Misplaced Pages

#989010

52-562: Prior to the publication of House Made of Dawn, few Native American authors had published works of fiction that reached wide readership. Writers such as William Apess , John Rollin Ridge and Simon Pokagon published works to little fanfare in the nineteenth century. Prior to the onset of World War II , Mourning Dove , John Milton Oskison , John Joseph Mathews , Zitkala-Sa , Charles Eastman and D'Arcy McNickle published literary works, although these works were relatively few in number. In

104-415: A "renaissance" is highly accurate in its description of the sudden growth in the numbers of Native writers finding publication, it is also profoundly inaccurate in its tendency to obscure the often specifically political histories of Indian oratory and writings upon which many Native writers are drawing." William Apess William Apess (1798–1839, Pequot ) (also known as William Apes before 1837),

156-624: A board of white overseers. These men allowed white settlers to take the Mashpee wood and permitted other incursions on their land. The Mashpee wanted to protect their grounds. Apess spoke out on their behalf at local meetings. He also participated in the so-called Mashpee Revolt of 1833-34, in which the Mashpee took action to restore their self-government. They wrote to the state government announcing their intention to rule themselves, according to their constitutional rights, and to prevent whites from taking away their wood (a recurring problem). In May 1833,

208-521: A central theme. Erika Wurth points out that writers of this period were often concerned with writing for a non-Native audience. Wurth and Gamber both agree that a new phase in Native writing began with the works of writers such as Sherman Alexie , who rejected many of the formal and thematic concerns of Renaissance-era writing. The term Native American Renaissance has been criticized on a number of points. As James Ruppert writes, "Scholars hesitate to use

260-529: A few hundred self-identified Pequot descendants. Pequot is an Algonquian word whose meaning is disputed among language specialists. Considerable scholarship on the Pequot claims that the name came from Pequttôog , meaning "the destroyers" or "the men of the swamp". Frank Speck was a leading specialist of the Mohegan-Pequot language in the early twentieth century, and he believed that another term

312-471: A reservation called "Lantern Hill." The Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation is recognized by the state of Connecticut . The 800+ Mashantucket Pequot or Western Pequot gained federal recognition in 1983 and have a reservation in Ledyard . The Poospatuck Reservation on Long Island is also home to a few hundred self-identified Pequot descendants. Nearly all individuals who are identified as Pequot live in

364-631: A reservation. The Mashantucket Pequot Tribe received federal recognition in 1983 through a settlement of a land claim. In 1986, they founded the Foxwoods Resort Casino on their land. Located in proximity to the New York City metropolitan area , it has become one of the country's most successful Native American casinos . The Pawcatuck River Pequot formed the Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation , which

416-529: A settler, William Sampson, from taking wood away from their property and unloaded his wagon. Three Indians were indicted for riot and Apess was jailed for a month as a result. An attorney assisted them in successfully appealing to the legislature, but initially Governor Levi Lincoln Jr. threatened the group with military force. The issues were reported sympathetically by Harnett of the Boston Advocate through June and July. The Mashpee protest followed

468-743: A single group, but the Mohegan split off in the 17th century as the Pequot came to control much of Connecticut. Simmering tensions with the New England Colonies led to the Pequot War of 1634–1638, which some historians consider to be a genocide under modern day terms, which dramatically reduced the population and influence of the Pequot; many members were killed, enslaved, or dispersed. Small numbers of Pequots remain in Connecticut, receiving reservations at Mashantucket in 1666 and at

520-551: Is recognized by Connecticut but is not federally recognized. Additionally, Pequot descendants are enrolled in the federally recognized Mohegan Tribe , as well as the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation and Golden Hill Paugussett Indian Nation of Connecticut, and the Brothertown Indians of Wisconsin, which also have degrees of state recognition. The Poospatuck Reservation on Long Island is home to

572-614: The Mashantucket Pequot Reservation where many members of the tribe continue to live. The Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation was recognized in 2002. Since the 1930s, both Pequot tribes had serious tension over racial issues, with some people claiming that darker-skinned descendants should not be considered fully Pequot. Two groups of Eastern Pequots filed petitions for recognition with the BIA, and they agreed to unite to achieve recognition. The state immediately challenged

SECTION 10

#1732801924990

624-610: The Maspee Indians on 11 October 1833. Apess was elected president and forty-two Mashpee Indians signed up immediately. While in Mashpee, Apess became convinced the State was acting illegally in denying self-government to the Mashpee Wampanoag. The Mashpee Wampanoag had a close culture and wooded land at the elbow of Cape Cod. Their limited autonomy had been reduced when the reservation was placed under supervision by

676-583: The Narragansett tribes sided with the colonists. Around 1,500 Pequot warriors were killed in battles or hunted down, and others were captured and distributed as slaves or household servants. A few escaped to join the Mohawk and the Niantic tribes on Long Island . Eventually, some returned to their traditional lands, where family groups of friendly Pequots had stayed. Of those enslaved, most were awarded to

728-487: The Nullification Crisis of 1832 on the national level, in which Southern states proposed they could nullify federal law. The historian Barry O'Connell suggests that Apess intended to highlight the Mashpee attempt to nullify Massachusetts laws discriminating against Native peoples. Apess continually drew parallels between the desire of free people of color for their rights, particularly Native Americans, and

780-663: The Pawcatuck River in 1683; others lived in different areas and with other tribes. In the 18th century, some Christian Pequot joined members of several other groups to form the Brothertown Indians in western New Hampshire . They relocated to western New York in the 19th century, where they were allowed land by the Oneida people of the Iroquois League , and later to Wisconsin, where they were granted

832-579: The "noisy Methodists ," as Apess referred to them. The congregation he knew had many people of mixed race, including African Americans and Native Americans. The Methodists were more welcoming than the Congregational Church, to which the town elite belonged. Apess ran away from General Williams at the age of fifteen and joined a militia in New York , where he fought in the War of 1812 . By

884-756: The 1970s and 1980s, especially the Mashantucket Pequot tribe which opened a casino in the same timeframe, and tribal chairman Richard A. Hayward encouraged them to return to their tribal homeland. He worked for Federal recognition and economic development. In 1976, the Pequots filed suit with the assistance of the Native American Rights Fund (NARF) and the Indian Rights Association against landowners and residents of North Stonington to get their land, which

936-445: The 21st century, the Mashantucket Pequot are undertaking aggressive efforts to revive the language. They are conducting careful analysis of historical documents containing Pequot words and comparing them to extant closely related languages. So far, they have reclaimed more than 1,000 words, though that is a small fraction of what would be necessary for a functional language. The Mashantucket Pequots have begun offering language classes with

988-524: The Mashantucket Pequot tribe, enabling them to buy the land covered in the Settlement Act and place it in trust with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) for reservation use. In 1986, they opened a bingo operation, followed by the first phase of Foxwoods Resort Casino in 1992. Revenue from the casino has enabled the development and construction of a cultural museum which opened on August 11, 1998, on

1040-471: The Mashpee tribe wrote to Harvard College , which administered the Williams Fund that paid for a minister to them. The tribe had never been consulted in such appointment and objected to Rev. Mr. Fish, who had long been appointed to them. They did not like his preaching, and said that he had enriched himself by appropriating hundreds of acres of woodland at the tribe's expense. Lastly, they prevented

1092-584: The Native Americans of the eastern coast of New England, but it did not reach the Pequot, Niantic, and Narragansett tribes. In 1633, the Dutch established a trading post called the House of Good Hope at Hartford . They executed the principal Pequot sachem Tatobem because of a violation of an agreement. After the Pequot paid the Dutch a large ransom, they returned Tatobem's body to his people. His successor

SECTION 20

#1732801924990

1144-492: The Pequot had already attained a position of political, military, and economic dominance in central and eastern Connecticut. They occupied the coastal area between the Niantic tribe of the Niantic River of Connecticut and the Narragansett in western Rhode Island . The Pequot numbered some 16,000 persons in the most densely inhabited portion of southern New England. The smallpox epidemic of 1616–1619 killed many of

1196-664: The Pequot had invaded the region sometime before the establishment of Plymouth Colony , rather than originating in the region. In the aftermath of King Philip's War , Hubbard detailed in his Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians in New-England the ferocity with which some of New England 's tribes responded to the English. Hubbard described the Pequot as "foreigners" to the region; not invaders from another shore, but "from

1248-480: The Pequot received at the hands of the colonists was remembered almost two centuries later by other Native American tribes such as some groups of Shawnees . It was commonly thought that they had disappeared entirely due to violence against Native Americans provoked by American colonists, although this was not true. The 1910 census numbered the Pequot population at 66, and they reached their lowest number several decades later. Pequot numbers grew significantly during

1300-525: The Pequots claimed had been illegally sold in 1856 by the State of Connecticut, and they settled after seven years. The Connecticut Legislature passed legislation to petition the federal government to grant tribal recognition to the Mashantucket Pequots, and the "Mashantucket Pequot Indian Land Claims Settlement Act" was enacted by Congress and signed by President Ronald Reagan on October 18, 1983. This settlement granted federal recognition to

1352-613: The University of California, Los Angeles ; Dartmouth College , and Eastern Washington University , led to the founding of scholarly journals, such as SAIL (Studies in American Indian Literature) and Wíčazo Ša Review (1985). With the heightened interest in Native American writing, publishers established specialized imprints, such as Harper and Row 's Native American Publishing Programme, which had

1404-909: The age of 16, he became an alcoholic and struggled with alcoholism for the rest of his life. From the years 1816 to 1818, he worked at various jobs in Canada . Troubled by his alcoholism, Apess decided to return home to the Pequot and his family in Massachusetts. Within a short period of time, he reclaimed his Pequot identity. He attended meetings of local Methodist groups and was baptized in December 1818. In 1821, Apess married Mary Wood, also of mixed race. The couple had one son and three daughters together. After Mary died, Apess later remarried. He and his second wife settled in New York City in

1456-466: The age of five, Apess lived with his family, including two brothers and two sisters, near Colrain. His parents separated, and the five children were cared for by their maternal grandparents. But they were abusive and suffered from alcoholism . After seeing continued abuse, a neighbor intervened with the town selectmen on behalf of the children. They were taken away for their own safety and indentured to European-American families. Then five-year-old Apess

1508-677: The allied tribes, but many were also sold as slaves in Bermuda. The Mohegans treated their Pequot captives so severely that officials of Connecticut Colony eventually removed them. Connecticut established two reservations for the Pequots in 1683: the Eastern Pequot Reservation in North Stonington, Connecticut and the Western Pequots (or Mashantucket Pequot Reservation) in Ledyard . The poor treatment

1560-603: The decision, and the Department of the Interior revoked their recognition in 2005. That same year, it revoked recognition for the Schaghticoke tribe who had gained recognition in 2004. The Connecticut state government and Congressional delegation opposed the BIA's recognition because residents were worried that the newly recognized tribes would establish gaming casinos. The 1130-member Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation has

1612-471: The federally recognized Mashantucket Pequot Tribe , four other state-recognized groups in Connecticut including the Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation , or the Brothertown Indians of Wisconsin . They historically spoke Pequot, a dialect of the Mohegan-Pequot language , which became extinct by the early 20th century. Some tribal members are undertaking revival efforts. The Pequot and the Mohegan were formerly

Native American Renaissance - Misplaced Pages Continue

1664-404: The goal of promoting new voices and publication opportunities. Although the primary use of the term has been literary, it has been used in a wider sense to describe "an increasing prosperity and sense of achievement among Indians [...] a widespread economic and cultural rebirth." For example, Joan Nagel applies the term to the totality of "the resurgence of American Indian ethnic identification and

1716-500: The historic struggle of European-American colonists for independence. He drew from the history of relations between Native Americans and the colonists, as well as relations within the United States. During the period 1831-1836, Apess published several of his sermons and public lectures, and became known as a powerful speaker. But, struggling with alcoholism and increasing resentment of white treatment of Natives, he gradually lost

1768-516: The interior of the continent" who "by force seized upon one of the goodliest places near the sea, and became a Terror to all their Neighbors." Much of the archaeological, linguistic, and documentary evidence now available demonstrates that the Pequot were not invaders to the Connecticut River Valley but were indigenous in that area for thousands of years. By the time of the founding of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies,

1820-707: The late 1830s. After his marriage, Apess felt his vocation was to preach. In 1829 he was ordained as a Protestant Methodist minister, a group he found less hierarchical and rule bound than the Methodist Episcopal Church. In the same year he published his autobiography, A Son of the Forest: The Experience of William Apess, A Native of the Forest, Comprising a Notice of the Pequot Tribe of Indians, Written by Himself. Apess' work

1872-565: The most successful activist on behalf of Native American rights in the antebellum United States." William Apess was born in 1798 in Colrain in northwestern Massachusetts to William and Candace Apess of the Pequot tribe. According to his autobiography, his father was mixed Pequot and European American, as Apess' white paternal grandfather had married a Pequot woman. He claimed descent from King Philip through his mother, who also had some European-American and African-American ancestry. Until

1924-407: The phrase because it might imply that Native writers were not producing significant work before that time, or that these writers sprang up without longstanding community and tribal roots. Indeed, if this was a rebirth, what was the original birth?" Other critics have described it as "a source of controversy". Rebecca Tillett argues that "while the definition of the recent burgeoning of Native writing as

1976-504: The renascence of tribal cultures during the 1970s and 1980s." Writers typically considered to be part of the Native American Renaissance include: John Gamber argues that the characteristics of Renaissance writers are as follows: devotion to a sacred landscape; a homing-in plot, often associated with a protagonist's return to the reservation; the treatment of a mixed-blood protagonist's dilemma between two worlds as

2028-864: The respect in which he had been held; both white and Mashpee groups distanced themselves from him. In 1836, he gave a public lecture in the form of a memorial eulogy for King Philip , a seventeenth-century Indian leader who was assassinated by the Plymouth colonists. Apess extolled him as a leader equal to any among the European Americans. Apess first delivered the eulogy in Boston and then in several other venues in New England . After publishing his lecture, Apess disappeared from New England public life. He moved to New York City with his second wife and children, trying to find work. The recession of 1837

2080-566: The survival conditions of the early half of the century. A period of historical revisionism was underway, as historians were more willing to look at difficulties in the history of the invasion and colonization of the North American continent . As they explored the colonial and " Wild West " eras, some historians were more careful to represent events from the Native American perspective. This work inspired public interest in Native cultures and within Native American communities themselves; it

2132-524: The two above-named communities. Historically, the Pequots spoke a dialect of the Mohegan-Pequot language , an Eastern Algonquian language . The Treaty of Hartford concluded the Pequot War in 1637, when the colonists made speaking the language a capital offense. Within a generation or so, it became largely extinct. Pequot from both the Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation and the Mashantucket Pequot now speak English as their first language. In

Native American Renaissance - Misplaced Pages Continue

2184-563: The work Native American Literatures: An Introduction, author Suzanne Lundquist suggests the Native American Renaissance has three elements: Lincoln points out that in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a generation of Native Americans were coming of age who were the first of their respective tribal communities to receive a substantial English-language education, particularly outside Indian boarding schools , and with more graduating from colleges and universities. Conditions for Native people , while still very harsh during this period, had moved beyond

2236-406: Was Sassacus . In 1633, an epidemic devastated all of the region's tribes, and historians estimate that the Pequot suffered the loss of 80 percent of their population. At the outbreak of the Pequot War , Pequot survivors may have numbered only about 3,000. Members of the Pequot tribe killed a resident of Connecticut Colony in 1636, John Oldham , and war erupted as a result. The Mohegan and

2288-697: Was a Methodist minister, writer, and activist of mixed-race descent. Apess spent most of his career in New England . In 1829 he published A Son of the Forest , one of the first autobiographies by a Native American writer. Apess was part Pequot by descent, especially through his mother's family, and identified with their culture. Later in life, he was adopted by the Mashpee tribe. In recent decades, Apess's works have been frequently anthologized in collections of American literature, alongside other early American Native writers like Samson Occom and Jane Johnston Schoolcraft . Apess has been described as "perhaps

2340-488: Was also a period of activism within Native American communities to achieve greater sovereignty and civil rights. The ferment also inspired a group of young Native American writers, who emerged in the fields of poetry and novel-writing. In the span of a few years, these writers worked to expand the Native American literary canon. By the 1980s, the rapid increase in materials and the development of Native American Studies departments and programs at several universities, such as

2392-498: Was broadly damaging and especially affected the lower and working classes, so he struggled in New York. At the age of 41, William Apess died of a cerebral hemorrhage (stroke) on April 10, 1839 at 31 Washington Street in New York City. Pequot people 1637: 3,000 (est.) 1910: 66 1972: 21 The Pequot ( / ˈ p iː k w ɒ t / ) are a Native American people of Connecticut . The modern Pequot are members of

2444-598: Was cared for by his neighbor, Mr. Furman, for a year until he had recovered from injuries sustained while living with his grandparents. His autobiography does not mention any contact with his Pequot relatives for the rest of his childhood. He said that he did not see his mother for twenty years after the beating. In contrast, he grew to love his adopted family dearly, despite his status as an indentured servant. When Mrs. Furman's mother died, he writes that "She had always been so kind to me that I missed her quite as much as her children, and I had been allowed to call her mother." Apess

2496-466: Was eleven, Mr. Furman discovered his ill-formed plans to run away. He never really wanted to leave, but, despite his reassurances, the family he had come to regard as his own sold his indenture to Judge James Hillhouse, a member of the Connecticut elite. The elderly judge, too old to deal with an unruly and rejected child, quickly sold his indenture to Gen. William Williams, under whom Apess spent four years. During this period, Apess grew increasingly close to

2548-492: Was more plausible, meaning "the shallowness of a body of water", given that the Pequot territory was along the coast of Long Island Sound . Historians have debated whether the Pequot migrated about 1500 from the upper Hudson River Valley toward central and eastern Connecticut . The theory of Pequot migration to the Connecticut River Valley can be traced to Rev. William Hubbard, who claimed in 1677 that

2600-593: Was one of the first autobiographies published by a Native American and was published partly in reaction to advocates of Indian Removal , including President Andrew Jackson . They wanted to remove Native Americans to west of the Mississippi River, especially those who were numerous in the Southeast. Apess based his narrative on his spiritual conversion, a common genre of the time, and commented also on European-American prejudices against Native Americans. As

2652-481: Was sent to school during the winter for six years to gain an education, while also assisting Furman at work. Mrs. Furman, a Baptist , gave William his first memorable experience with Christianity when he was six, and she discussed with him the importance of going to heaven or hell. Even as a young child, his devotion was ardent. He describes the joy he gained from sermons, and the depression he suffered when Mr. Furman eventually forbade him from attending. When William

SECTION 50

#1732801924990

2704-524: Was the Methodist practice of the day, Apess became an itinerant preacher; he preached in meetings throughout New England to mixed congregations including Native American, European-American, and African-American audiences. In 1833, during a visit to the town of Mashpee , the largest Native American town in Massachusetts , Apess established the first formal Native American temperance society among

#989010