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137-418: The Index Thomisticus was a digital humanities project begun in the 1940s that created a concordance to 179 texts centering around Thomas Aquinas . Led by Roberto Busa , the project indexed 10,631,980 words over the course of 34 years, initially onto punched cards . It is considered a pioneering project in the field of digital humanities. Busa began the project in 1946. In 1949, IBM agreed to sponsor

274-451: A beta version or a finished form. The following are a few examples of the variety of projects in the field: The Women Writers Project (begun in 1988) is a long-term research project to make pre-Victorian women writers more accessible through an electronic collection of rare texts. The Walt Whitman Archive (begun in the 1990s) sought to create a hypertext and scholarly edition of Whitman 's works and now includes photographs, sounds, and

411-499: A "Digital Humanities Bubble". Later in the same publication, Straumshein alleges that the digital humanities is a 'Corporatist Restructuring' of the Humanities. Some see the alliance of the digital humanities with business to be a positive turn that causes the business world to pay more attention, thus bringing needed funding and attention to the humanities. If it were not burdened by the title of digital humanities, it could escape

548-422: A "digital humanities stack". They argue that "this type of diagram is common in computation and computer science to show how technologies are 'stacked' on top of each other in increasing levels of abstraction. Here, [they] use the method in a more illustrative and creative sense of showing the range of activities, practices, skills, technologies and structures that could be said to make up the digital humanities, with

685-470: A bomb. Ultimately, he was not convicted of any crimes, but he was suspended from school. Shortly after his story hit the news, a tech blogger named Anil Dash tweeted a picture of Ahmed being arrested in his NASA T-shirt along with the #IstandwithAhmed. His tweet went viral and drew accusations of racism and Islamophobia against the school. It sparked an online movement where many individuals, including scientists and engineers, tweeted their support for Ahmed under

822-561: A chain of protests led by athletes in different sports. While the police brutality being faced by African Americans was being protested, white American athletes were also seen taking a knee. As a whole, the #TakeAKnee movement created controversy questioning the legal and constitutional rights of individuals and their ability to protest the U.S. National Anthem. In August 2015, "a 15-year-old high student named Jason Fong created #MyAsianAmericanStory to highlight immigration stories of Asian Americans after presidential candidate Jeb Bush made

959-476: A combination of old and new methods of peer review. One response has been the creation of the DHCommons Journal . This accepts non-traditional submissions, especially mid-stage digital projects, and provides an innovative model of peer review more suited for the multimedia, transdisciplinary, and milestone-driven nature of Digital Humanities projects. Other professional humanities organizations, such as

1096-516: A conversation about diversity, representation, and racism in the film industry. The movement is connected to causing enough external pressure to significantly change the racial composition of academy membership. Following the peak of the hashtag's popularity, the academy instated 41% minority voters and 46% female voters. Production companies felt the pressure as well, and subsequently diversified their casting and staffing decisions as well, hiring Ava Duvernay, an African-American female director, to head

1233-622: A dance battle. This encounter changed the teen's perspective on her, and referred to her as the 'cool cop' for the rest of her time on the job. This one simple interaction humanized her to the group of teens. The hashtag #NotOneMore developed shortly after the May 23, 2014, shooting in Isla Vista, Santa Barbara, California. During this incident, six students attending the University of California, Santa Barbara, lost their lives. Richard Martinez,

1370-581: A digital humanities should "focus on the need to think critically about the implications of computational imaginaries, and raise some questions in this regard. This is also to foreground the importance of the politics and norms that are embedded in digital technology, algorithms and software. We need to explore how to negotiate between close and distant readings of texts and how micro-analysis and macro-analysis can be usefully reconciled in humanist work." Alan Liu has argued, "while digital humanists develop tools, data, and metadata critically, therefore (e.g., debating

1507-511: A disrespectful act that insults the American flag, veterans, and the values the flag represents. This movement ultimately led to #BoycottNFL and controversy that resulted in the NFL ban requiring players to stand for the national anthem, or stay in the locker room. #TakeAKnee is often known as "the U.S. National Anthem Protest", and is often compared to protests during the civil rights era, lending to

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1644-478: A long and extensive history of digital edition , computational linguistics and natural language processing and developed an independent and highly specialized technology stack (largely cumulating in the specifications of the Text Encoding Initiative ). This part of the field is sometimes thus set apart from Digital Humanities in general as 'digital philology' or 'computational philology'. For

1781-417: A more active role in detecting and removing "fake news". An example of #FakeNews comes from a website named WTOF 5 News. The headline reads: "Pope Francis shocks world, endorses Donald Trump for president". With the help from Facebook, this fake news article received over 960,000 engagements from the popular social media site, making it one of the post popular fake news articles of 2016. Protect Our Winters

1918-425: A need for more scholarship on the area of teaching, the edited volume Digital Humanities Pedagogy was published and offered case studies and strategies to address how to teach digital humanities methods in various disciplines. Hashtag activism Supporters of the power of hashtag activism believe that it allows users to connect with individuals from all over the world and share information quickly. Critics, on

2055-488: A notable decrease in the number of Hashtags from 50763 on 13 April 2020 to 35795 on 18 April 2020. Prior to 2020 #humanizethebadge was primarily circulating on Twitter and Facebook by organizations promoting stronger bonds between law enforcement and the communities they serve, such as the nonprofit group Humanizing the Badge. This need for betterment was due to police brutality killing George Floyd on May 5, 2020. This ignited

2192-459: A paper found the #overtourism network is held together by a small number of experts, who play a key role in presenting, distributing and circulating information about the topic. Kony 2012 is a short film produced by Invisible Children, Inc. (authors of Invisible Children ). It was released on March 5, 2012. The film's purpose was to promote the charity's "Stop Kony" movement to make African cult and militia leader, indicted war criminal and

2329-447: A particular angle. There has also been some recent controversy among practitioners of digital humanities around the role that race and/or identity politics plays. Tara McPherson attributes some of the lack of racial diversity in digital humanities to the modality of UNIX and computers themselves. An open thread on DHpoco.org recently garnered well over 100 comments on the issue of race in digital humanities, with scholars arguing about

2466-470: A particular event or topic. Twitter's initial response to the use of the hashtag for such purposes was negative. The social media site posted that "these things were for nerds" but later that year saw the impact with use of the #sandiegofire which allowed users to track content related to the fire, the safety of loved ones, and general updates. The use of the hashtag has now spread to other social media sites including Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok. Since 2007,

2603-406: A positive direction. Civilians need to see police as leaders within their own communities. Clifford suggests this can be achieved by officers having real and honest conversations with civilians, and by going out of their way to relate to citizens. This can lead to a greater respect for law enforcement. She provides an example of being called to a troubled teen's group home and ending the encounter with

2740-521: A public event. In 2012, Matthew K. Gold identified a range of perceived criticisms of the field of digital humanities: "a lack of attention to issues of race, class, gender, and sexuality; a preference for research-driven projects over pedagogical ones; an absence of political commitment; an inadequate level of diversity among its practitioners; an inability to address texts under copyright; and an institutional concentration in well-funded research universities". Similarly Berry and Fagerjord have argued that

2877-520: A reference work as the technology that made it possible." In 1993, the project was described as the "second largest printed work of this century". The same review called it "excessive" and asked what its purpose was, going on to describe it as "the most pedantic work ever written". In 2020, The Economist described it as "the creation story of the digital humanities." An article in Umanistica Digitale wrote that "the project developed for

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3014-747: A registry of digital research tools for scholars. TAPoR (Text Analysis Portal for Research ) is a gateway to text analysis and retrieval tools. An accessible, free example of an online textual analysis program is Voyant Tools , which only requires the user to copy and paste either a body of text or a URL and then click the 'reveal' button to run the program. There is also an online list of online or downloadable Digital Humanities tools that are largely free, aimed toward helping students and others who lack access to funding or institutional servers. Free, open source web publishing platforms like WordPress and Omeka are also popular tools. Digital humanities projects are more likely than traditional humanities work to involve

3151-678: A remark about Asian people and their "anchor babies". Fong stated that he started the hashtag to show that "Asian-Americans are part of the American narrative". Users of the tag tweeted about their diverse family immigration histories and encounters with racism. Fong said he was inspired to start #MyAsianAmericanStory in part by hashtags such as #BlackLivesMatter and participated in other hashtag campaigns such as # Asians4BlackLives in order to show his support for dismantling "a broken system that protects police misconduct". In October 2016, following an anti-Asian incident in New York City and

3288-419: A semi-automatic process. The completed project indexed a total of 10,631,980 words in fifty-six volumes over 70,000 pages—divided into ten volumes of indexes, followed by thirty-one volumes of concordances of Aquinas's works, eight volumes of concordances of related authors, and seven volumes that reprinted the source texts. The seven completely reprinting the source texts were sold separately. The first volume

3425-471: A similar analysis was performed on social media. As part of the big data revolution, gender bias , readability , content similarity, reader preferences, and even mood have been analyzed based on text mining methods over millions of documents and historical documents written in literary Chinese. Digital humanities is also involved in the creation of software, providing "environments and tools for producing, curating, and interacting with knowledge that

3562-705: A team or a lab, which may be composed of faculty, staff, graduate or undergraduate students, information technology specialists, and partners in galleries, libraries, archives, and museums. Credit and authorship are often given to multiple people to reflect this collaborative nature, which is different from the sole authorship model in the traditional humanities (and more like the natural sciences). There are thousands of digital humanities projects, ranging from small-scale ones with limited or no funding to large-scale ones with multi-year financial support. Some are continually updated while others may not be due to loss of support or interest, though they may still remain online in either

3699-464: A transparent overlay of the French flag to indicate support to the victims. Twitter was also utilized. However, rather than creating a transparent overlay on a Twitter's user profile, a hashtag was created to emphasize support. This simple hashtag of #PrayforParis allowed users to spread support so that audiences were not only informed about the event, but could also click on a hyperlink to learn more about

3836-658: Is 'born digital' and lives in various digital contexts." In this context, the field is sometimes known as computational humanities. Digital humanities scholars use a variety of digital tools for their research, which may take place in an environment as small as a mobile device or as large as a virtual reality lab. Environments for "creating, publishing and working with digital scholarship include everything from personal equipment to institutes and software to cyberspace." Some scholars use advanced programming languages and databases, while others use less complex tools, depending on their needs. DiRT (Digital Research Tools Directory ) offers

3973-468: Is a hashtag used to highlight through social media the capabilities of the deaf and hard of hearing community. Prior to the hashtag's emergence, in the creative industry, hearing actors had been cast in deaf roles. The SAGE Deaf Studies Encyclopedia wrote, "In response to this, the social media hashtags #DeafTalent and #POCDeafTalent were created. The hashtags, while originally used to point out problematic portrayals of deaf characters and sign language in

4110-626: Is a dynamic reference work of terms, concepts, and people from philosophy maintained by scholars in the field. MLA Commons offers an open peer-review site (where anyone can comment) for their ongoing curated collection of teaching artifacts in Digital Pedagogy in the Humanities: Concepts, Models, and Experiments (2016). The Debates in the Digital Humanities platform contains volumes of the open-access book of

4247-460: Is a freelance writer who is most known for her Twitter campaign to cancel the Colbert Show , while Juliet Shen ran a blog on Asian American feminism. They started the hashtag town hall as a way to create a platform for structured conversation around misogyny and issues specific to Asian American women. In less than 24 hours, #NotYourAsianSidekick had been used over 45,000 times. DeafTalent

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4384-553: Is a hashtag and social media campaign used on Twitter that encourages women who have experience with abortion to break the silence surrounding it. The hashtag was created by American writer Lindy West and friends Amelia Bonow and Kimberly Morrison in response to the US House of Representatives efforts to defund Planned Parenthood following the Planned Parenthood 2015 undercover videos controversy . In August 2015,

4521-463: Is a movement and a nonprofit organization started by snowboarder, Jeremy Jones and other winter sport athletes to raise awareness about global warming and climate change. The movement started in 2016 as a response to it being one of the hottest years. The movement demonstrates the effects of global warming with data about the winter sports industry and rise in carbon dioxide percentage. Protect Our Winters or POW calls for people to not only be aware of

4658-551: Is also addressing a number of theoretical questions. How can we "observe" giant cultural universes of both user-generated and professional media content created today, without reducing them to averages, outliers, or pre-existing categories? How can work with large cultural data help us question our stereotypes and assumptions about cultures? What new theoretical cultural concepts and models are required for studying global digital culture with its new mega-scale, speed, and connectivity? The term "cultural analytics" (or "culture analytics")

4795-612: Is an American neologism first described in a 2010 Science article called Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books , co-authored by Harvard researchers Jean-Baptiste Michel and Erez Lieberman Aiden . A 2017 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America compared the trajectory of n-grams over time in both digitised books from

4932-527: Is an attempt to bring them closer to the citizens and communities they serve. Through the use of TikTok officers are able to reach a wider audience. TikTok allows creators to jump from audience to audience and trend to trend. These videos receive tens of millions of views promoting bureaucratic propaganda due to officers' supporting the appearance of institutional legitimacy. Within the videos they are able to promote themselves as your average, relatable human, while being in uniform, thus associating themselves with

5069-426: Is important to understand why and how users with disabilities are using the digital resources while remembering that all users approach their informational needs differently. Digital humanities have been criticized for not only ignoring traditional questions of lineage and history in the humanities, but lacking the fundamental cultural criticism that defines the humanities. However, it remains to be seen whether or not

5206-417: Is much speculation surrounding this hashtag. People argue that it creates an environment for children where they feel unable to fully express their gender. Some people even go as far as to say that it perpetuates the sexist idea that sons are valued more than daughters. Overtourism , the phenomenon whereby certain places of interest are visited by excessive numbers of tourists, causing undesirable effects for

5343-479: Is now used by many other researchers, as exemplified by two academic symposiums, a four-month long research program at UCLA that brought together 120 leading researchers from university and industry labs, an academic peer-review Journal of Cultural Analytics: CA established in 2016, and academic job listings. WordHoard (begun in 2004) is a free application that enables scholarly but non-technical users to read and analyze, in new ways, deeply-tagged texts, including

5480-634: Is to create scholarship that transcends textual sources. This includes the integration of multimedia , metadata , and dynamic environments (see The Valley of the Shadow project at the University of Virginia , the Vectors Journal of Culture and Technology in a Dynamic Vernacular at University of Southern California , or Digital Pioneers projects at Harvard ). A growing number of researchers in digital humanities are using computational methods for

5617-410: Is to raise awareness and advocates for human rights through peaceful protest. Similar to other hashtag movements, #WomensMarch has an online presence. The movement has a Facebook page that is active, verified under the name Women's March, that was created on November 20, 2016. As of April 2, 2019, the page is liked by over 800,000 individuals and has a following of more than 850,000 users. Outside of

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5754-519: Is to systematically integrate computer technology into the activities of humanities scholars, as is done in contemporary empirical social sciences . Yet despite the significant trend in digital humanities towards networked and multimodal forms of knowledge, a substantial amount of digital humanities focuses on documents and text in ways that differentiate the field's work from digital research in media studies , information studies , communication studies , and sociology . Another goal of digital humanities

5891-611: Is usually conceived or as simply new wine in old bottles. Kirsch believes that digital humanities practitioners suffer from problems of being marketers rather than scholars, who attest to the grand capacity of their research more than actually performing new analysis and when they do so, only performing trivial parlor tricks of research. This form of criticism has been repeated by others, such as in Carl Staumshein, writing in Inside Higher Education , who calls it

6028-491: The #ilooklikeanengineer campaign started. The movement was started by Isis Anchalee to promote discussion of gender issues. Anchalee created the hashtag in response to backlash regarding her face being featured in an ad campaign for the company she works for. One year after the creation of #ilooklikeanengineer 250,000 people had used the hashtag. #MeToo is a Twitter hashtag that raises awareness about sexual assault by encouraging survivors to share their stories. The hashtag

6165-705: The American Historical Association and the Modern Language Association , have developed guidelines for evaluating academic digital scholarship. The 2012 edition of Debates in the Digital Humanities recognized the fact that pedagogy was the "neglected 'stepchild' of DH" and included an entire section on teaching the digital humanities. Part of the reason is that grants in the humanities are geared more toward research with quantifiable results rather than teaching innovations, which are harder to measure. In recognition of

6302-602: The International Criminal Court fugitive Joseph Kony globally known in order to have him arrested by the end of 2012, when the campaign expired. The film spread virally through the #Kony2012 hashtag. In 2014, a media release of security camera footage that appeared to show NFL player, Ray Rice, punching his then-fiancée, Janay Rice, sparked public conversation on why victims of abuse stay in abusive relationships. In response to this question, writer and domestic abuse survivor Beverly Gooden started

6439-459: The New Republic , calls this the "False Promise" of the digital humanities. While the rest of humanities and many social science departments are seeing a decline in funding or prestige, the digital humanities has been seeing increasing funding and prestige. Burdened with the problems of novelty, the digital humanities is discussed as either a revolutionary alternative to the humanities as it

6576-515: The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) was developed. The TEI project was launched in 1987 and published the first full version of the TEI Guidelines in May 1994. TEI helped shape the field of electronic textual scholarship and led to Extensible Markup Language (XML), which is a tag scheme for digital editing. Researchers also began experimenting with databases and hypertextual editing, which are structured around links and nodes, as opposed to

6713-536: The "epistemological fallacies" prevalent in popular visualization tools and technologies (such as Google 's n-gram graph) used by digital humanities scholars and the general public, calling some network diagramming and topic modeling tools "just too crude for humanistic work." The lack of transparency in these programs obscures the subjective nature of the data and its processing, she argues, as these programs "generate standard diagrams based on conventional algorithms for screen display ... mak[ing] it very difficult for

6850-458: The #WhyIStayed campaign via Twitter in an effort to "change the tone of the conversation". The hashtag began to trend nationally five hours after its creation and was used more than 46,000 times that day. Beverly appeared on NPR's All Things Considered to discuss hashtag activism. While "fake news" or politically motivated disinformation (PMD) is not a new occurrence, the sentiment and spread of distrust of news coverage has become more notable since

6987-642: The 'computational turn'. In 2006 the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) launched the Digital Humanities Initiative (renamed Office of Digital Humanities in 2008), which made widespread adoption of the term "digital humanities" in the United States. Digital humanities emerged from its former niche status and became "big news" at the 2009 MLA convention in Philadelphia, where digital humanists made "some of

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7124-439: The 'ordered hierarchy of content objects' principle; disputing whether computation is best used for truth finding or, as Lisa Samuels and Jerome McGann put it, 'deformance'; and so on) rarely do they extend their critique to the full register of society, economics, politics, or culture." Some of these concerns have given rise to the emergent subfield of Critical Digital Humanities (CDH): Some key questions include: how do we make

7261-489: The 'screen essentialism' of computational interfaces? Here we might also reflect on the way in which the practice of making-visible also entails the making-invisible – computation involves making choices about what is to be captured. Lauren F. Klein and Gold note that many appearances of the digital humanities in public media are often in a critical fashion. Armand Leroi, writing in The New York Times , discusses

7398-646: The 16th to the 20th centuries, and documents the history of between 6 and 8 million individuals. They are the most extensive serial records for the history of Africans in the Atlantic World and also include valuable information on the indigenous, European, and Asian populations who lived alongside them. Another example of a digital humanities projects focused on the Americas is at the National Autonomous University of Mexico , which has

7535-773: The 2010 Science article with those found in a large corpus of regional newspapers from the United Kingdom over the course of 150 years. The study further went on to use more advanced natural language processing techniques to discover macroscopic trends in history and culture, including gender bias, geographical focus, technology, and politics, along with accurate dates for specific events. The applications of digital humanities may be used along with other non humanities subject areas such as pure sciences, agriculture, management etc. to produce great variants of practical solutions to solve issues in industry as well as society. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (begun in 1995)

7672-592: The 2016 U.S. elections cycle. The hashtag, #FakeNews, gained major popularity in 2016 when Donald Trump claimed that the negative press coverage he received was due to the spread of false stories. Since the emergence of this hashtag, there has been an increase in policy-related bills and laws regarding the proliferation of inaccurate information globally, which further politicized the issue and raised concerns of impending censorship. The emergence of social media has allowed for "fake news" to spread much quicker than regular news and information, pushing technology companies to take

7809-974: The Cultural Analytics Lab in 2007 at Qualcomm Institute at California Institute for Telecommunication and Information (Calit2). The lab has been using methods from the field of computer science called Computer Vision many types of both historical and contemporary visual media—for example, all covers of Time magazine published between 1923 and 2009, 20,000 historical art photographs from the collection in Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York, one million pages from Manga books, and 16 million images shared on Instagram in 17 global cities. Cultural analytics also includes using methods from media design and data visualization to create interactive visual interfaces for exploration of large visual collections e.g., Selfiecity and On Broadway. Cultural analytics research

7946-684: The Digital Humanities OER ( DH-OER ) project to raise consciousness about the costs of materials, foster the adoption of open principles and practices and support the growth of open education resources and digital humanities in South African Higher education institutions. DH-OER began with 26 projects and an introduction to openness in April 2022. It concluded in November 2023, when 16 projects showcased their efforts in

8083-601: The LGBTQ community." Practitioners in digital humanities are also failing to meet the needs of users with disabilities. George H. Williams argues that universal design is imperative for practitioners to increase usability because "many of the otherwise most valuable digital resources are useless for people who are—for example—deaf or hard of hearing, as well as for people who are blind, have low vision, or have difficulty distinguishing particular colors." In order to provide accessibility successfully, and productive universal design, it

8220-553: The Twitter hashtag #NoBanNoWall to protest Trump's travel ban. The impact of the movement was seen in airports immediately after the hashtag started trending. A judge in New York accepted a request from the ACLU to provide a warrant blocking deportation in airports. The movement became a platform for people to share stories of them or their families immigrating to the US, and worked to combat

8357-489: The U.S. The #BlackLivesMatter hashtag was first started by Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi as a response to the trial and later acquittal of George Zimmerman who shot and killed 17-year-old Trayvon Martin . The hashtag saw a revival in 2014, after the shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, and after a grand jury did not indict police officer Daniel Pantaleo in the death of Eric Garner . During

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8494-496: The Virgin Mary from the 1300s into the 1900s. The involvement of librarians and archivists plays an important part in digital humanities projects because of the recent expansion of their role so that it now covers digital curation , which is critical in the preservation, promotion, and access to digital collections, as well as the application of scholarly orientation to digital humanities projects. A specific example involves

8631-453: The aim of providing a high-level map." Indeed, the "diagram can be read as the bottom levels indicating some of the fundamental elements of the digital humanities stack, such as computational thinking and knowledge representation, and then other elements that later build on these." In practical terms, a major distinction within digital humanities is the focus on the data being processed. For processing textual data, digital humanities builds on

8768-399: The allegations that it is elitist and unfairly funded. There has also been critique of the use of digital humanities tools by scholars who do not fully understand what happens to the data they input and place too much trust in the "black box" of software that cannot be sufficiently examined for errors. Johanna Drucker , a professor at UCLA Department of Information Studies, has criticized

8905-430: The amount that racial (and other) biases affect the tools and texts available for digital humanities research. McPherson posits that there needs to be an understanding and theorizing of the implications of digital technology and race, even when the subject for analysis appears not to be about race. Amy E. Earhart criticizes what has become the new digital humanities "canon" in the shift from websites using simple HTML to

9042-1007: The analysis of large cultural data sets such as the Google Books corpus. Examples of such projects were highlighted by the Humanities High Performance Computing competition sponsored by the Office of Digital Humanities in 2008, and also by the Digging Into Data challenge organized in 2009 and 2011 by NEH in collaboration with NSF, and in partnership with JISC in the UK, and SSHRC in Canada. In addition to books, historical newspapers can also be analyzed with big data methods. The analysis of vast quantities of historical newspaper content has showed how periodic structures can be automatically discovered, and

9179-643: The canon of Early Greek epic, Chaucer , Shakespeare , and Spenser . The Republic of Letters (begun in 2008) seeks to visualize the social network of Enlightenment writers through an interactive map and visualization tools. Network analysis and data visualization is also used for reflections on the field itself – researchers may produce network maps of social media interactions or infographics from data on digital humanities scholars and projects. Document in Context of its Time (DICT) analysis style and an online demo tool allow in an interactive way let users know whether

9316-434: The case of initiatives where archivists help scholars and academics build their projects through their experience in evaluating, implementing, and customizing metadata schemas for library collections. "Cultural analytics" refers to the use of computational method for exploration and analysis of large visual collections and also contemporary digital media. The concept was developed in 2005 by Lev Manovich who then established

9453-596: The cause and other user's perspectives. Although social media platforms were useful in spreading awareness, the effect of younger individuals were just as notable. For example, a young child drew his thoughts on paper, including the message: "Shot after shot, bang after bang, wasting innocent lives!" Flygskam is a Swedish word that literally translates as "flight shame". It is the name of an anti-flying movement that originated in Sweden last year, which encourages people to stop taking flights to lower carbon emissions. The idea

9590-413: The contrast between the algorithmic analysis of themes in literary texts and the work of Harold Bloom, who qualitatively and phenomenologically analyzes the themes of literature over time. Leroi questions whether or not the digital humanities can provide a truly robust analysis of literature and social phenomena or offer a novel alternative perspective on them. The literary theorist Stanley Fish claims that

9727-435: The contribution history of articles on Misplaced Pages or its sister projects. The ' South African Centre for Digital Language Resources' ( SADiLaR ) was set up at a time when a global definition of Open Education Resources (OER) was being drafted and accepted by UNESCO SADiLaR saw this an opportunity to stimulate activism and research around the use and creation of OERs for Digital Humanities. They initiated and launched

9864-513: The creation and analysis of digital editions of objects or artifacts, digital philologists have access to digital practices, methods, and technologies such as optical character recognition that are providing opportunities to adapt the field to the digital age. Digital humanities descends from the field of humanities computing, whose origins reach back to 1940s and 50s, in the pioneering work of Jesuit scholar Roberto Busa , which began in 1946, and of English professor Josephine Miles , beginning in

10001-430: The decades which followed archaeologists, classicists, historians, literary scholars, and a broad array of humanities researchers in other disciplines applied emerging computational methods to transform humanities scholarship. As Tara McPherson has pointed out, the digital humanities also inherit practices and perspectives developed through many artistic and theoretical engagements with electronic screen culture beginning

10138-488: The digital humanities developed out of humanities computing and has become associated with other fields, such as humanistic computing, social computing, and media studies. In concrete terms, the digital humanities embraces a variety of topics, from curating online collections of primary sources (primarily textual) to the data mining of large cultural data sets to topic modeling . Digital humanities incorporates both digitized (remediated) and born-digital materials and combines

10275-438: The digital humanities include new media studies and information science as well as media theory of composition , game studies , particularly in areas related to digital humanities project design and production, and cultural analytics . Each disciplinary field and each country has its own unique history of digital humanities. Berry and Fagerjord have suggested that a way to reconceptualise digital humanities could be through

10412-451: The digital humanities is being continually formulated by scholars and practitioners. Since the field is constantly growing and changing, specific definitions can quickly become outdated or unnecessarily limit future potential. The second volume of Debates in the Digital Humanities (2016) acknowledges the difficulty in defining the field: "Along with the digital archives, quantitative analyses, and tool-building projects that once characterized

10549-410: The digital humanities pursue a revolutionary agenda and thereby undermine the conventional standards of "pre-eminence, authority and disciplinary power". However, digital humanities scholars note that "Digital Humanities is an extension of traditional knowledge skills and methods, not a replacement for them. Its distinctive contributions do not obliterate the insights of the past, but add and supplement

10686-499: The digitization of 17th-century manuscripts, an electronic corpus of Mexican history from the 16th to 19th century, and the visualization of pre-Hispanic archaeological sites in 3-D . A rare example of a digital humanities project focused on the cultural heritage of Africa is the Princeton Ethiopian, Eritrean, and Egyptian Miracles of Mary project, which documents African medieval stories, paintings, and manuscripts about

10823-716: The early 1950s. In collaboration with IBM , Busa and his team created a computer-generated concordance to Thomas Aquinas ' writings known as the Index Thomisticus . Busa's works have been collected and translated by Julianne Nyhan and Marco Passarotti. Other scholars began using mainframe computers to automate tasks like word-searching, sorting, and counting, which was much faster than processing information from texts with handwritten or typed index cards. Similar first advances were made by Gerhard Sperl in Austria using computers by Zuse for Digital Assyriology . In

10960-504: The effects global warming but to take action by volunteering, voting for legislature or donating to the cause. In April 2019, the Britney Spears fan podcast Britney's Gram uncovered the first alleged abuses within her conservatorship arrangement and created the hashtag #FreeBritney. The term itself had been in use by certain fans since 2008. Alongside advocating for the termination and investigation of Spears's conservatorship,

11097-405: The father of one of the victims, quickly spoke out about gun control, calling for stricter gun control during memorial ceremonies and rallies, chanting "Not One More!" The phrase became a hashtag on social media afterwards. Richard also worked with Everytown's digital team to create a tool to allow participants to send postcards to their senators, congressional representatives, and governor containing

11234-494: The field's "commitment to open standards and open source ." Open access is designed to enable anyone with an internet-enabled device and internet connection to view a website or read an article without having to pay, as well as share content with the appropriate permissions. Digital humanities scholars use computational methods either to answer existing research questions or to challenge existing theoretical paradigms, generating new questions and pioneering new approaches. One goal

11371-443: The field, DH now encompasses a wide range of methods and practices: visualizations of large image sets, 3D modeling of historical artifacts, 'born digital' dissertations, hashtag activism and the analysis thereof, alternate reality games , mobile makerspaces, and more. In what has been called 'big tent' DH, it can at times be difficult to determine with any specificity what, precisely, digital humanities work entails." Historically,

11508-408: The first time, methods for dealing with unstructured language". It influenced projects such as Key Word in Context . The project is also sometimes listed as one of the earliest instances of an e-book. Digital humanities Digital humanities ( DH ) is an area of scholarly activity at the intersection of computing or digital technologies and the disciplines of the humanities . It includes

11645-648: The growing public fear of certain foreigners. Inspired by Greta Thunberg and started by Greenpeace and Jane Fonda , #FireDrillFridays brings awareness to the climate change crisis. Calling for a Green New Deal in the United States government, the movement organized protests on the Capitol every Friday beginning in October 2019. The campaign also advocates for complete stoppage of new fossil fuel projects and to phase out existing fossil fuel projects. #FireDrillFridays gained popularity with celebrity arrests. Due to

11782-497: The hashtag #MosqueMeToo . A 2012 Twitter discussion among women working in games, collated under the hashtag #1reasonwhy , indicated that sexist practices such as the oversexualization of female video game characters, workplace harassment and unequal pay for men and women were common in the games industry. The hashtag #NotYourAsianSidekick was initiated by Suey Park and Juliet Shen in December 2013 on Twitter . Suey Park

11919-529: The hashtag and accompanying social movement have been used to raise awareness of guardianship and conservatorship abuse across the United States. The hashtag has led to legislative change in California surrounding legal procedures within conservatorship, and has inspired various bipartisan inquiries of guardianship and conservatorship law in Congress . Created in 2020 by L.L. McKinney , this hashtag

12056-401: The hashtag has been used to coordinate conversations online, find supporters, and arrange protests allowing for users to be active participate in social and political movements. The following notable examples are organized by categories: human rights, awareness, political, and trends. The Black Lives Matter movement calls for an end to police brutality and the killings of African-Americans in

12193-435: The hashtag viral and allowed for the exposure, sharing, and investigation into the stories of other Black women who died as a result of police violence. #SayHerName was also associated with the deaths of Breonna Taylor, Aura Rosser, Tanisha Anderson, and many others. YesAllWomen is a Twitter hashtag and social media campaign in which users share examples or stories of misogyny and violence against women . #YesAllWomen

12330-742: The hoax to denounce. After much research, the fake accounts were outed. #NoBanNoWall is a hashtag and social media campaign created in response to Donald Trump's purported "Muslim ban" and 2016 presidential campaign promises to build a physical wall on the US-Mexico border. In 2017, President Donald Trump issued multiple executive orders threatening to break up families and turn away refugees. Saki Barzinji and Imraan Siddiqi started #NoBanNoWall in an effort to rally Muslim, Latino, and other communities to stand up against xenophobic immigration policies. On January 25, 2017, protestors gathered at Washington Square Park and chanted, "No ban; no wall", which inspired

12467-533: The humanities have to be tied to cultural criticism, per se, in order to be the humanities. The sciences might imagine the Digital Humanities as a welcome improvement over the non-quantitative methods of the humanities and social sciences. As the field matures, there has been a recognition that the standard model of academic peer-review of work may not be adequate for digital humanities projects, which often involve website components, databases, and other non-print objects. Evaluation of quality and impact thus require

12604-404: The humanities' long-standing commitment to scholarly interpretation, informed research, structured argument, and dialogue within communities of practice". Some have hailed the digital humanities as a solution to the apparent problems within the humanities, namely a decline in funding, a repeat of debates, and a fading set of theoretical claims and methodological arguments. Adam Kirsch, writing in

12741-419: The hybrid term has created an overlap between fields like rhetoric and composition, which use "the methods of contemporary humanities in studying digital objects", and digital humanities, which uses "digital technology in studying traditional humanities objects". The use of computational systems and the study of computational media within the humanities, arts and social sciences more generally has been termed

12878-579: The increasing public awareness to the carbon footprint resulted by commercial flights. #Coronavirus, #COVID-19, and #Covid_19 represent a few of the most common hashtags referring to Coronavirus 2019 that started in Wuhan, China . The Hashtag has increased rapidly with the World Health Organization's (WHO) declaration of the virus as pandemic on 11 March 2020. Looking at the trajectory of this Hashtag on Twitter from Symplur, it shows

13015-435: The internet has allowed Digital Humanities work to incorporate audio, video, and other components in addition to text. The terminological change from "humanities computing" to "digital humanities" has been attributed to John Unsworth , Susan Schreibman, and Ray Siemens who, as editors of the anthology A Companion to Digital Humanities (2004), tried to prevent the field from being viewed as "mere digitization". Consequently,

13152-493: The invisible become visible in the study of software? How is knowledge transformed when mediated through code and software? What are the critical approaches to Big Data, visualization, digital methods, etc.? How does computation create new disciplinary boundaries and gate-keeping functions? What are the new hegemonic representations of the digital – 'geons', 'pixels', 'waves', visualization, visual rhetorics, etc.? How do media changes create epistemic changes, and how can we look behind

13289-652: The lack of South and Southeast Asian Americans in their "#thisis2016" video. #BrownAsiansExist more broadly highlights the erasure of South Asian and Southeast Asian Americans in the American media's portrayal of Asian Americans. #OscarSoWhite is a hashtag campaign started by BroadwayBlack.com managing editor April Reign and was sparked by the Oscars nominees in 2016. All of the 20 actors nominated for lead and supporting actor categories were white, despite multiple films that year starring African American leads that had received critics' prizes and guild awards. The campaign sparked

13426-469: The late 1960s and 1970s. These range from research developed by organizations such as SIGGRAPH to creations by artists such as Charles and Ray Eames and the members of E.A.T. (Experiments in Art and Technology). The Eames and E.A.T. explored nascent computer culture and intermediality in creative works that dovetailed technological innovation with art. The first specialized journal in the digital humanities

13563-642: The likes of First Lady Michelle Obama , who used it to raise awareness for the kidnapped girls. The hashtag in itself has received 2 million retweets. In the Fall of 2014, a Canadian Inuit woman named Holly Jarrett created the #AmINext hashtag campaign to raise awareness about the Canadian Government's lack of response to the high rate of violence against Indigenous women. The campaign involves people taking photos of themselves with signs holding "#AmINext" and posting it to social media. The campaign

13700-499: The liveliest and most visible contributions" and had their field hailed as "the first 'next big thing' in a long time." Although digital humanities projects and initiatives are diverse, they often reflect common values and methods. These can help in understanding this hard-to-define field. Values Methods In keeping with the value of being open and accessible, many digital humanities projects and journals are open access and/or under Creative Commons licensing, showing

13837-480: The media, are now also used to celebrate the wide breadth and multiplicity of deaf actors, artists, and other talent in the world." The hashtag, #Boymom, has taken to social media platforms in order to display the so-called "chaotic" and "messy" experiences mothers of boys go through. Instagram appears to be the platform with the most #Boymom hashtags, with nearly 12.9 million hashtags. #Girlmom falls significantly behind in numbers with only 4.8 million. Currently, there

13974-561: The methodologies from traditional humanities disciplines (such as rhetoric , history , philosophy , linguistics , literature , art , archaeology , music , and cultural studies ) and social sciences, with tools provided by computing (such as hypertext , hypermedia , data visualisation , information retrieval , data mining, statistics , text mining , digital mapping ), and digital publishing . Related subfields of digital humanities have emerged like software studies , platform studies, and critical code studies . Fields that parallel

14111-539: The most repeated hashtags on Persian Twitter. The number of tweets and retweets of these hashtags exceeded 80 million. Some Iranian women posted videos on social media of themselves cutting their hair in protest. It was reported on 21 September that the Iranian government had blocked internet access to Instagram and WhatsApp and disrupted internet service in Kurdistan and other parts of Iran in an attempt to silence

14248-409: The movement organized walkouts in remembrance of the lives lost due to gun violence. In March 2018, hundreds of marches were organized across the country in support of stricter gun laws, many of which were met with resistance from anti-protesters. Since February 2018 there have been 123 laws passed nationwide at the state-level to address concerns of gun control. On February 17, 2018, a Facebook page

14385-543: The official page, there are multiple pages defined by geographic region including but not limited to Women's March on Connecticut, Women's March on San Diego, and Women's March Milan. In addition to Facebook, the Women's March Movement has an active profile on Instagram and as of April 2019 the page has 1.2 million followers. On September 19, 2018, the Ele Não movement ("Ele Não" is Portuguese for "not him"), also known as

14522-636: The only comprehensive current bibliography of Whitman criticism. The Emily Dickinson Archive (begun in 2013) is a collection of high-resolution images of Dickinson 's poetry manuscripts as well as a searchable lexicon of over 9,000 words that appear in the poems. The Slave Societies Digital Archive (formerly Ecclesiastical and Secular Sources for Slave Societies), directed by Jane Landers and hosted at Vanderbilt University, preserves endangered ecclesiastical and secular documents related to Africans and African-descended peoples in slave societies. This Digital Archive currently holds 500,000 unique images, dating from

14659-456: The other hand, doubt that hashtag activism leads to real change, as users are simply indicating that they care enough to post a hashtag, rather than taking practical action to make a difference. The hashtag, as it is currently used across social media sites was first proposed on Twitter by former Google developer Chris Messina, in 2007. The purpose of the invention was to create a meta tag that allowed users to track dynamic content in relation to

14796-412: The perpetrators. As a reaction, the #HimToo hashtag was created. It that refers to the social media campaign for false rape allegation. On January 21, 2017, an estimated 2.6 million individuals marched around the world in response to the rhetoric of newly elected President Donald Trump. The march was organized primarily online through Facebook. Now occurring annually, the goal of the Women's March

14933-609: The phrase "Not One More". The March for Our Lives protest began after the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida on February 14, 2018. In response to a surge of gun violence in schools and the 17 dead after the Parkland shooting, people began to rally around the hashtag #neveragain. The hashtag, indicative of the larger movement against gun violence, spread across social networks and went viral in early 2018. Additionally,

15070-429: The places visited has also become a widely used hashtag since 2016, when the phrase took took off, after it gained significant momentum after a Skift , travel industry news and research company, article. Skift's use of the term brought global attention to a growing problem of perceptions of excessive tourism, sparking conversations about how to manage tourism more sustainably. Based on a Twitter social network analysis ,

15207-514: The police department. Creating this link humanizes law enforcement as a whole, in an attempt to show police as the 'good guy'. However, this hashtag is not universally promoted by police officers. A former police officer and current entrepreneur Autumn Clifford believe being a police officer is a great responsibility that needs to be represented by leaders. She notes historically society has never loved law enforcement, and citizens do not like being told what to do. Thus they need leaders to guide them in

15344-594: The production of A Wrinkle in Time and hiring non-white actors in the traditionally white Star Wars series. #SayHerName originated in 2015 by the African American Policy Forum spearheaded by Kimberle Crenshaw. The purpose of #SayHerName was to bring media and public attention to the abuse and murder of Black women (both cis- and transgender) at the hands of the police. The alleged suicide of Sandra Bland after being taken into police custody made

15481-428: The project until its completion. They assigned Paul Tasman, an executive at the company, to work with Busa. Busa selected 179 texts centering around Thomas Aquinas that would be put into a form that was machine-readable . 118 of the works were written by Aquinas, and the remaining 61 items were either at one point mis-attributed to him or an attempt to complete an unfinished work begun by Aquinas. A significant part of

15618-462: The project was the data entry , which was meticulously carried out by a team of female keypunch operators. Their dedication and precision were instrumental in the success of the project. This work of punching the text was made between 1950 and 1966. They worked in Gallarate , Italy, and the project peaked in size in 1962 with 70 workers. After the punching was complete, the data was lemmatised in

15755-572: The protests against Jair Bolsonaro , were demonstrations led by women which took place in several regions of Brazil and the world. The main goal was to protest against Bolsonaro and his presidential campaign and his sexist declarations. After the November 2021 disappearance of Chinese tennis player Peng Shuai , the hashtag #WhereisPengShuai appeared on Twitter and was Tweeted by athletes such as Serena Williams and Naomi Osaka. Amini's beating and death caused widespread anger among several social networks. The hashtag #MahsaAmini became one of

15892-585: The public's want for change and placed the Black Lives Matter protests at the forefront of the media. Behind the protest lines, the hashtag humanizing the badge popularized. The purpose of #humanizethebadge was for officers and officers' loved ones, to show their communities the person behind the police uniform. #humanizethebadge is mostly seen on TikTok with over 2 billion posts including the hashtag. These posts strive to humanize officers to reveal them as more relatable and trustworthy. This relatability

16029-541: The same hashtag. #TakeAknee has been a movement since 2016 and was created with the intention of calling attention to the police brutality and racial inequality taking place in America. This movement was enacted primarily by NFL athletes, most notably Colin Kaepernick, through kneeling for the duration of the national anthem; this act has stirred significant controversy because it is interpreted by nationalists as being

16166-428: The same time studying and critiquing how these impact cultural heritage and digital culture. DH is also applied in research. Thus, a distinctive feature of DH is its cultivation of a two-way relationship between the humanities and the digital: the field both employs technology in the pursuit of humanities research and subjects technology to humanistic questioning and interrogation, often simultaneously. The definition of

16303-495: The same title (2012 and 2016 editions) and allows readers to interact with material by marking sentences as interesting or adding terms to a crowdsourced index. Some research institutions work with the Wikimedia Foundation or volunteers of the community, for example, to make freely licensed media files available via Wikimedia Commons or to link or load data sets with Wikidata . Text analysis has been performed on

16440-415: The semantics of the data processing to be made evident." Similar problems can be seen at a lower level, with databases used for digital humanities analysis replicating the biases of the analogue systems of data. As, essentially, "every database is a narrative" visualisations or diagrams often obscure the underlying structures or omissions of data without acknowledging that they are incomplete or present only

16577-448: The side of a Canadian highway. After the campaign, the government filed a national DNA missing person's index and introduced 30 safety initiatives to help indigenous women. The epicenter of Paris encountered unexpected terrorist attacks, leading to worldwide efforts to spread awareness about this incident. During this event, terrorists were wearing suicide belts and the subsequent violence was shocking. The terrorists were planning to enter

16714-409: The stadium along with other people. Despite the person being prevented from entering, it demonstrated the severity of how people are risking their own lives, indirectly affecting others. Following the incident, more than 70 million people began to share this news on various social media platforms in order to reach a broader audience. For example, Facebook enabled users to change their profile picture to

16851-709: The standard linear convention of print. In the nineties, major digital text and image archives emerged at centers of humanities computing in the U.S. (e.g. the Women Writers Project , the Rossetti Archive , and The William Blake Archive ), which demonstrated the sophistication and robustness of text-encoding for literature. The advent of personal computing and the World Wide Web meant that Digital Humanities work could become less centered on text and more on design. The multimedia nature of

16988-447: The subsequent open letter to the victim from Michael Luo , The New York Times released a video entitled "#thisis2016: Asian-Americans Respond". The video featured Asian Americans who had experienced racism. #thisis2016 subsequently emerged as a hashtag to highlight racism Asian Americans faced. Eventually, #BrownAsiansExist came to prominence following an open letter written to The New York Times expressing their disappointment in

17125-555: The summer of 2020, the hashtag saw another resurgence due to the deaths of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor at the hands of police. Cool clock, Ahmed. Want to bring it to the White House? We should inspire more kids like you to like science. It's what makes America great. IstandwithAhmed: In 2015, a teenage student named Ahmed Mohamed was arrested at his high school in Irving, Texas after his teacher mistook his reassembled clock for

17262-561: The systematic use of digital resources in the humanities, as well as the analysis of their application. DH can be defined as new ways of doing scholarship that involve collaborative, transdisciplinary, and computationally engaged research, teaching, and publishing. It brings digital tools and methods to the study of the humanities with the recognition that the printed word is no longer the main medium for knowledge production and distribution. By producing and using new applications and techniques, DH makes new kinds of teaching possible, while at

17399-632: The unrest. As of 24 September 2022, the hashtag #Mahsa_Amini and its equivalent in Persian broke the Twitter record with more than 80 million tweets. In February 2018, the Mosque Me Too movement started, following the Me Too movement which gained worldwide prominence in October 2017 and the following months. Muslim women started sharing their experiences of sexual abuse at Muslim holy sites and on pilgrimages such as Hajj, Mecca, Saudi Arabia, using

17536-519: The usage of the TEI and visuals in textual recovery projects. Works that have been previously lost or excluded were afforded a new home on the internet, but much of the same marginalizing practices found in traditional humanities also took place digitally. According to Earhart, there is a "need to examine the canon that we, as digital humanists, are constructing, a canon that skews toward traditional texts and excludes crucial work by women, people of color, and

17673-523: The vocabulary used by an author of an input text was frequent at the time of text creation, whether the author used anachronisms or neologisms, and enables detecting terms in text that underwent considerable semantic change. Culturomics is a form of computational lexicology that studies human behavior and cultural trends through the quantitative analysis of digitized texts. Researchers data mine large digital archives to investigate cultural phenomena reflected in language and word usage. The term

17810-540: Was Computers and the Humanities , which debuted in 1966. The Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA) association was founded in 1973. The Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing (ALLC) and the Association for Computers and the Humanities (ACH) were then founded in 1977 and 1978, respectively. Soon, there was a need for a standardized protocol for tagging digital texts, and

17947-404: Was created in reaction to another hashtag # NotAllMen , to express that all women are affected by sexism and harassment , even though not all men are sexist. The hashtag quickly became used by women throughout social media to share their experiences of misogyny and sexism. The hashtag was popular in May 2014 surrounding discussions of the 2014 Isla Vista killings . #ShoutYourAbortion

18084-527: Was initially first used in 2007 by Tarana Burke but was later popularized and brought to the attention of the media on October 15, 2017, when Alyssa Milano, using Twitter, encouraged individuals to speak up about their experience with assault and say 'Me Too'. Initially meant to simply raise awareness, #MeToo developed into a movement and as of October 2018, the hashtag had been used 19 million times. The movement has sparked many other movements like #HowIWillChange and has also led to certain punishments towards

18221-461: Was meant to encourage a national conversation about the invisibility and vulnerability of the female Indigenous demographic and call attention to the minimal efforts of the Government in investigating the murders and disappearances. Holly was personally inspired to carry out the campaign as her cousin, Loretta Saunders , an Inuit woman from Labrador, went missing and was ultimately found dead on

18358-516: Was originally championed by Olympic athlete Bjorn Ferry and gained momentum after teenage activist Greta Thunberg 's mother, the opera singer Malena Ernman , publicly announced she would stop flying, with various Swedish celebrities following suit. Thunberg herself traveled largely by train during her recent two-week tour of Europe. The activism has seen real results in Sweden as the sales of airline ticket sales declined by 4% in January 2020 due to

18495-486: Was published in 1974, and publication was completed in 1980. The project used a total of 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) of tape and it took an estimated 10,000 hours of computer work and 1 million hours of human work to complete. The Index was released on CD-ROM in 1992 and a website was launched in 2005. A review published of the project in Computers and the Humanities described it as "as innovative and fascinating

18632-422: Was started by students to encourage their participation in the movement; and as of April 2019 the page has been liked by more than 280,000 individuals and has a following of more than 300,000. The Instagram page @marchforourlives is live and as of April 2019 has over 200 posts and just over 360,000 followers. In 2014, some editors spoofed being black feminists, spreading the meme, #EndFathersDay. Fox News picked

18769-461: Was used by authors to discuss the pay differences received by publishers for black and non-black authors. Boko Haram kidnapped over 200 schoolgirls from Chibok, Nigeria in May 2014, refusing to return the girls. The hashtag #BringBackOurGirls was created and used in hopes of keeping the story in the news and bringing international attention to it. The hashtag was first used by a corporate lawyer named Ibrahim Abdullahi, and has also been used by

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