their pottery. Sometime between 500 and 800 CE, Taínos began crossing in dugout canoes from Hispaniola and/or Cuba to

4895-571: The dangers posed by rattlesnakes. The nesting season begins in late March or April in North America. Burrowing owls usually only have one mate but occasionally a male will have two mates. Pairs of owls will sometimes nest in loose colonies. Their typical breeding habitat is open grassland or prairie, but they can occasionally adapt to other open areas like airports, golf courses, and agricultural fields. Burrowing owls are slightly tolerant of human presence, often nesting near roads, farms, homes, and regularly maintained irrigation canals. The owls nest in

4984-477: The day, although they tend to avoid the midday heat. Like many other kinds of owls, though, burrowing owls do most of their hunting during dusk and dawn , when they can use their night vision and hearing to their advantage. Living in open grasslands as opposed to forests, the burrowing owl has developed longer legs that enable it to sprint, as well as fly, when hunting. The burrowing owl was formally described by Spanish naturalist Juan Ignacio Molina in 1782 under

5073-524: The diet, respectively. Burrowing owls mainly eat large insects and small rodents . Although burrowing owls often live close to ground squirrels (Marmotini), they rarely prey upon them. They also hunt bats. An analysis of burrowing owl diets in the Dominican Republic found the owls consumed ~53% invertebrates, ~28% other birds, ~15% reptiles, ~3% amphibians, and 1% mammals. Rodent prey is usually dominated by locally superabundant species, like

5162-460: The eggs for 3–4 weeks while the male brings her food. After the eggs hatch, both parents feed the chicks. Four weeks after hatching, the chicks can make short flights and begin leaving the nest burrow. The parents still help feed the chicks for 1–3 months. Site fidelity rates appear to vary among populations. In some locations, owls will frequently reuse a nest several years in a row. Owls in migratory northern populations are less likely to return to

5251-482: The empty islands." When the Spanish decided to traffic the remaining Lucayans to Hispaniola in 1520, they could find only eleven in all of the Bahamas. Thereafter the Bahamas remained uninhabited for 130 years. In 2018, researchers successfully extracted DNA from a tooth found in a burial context in Preacher's Cave on Eleuthera Island. The tooth was directly dated to around 776–992 AD. Genetic analysis revealed that

5340-466: The end of his first voyage. Vespucci took 232 Lucayans to Spain as slaves in 1500. Spanish exploitation of the labor of the natives of Hispaniola rapidly reduced that population, leading the Governor of Hispaniola to complain to the Spanish crown. After Columbus's death, Ferdinand II of Aragon ordered in 1509 that Indians be imported from nearby islands to make up the population losses in Hispaniola, and

5429-468: The end of the Pleistocene, probably because of ecological and sea-level changes at the end of the last ice age rather than human activity. These fossil owls differed in size from present-day burrowing owls and their relationship to the modern taxon has not been resolved. Burrowing owls have bright eyes; their beaks can be dark yellow or gray depending on the subspecies. They lack ear tufts and have

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5518-446: The expansion proceeded to Eleuthera , from which New Providence and Andros to the west and Great and Little Abaco Islands and Grand Bahama to the north were reached. Lucayan village sites are also known on Mayaguana , east of Acklins Island, and Samana Cay , north of Acklins. There are village sites on East , Middle and North Caicos and on Providenciales , in the Caicos Islands, at least some of which Keegan attributes to

5607-470: The fecal matter of large herbivorous mammals around the outside of their burrows to attract dung beetles, which are used to provide a steady source of food for the owls. Burrowing owls can also predate on invertebrates attracted to artificial night lighting. Unlike other owls, they also eat fruits and seeds, especially the fruit of tasajillo ( Cylindropuntia leptocaulis ) and other prickly pear and cholla cacti. On Clarion Island , where mammalian prey

5696-568: The island was "a very long way". Keegan interprets this description to fit the Acklins/Crooked Islands group, with a ship in the west side being able to see the western shore of Acklins Island across the very shallow waters of the Bight of Acklins, where there was a village that stretched about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) along the shore. Amerigo Vespucci spent almost four months in the Bahamas in 1499 to 1500. His log of that time

5785-600: The island. Little Inagua has a large protective reef extending up to 1 mile (1,600 m) away from the island in all directions, which prevents boats from coming too close. The island is part of the MICAL constituency for elections to the House of Assembly of the Bahamas . 21°13′04″N 73°15′05″W  /  21.21778°N 73.25139°W  / 21.21778; -73.25139 Lucayan people The Lucayan people ( / l uː ˈ k aɪ ən / loo- KY -ən ) were

5874-438: The islands to be near them. Women past puberty wore a small skirt of cotton, and the men might wear a loincloth made of plaited leaves or cotton. Some people wore head bands, waist bands, feathers, bones and ear and nose jewelry on occasion. They were often tattooed and usually applied paint to their bodies and/or faces. They also practiced head flattening . Their hair was black and straight, and they kept it cut short except for

5963-483: The largest snail available, the Atlantic Triton. These were used, similarly to church bells, to call people into action as well as for religious rites. The Lucayans carved canoes, spears, bowls and ceremonial stools from wood. Stone chopping, cutting and scraping tools were imported from Cuba or Haiti. Most pottery was of the type called "Palmetto Ware", including "Abaco Redware" and "Crooked Island Ware". This

6052-480: The more elaborate political structures in Hispaniola, and their language and culture showed differences, but they remained Taínos, although a "hinterland" of the wider Taíno world. The Lucayans were connected to a Caribbean-wide trade network. Columbus observed trade carried between Long Island and Cuba by dugout canoe. A piece of jadeite found on San Salvador Island appears to have originated in Guatemala , based on

6141-559: The north, reflecting the progressively shorter time of occupation of the northern islands. Known Lucayan settlement sites are confined to the nineteen largest islands in the archipelago, or to smaller cays located less than one kilometre from those islands. Keegan posits a north-ward migration route from Great Inagua Island to Acklins and Crooked Islands , then on to Long Island. From Long Island expansion would have gone east to Rum Cay and San Salvador Island , north to Cat Island and west to Great and Little Exuma Islands. From Cat Island

6230-404: The northern U.S. usually migrate south to Mexico and the southern U.S. during winter months. This species can live for at least 9 years in the wild and over 10 years in captivity. They are often killed by vehicles when crossing roads, and have many natural enemies , including badgers , coyotes, and snakes. They are also killed by both feral and domestic cats and dogs. Two birds studied in

6319-414: The onset of spring, before the breeding season starts – they are prevented from entering the old burrows. A simple one-way trapdoor design has been described that is placed over the burrow for this purpose. If everything has been correctly prepared, the owl colony will move over to the new site in the course of a few nights at most. It will need to be monitored occasionally for the following months or until

6408-623: The original residents of The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands before the European colonisation of the Americas. They were a branch of the Taínos who inhabited most of the Caribbean islands at the time. The Lucayans were the first Indigenous Americans encountered by Christopher Columbus . Shortly after contact, the Spanish kidnapped and enslaved Lucayans with the displacement culminating in

6497-420: The owls ample time to hide or escape. Without burrowing animals, almost every aspect contributing to suitable and safe living for burrowing owls will no longer be available. Organizations have tried contributing to the conservation of burrowing owls by digging artificial burrows for these owls to occupy in areas with no active colony of burrowing animals. However, creating artificial burrows is not sustainable and

6586-469: The owls can use as shelter and nesting space. There is a high correlation between the location of burrowing animal colonies, like those of ground squirrels, with the presence of burrowing owls. Rates of burrowing owl decline have also been shown to correlate with prairie dog decline. Western burrowing owls, for example, nest in burrows made by black-tailed prairie dogs since they are unable to dig their own. However, prairie dog populations have experienced

6675-424: The period have been found on San Salvador, the Caicos Islands, Long Island, Little Exuma, Acklins Island, Conception Island and Samaná Cay. Such finds, however, do not prove that Spaniards visited those islands, as trade among Lucayans could have distributed the artifacts. Columbus kidnapped several Lucayans on San Salvador and Santa María de la Concepción. Two fled, but Columbus took some Lucayans back to Spain at

6764-589: The power structure status quo . In August 1937, a riot broke out, an employee was killed, and the Ericksons were forced to flee. They soon returned, and full-scale development resumed. In the mid-1950s, Morton Salt bought the Great Inagua saltworks, which includes over 80 salt ponds , now the second largest such operation in North America . Morton is the major employer on the island. Great Inagua

6853-452: The same burrow every year. Also, as with many other birds, the female owls are more likely to disperse to a different site than are male owls. When hunting, they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then, they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes, they chase prey on foot across the ground. The highly variable diet includes invertebrates and small vertebrates , which make up roughly one third and two thirds of

6942-449: The sites on Caicos therefore represent a colonization after 1200 by Taínos from Hispaniola seeking salt from the natural salt pans on the island. Great Inagua is closer to both Hispaniola, at 90 kilometres (56 mi), and Cuba, at 80 kilometres (50 mi), than any other island in the Bahamas, and sites on Great Inagua contain large quantities of sand- tempered pottery imported from Cuba and/or Hispaniola, while sites on other islands in

7031-514: The small producers on Great Inagua out of business, and the salt works were abandoned except for incidental local use. In 1935, the Erickson brothers from Massachusetts founded West India Chemicals Ltd., purchasing the abandoned salt works from the British government. They drilled test holes, set up offices, and began restoration of the buildings, but the locals felt threatened, fearing changes to

7120-437: The spirits and the objects that represent spirits. They include fruitfulness spirits Yocahu , the male giver of manioc, and Attabeira, the mother goddess. Attending to them were the twin spirits Maquetaurie Guayaba, the lord of the dead, and Guabancex, the mistress of the hurricane. The twin spirits were also attended to by sets of twins. During arieto ceremonies, food was offered to the zemi, and shamans (behique) would give

7209-597: The stone chairs and are, therefore, much rarer. There are intact wooden duhos in the collections of the Musée de l'Homme in Paris and British Museum in London (the latter found on the island of Eleuthera ). The Taino pantheon of cemís, also known as zemís, play an active role in the lives of humans, and distinguish between the cultural, pleasing human theme and the anti-cultural, nonhuman, foul theme. The term refers to both

7298-483: The tooth belonged to a woman. When compared against contemporary populations, the ancient individual shows closest genetic affinity to Arawakan speakers from the Amazon and Orinoco Basins , with closest affinity to the Palikur . The individual was assigned to mtDNA Haplogroup B2 . Lucayan society was based on descent through the mother's line , which was typical of Taíno culture as a whole. The Spanish reported that

7387-437: The top to let smoke out. Columbus described the houses of the Lucayans as clean and well-swept. The houses were furnished with cotton nets (some kind of hammocks) for beds and furnishings, and were used mainly for sleeping. Each house sheltered an extended family. There are no surviving reports of the size of Lucayan houses, but estimates of about 20 people per house in Taíno communities in pre-contact Cuba are cited by Keegan as

7476-532: The white spotting above and brown barring below. The juveniles have a buff bar across their upper wings and their breasts may be buff-colored rather than white. Burrowing owls of all ages have grayish legs longer than those of other owls. Males and females are similar in size and appearance, so display little sexual dimorphism . Females tend to be heavier, but males tend to have longer linear measurements (wing length, tail length, etc.). Adult males appear lighter in color than females because they spend more time outside

7565-419: The windward side wherever tidal creeks provided some protected shoreline. The Lucayans grew root crops and hunted, fished and gathered wild foods. At least half of the diet came from plant foods. The staple crop of the Lucayans was manioc ( cassava ), followed by sweet potato. Sweet manioc was eaten like sweet potato, by peeling and boiling. Bitter manioc, which has a dangerous amount of hydrogen cyanide ,

7654-421: Was called Guanahani by the Lucayans, and San Salvador by the Spanish. The identity of the first American landfall by Columbus remains contested, but many authors accept Samuel E. Morison 's identification of what was later called Watling (or Watling's) Island as Columbus' San Salvador. The former Watling Island was officially renamed San Salvador in 1925. Luis Marden 's identification of Samaná Key as Guanahani

7743-486: Was noted that among scorpions Bothriuridae were much preferred, among spiders Lycosidae ( wolf spiders ), and among millipedes (Diplopoda) certain Diplocheta . Small ground beetles (Carabidae) are eaten in quantity, while larger ones are much less popular as burrowing owl food, perhaps due to the vigorous defense the large species can put up. Earthworms are also preyed upon. Burrowing owls are also known to place

7832-431: Was prepared by peeling, grinding, and mashing. The mash was then filtered through a basket tube to remove the hydrogen cyanide as a poisonous juice. The filtered mash was dried and sieved for flour, which was used to make pancake-like bread cooked on a flat clay griddle. The poisonous hydrogen cyanide juice was boiled, which released the poison, and the liquid base mixed with chili peppers , vegetables, meat, and fish to make

7921-621: Was produced in the islands using local red clay soils tempered with burnt conch shells. Palmetto Ware pottery was usually undecorated. There are no known differences that can be used to date or sequence Palmetto Ware pottery. Some (usually less than one percent of collected sherds in most of the Bahamas, about ten percent in the Caicos Islands) sand-tempered pottery was imported from Cuba and/or Haiti. The Lucayans made fish hooks from bone or shell and harpoon points from bone. The Lucayans probably did not use bows and arrows. The first mention by

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