62-443: An insectarium is a live insect zoo , or a museum or exhibit of live insects. Insectariums often display a variety of insects and similar arthropods , such as spiders , beetles , cockroaches , ants , bees , millipedes , centipedes , crickets , grasshoppers , stick insects , scorpions , mantises and woodlice . Displays can focus on learning about insects, types of insects, their habitats, why they are important, and
124-500: A brain and a ventral nerve cord . Most insects reproduce by laying eggs . Insects breathe air through a system of paired openings along their sides, connected to small tubes that take air directly to the tissues. The blood therefore does not carry oxygen; it is only partly contained in vessels, and some circulates in an open hemocoel . Insect vision is mainly through their compound eyes , with additional small ocelli . Many insects can hear, using tympanal organs , which may be on
186-514: A mutualistic relationship. The flowers have nectar suited to the birds' diet, their color suits the birds' vision and their shape fits that of the birds' bills. The blooming times of the flowers have also been found to coincide with hummingbirds' breeding seasons. The floral characteristics of ornithophilous plants vary greatly among each other compared to closely related insect-pollinated species. These flowers also tend to be more ornate, complex, and showy than their insect pollinated counterparts. It
248-448: A mutualistic relationship between the species. Such relationships can be of many different types. Flowers appeared and diversified relatively suddenly in the fossil record, creating what Charles Darwin described as the "abominable mystery" of how they had evolved so quickly; he considered whether coevolution could be the explanation. He first mentioned coevolution as a possibility in On
310-560: A change in one partner puts pressure on the other partner to change in response. Hot spots are areas of strong reciprocal selection, while cold spots are areas with no reciprocal selection or where only one partner is present. The three constituents of geographic structure that contribute to this particular type of coevolution are: natural selection in the form of a geographic mosaic, hot spots often surrounded by cold spots, and trait remixing by means of genetic drift and gene flow . Mosaic, along with general coevolution, most commonly occurs at
372-560: A coevolutionary approach to architecture has been defined as a design practice that engages students, volunteers and members of the local community in practical, experimental work aimed at "establishing dynamic processes of learning between users and designers." In his book The Self-organizing Universe , Erich Jantsch attributed the entire evolution of the cosmos to coevolution. In astronomy , an emerging theory proposes that black holes and galaxies develop in an interdependent way analogous to biological coevolution. Since year 2000,
434-409: A common morphology and color because these are effective at attracting the birds. Different lengths and curvatures of the corolla tubes can affect the efficiency of extraction in hummingbird species in relation to differences in bill morphology. Tubular flowers force a bird to orient its bill in a particular way when probing the flower, especially when the bill and corolla are both curved. This allows
496-476: A flower is, to approach it, and to identify where to land and finally to feed. Secondly, flowers attract insects with patterns of stripes leading to the rewards of nectar and pollen, and colours such as blue and ultraviolet, to which their eyes are sensitive; in contrast, bird-pollinated flowers tend to be red or orange. Thirdly, flowers such as some orchids mimic females of particular insects, deceiving males into pseudocopulation . The yucca , Yucca whipplei ,
558-492: A growing number of management and organization studies discuss coevolution and coevolutionary processes. Even so, Abatecola el al. (2020) reveals a prevailing scarcity in explaining what processes substantially characterize coevolution in these fields, meaning that specific analyses about where this perspective on socio-economic change is, and where it could move toward in the future, are still missing. In Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of
620-563: A hundred species, are marine. Insects such as snow scorpionflies flourish in cold habitats including the Arctic and at high altitude. Insects such as desert locusts , ants, beetles, and termites are adapted to some of the hottest and driest environments on earth, such as the Sonoran Desert . Insects form a clade , a natural group with a common ancestor, among the arthropods . A phylogenetic analysis by Kjer et al. (2016) places
682-459: A kind of evolutionary process. Changes in hardware, an operating system or web browser may introduce new features that are then incorporated into the corresponding applications running alongside. The idea is closely related to the concept of "joint optimization" in sociotechnical systems analysis and design, where a system is understood to consist of both a "technical system" encompassing the tools and hardware used for production and maintenance, and
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#1732781072188744-505: A long proboscis. More generally, flowering plants are pollinated by insects from different families including bees , flies , and beetles , all of which form a broad guild of pollinators which respond to the nectar or pollen produced by flowers. Mosaic coevolution is a theory in which geographic location and community ecology shape differing coevolution between strongly interacting species in multiple populations. These populations may be separated by space and/or time. Depending on
806-625: A nearly immobile pupa . Insects that undergo three-stage metamorphosis lack a pupa, developing through a series of increasingly adult-like nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the insects is unclear. Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonfly-like insects with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm (22 to 28 in). The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants . Adult insects typically move about by walking and flying; some can swim. Insects are
868-442: A second species, and vice versa. This is not always the case. Another evolutionary mode arises where evolution is reciprocal, but is among a group of species rather than exactly two. This is variously called guild or diffuse coevolution. For instance, a trait in several species of flowering plant , such as offering its nectar at the end of a long tube, can coevolve with a trait in one or several species of pollinating insects, such as
930-525: A variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances. Other species communicate with sounds: crickets stridulate , or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyrid beetles communicate with light. Humans regard many insects as pests , especially those that damage crops, and attempt to control them using insecticides and other techniques. Others are parasitic , and may act as vectors of diseases . Insect pollinators are essential to
992-413: Is generally agreed that plants formed coevolutionary relationships with insects first, and ornithophilous species diverged at a later time. There is not much scientific support for instances of the reverse of this divergence: from ornithophily to insect pollination. The diversity in floral phenotype in ornithophilous species, and the relative consistency observed in bee-pollinated species can be attributed to
1054-627: Is known as the Red Queen hypothesis . The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the Red Queen's race in Through the Looking-Glass : "it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place". The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response. The parasite–host relationship probably drove
1116-475: Is pollinated exclusively by Tegeticula maculata , a yucca moth that depends on the yucca for survival. The moth eats the seeds of the plant, while gathering pollen. The pollen has evolved to become very sticky, and remains on the mouth parts when the moth moves to the next flower. The yucca provides a place for the moth to lay its eggs, deep within the flower away from potential predators. Hummingbirds and ornithophilous (bird-pollinated) flowers have evolved
1178-448: Is the coevolution of a host and a parasite . A general characteristic of many viruses, as obligate parasites , is that they coevolved alongside their respective hosts. Correlated mutations between the two species enter them into an evolution arms race. Whichever organism, host or parasite, that cannot keep up with the other will be eliminated from their habitat, as the species with the higher average population fitness survives. This race
1240-545: The Hymenoptera (wasps, bees and ants) and Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) as well as many types of Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles)—evolved in conjunction with flowering plants during the Cretaceous (145 to 66 million years ago). The earliest bees, important pollinators today, appeared in the early Cretaceous. A group of wasps sister to the bees evolved at the same time as flowering plants, as did
1302-853: The Latin word insectum from in , "cut up", as insects appear to be cut into three parts. The Latin word was introduced by Pliny the Elder who calqued the Ancient Greek word ἔντομον éntomon "insect" (as in entomology ) from ἔντομος éntomos "cut in pieces"; this was Aristotle 's term for this class of life in his biology , also in reference to their notched bodies. The English word insect first appears in 1601 in Philemon Holland 's translation of Pliny. In common speech, insects and other terrestrial arthropods are often called bugs . Entomologists to some extent reserve
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#17327810721881364-2317: The Paraneoptera , and Kjer et al. 2016 for the Holometabola . The numbers of described extant species (boldface for groups with over 100,000 species) are from Stork 2018. Archaeognatha (hump-backed/jumping bristletails, 513 spp) [REDACTED] Zygentoma (silverfish, firebrats, fishmoths, 560 spp) [REDACTED] Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies, 5,899 spp) [REDACTED] Ephemeroptera (mayflies, 3,240 spp) [REDACTED] Zoraptera (angel insects, 37 spp) [REDACTED] Dermaptera (earwigs, 1,978 spp) [REDACTED] Plecoptera (stoneflies, 3,743 spp) [REDACTED] Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, katydids, 23,855 spp) [REDACTED] Grylloblattodea (ice crawlers, 34 spp) [REDACTED] Mantophasmatodea (gladiators, 15 spp) [REDACTED] Phasmatodea (stick insects, 3,014 spp) [REDACTED] Embioptera (webspinners, 463 spp) [REDACTED] Mantodea (mantises, 2,400 spp) [REDACTED] Blattodea (cockroaches and termites, 7,314 spp) [REDACTED] Psocodea (book lice, barklice and sucking lice, 11,000 spp) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Hemiptera (true bugs, 103,590 spp) [REDACTED] Thysanoptera (thrips, 5,864 spp) [REDACTED] Hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, bees, ants, 116,861 spp) [REDACTED] Strepsiptera (twisted-wing flies, 609 spp) [REDACTED] Coleoptera (beetles, 386,500 spp) [REDACTED] Raphidioptera (snakeflies, 254 spp) [REDACTED] Neuroptera (lacewings, 5,868 spp) [REDACTED] Megaloptera (alderflies and dobsonflies, 354 spp) [REDACTED] Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths, 157,338 spp) [REDACTED] Trichoptera (caddisflies, 14,391 spp) [REDACTED] Diptera (true flies, 155,477 spp) [REDACTED] Mecoptera (scorpionflies, 757 spp) [REDACTED] Siphonaptera (fleas, 2,075 spp) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Coevolution In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution through
1426-508: The Rocky Mountains , red squirrels and crossbills (seed-eating birds) compete for seeds of the lodgepole pine . The squirrels get at pine seeds by gnawing through the cone scales, whereas the crossbills get at the seeds by extracting them with their unusual crossed mandibles. In areas where there are squirrels, the lodgepole's cones are heavier, and have fewer seeds and thinner scales, making it more difficult for squirrels to get at
1488-439: The class Insecta . They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum . Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton , a three-part body ( head , thorax and abdomen ), three pairs of jointed legs , compound eyes , and a pair of antennae . Insects are the most diverse group of animals, with more than a million described species ; they represent more than half of all animal species. The insect nervous system consists of
1550-756: The Future (1994) Richard Norgaard proposes a coevolutionary cosmology to explain how social and environmental systems influence and reshape each other. In Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment (1994) John Gowdy suggests that: "The economy, society, and the environment are linked together in a coevolutionary relationship". Computer software and hardware can be considered as two separate components but tied intrinsically by coevolution. Similarly, operating systems and computer applications , web browsers , and web applications . All these systems depend upon each other and advance through
1612-623: The Hemiptera (true bugs), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Diptera (true flies), Hymenoptera (wasps, ants, and bees), and Coleoptera (beetles), each with more than 100,000 described species. Insects are distributed over every continent and almost every terrestrial habitat. There are many more species in the tropics , especially in rainforests , than in temperate zones. The world's regions have received widely differing amounts of attention from entomologists. The British Isles have been thoroughly surveyed, so that Gullan and Cranston 2014 state that
1674-622: The Lepidoptera. Further, all the major clades of bees first appeared between the middle and late Cretaceous, simultaneously with the adaptive radiation of the eudicots (three quarters of all angiosperms), and at the time when the angiosperms became the world's dominant plants on land. At least three aspects of flowers appear to have coevolved between flowering plants and insects, because they involve communication between these organisms. Firstly, flowers communicate with their pollinators by scent; insects use this scent to determine how far away
1736-688: The Origin of Species , and developed the concept further in Fertilisation of Orchids (1862). Modern insect-pollinated (entomophilous) flowers are conspicuously coadapted with insects to ensure pollination and in return to reward the pollinators with nectar and pollen. The two groups have coevolved for over 100 million years, creating a complex network of interactions. Either they evolved together, or at some later stages they came together, likely with pre-adaptations, and became mutually adapted. Several highly successful insect groups—especially
1798-612: The bird to avoid these flowers. Each of the two subfamilies of hummingbirds, the Phaethornithinae (hermits) and the Trochilinae , has evolved in conjunction with a particular set of flowers. Most Phaethornithinae species are associated with large monocotyledonous herbs, while the Trochilinae prefer dicotyledonous plant species. The genus Ficus is composed of 800 species of vines, shrubs, and trees, including
1860-406: The colonies are fully dependent on these hybrids to survive, it is also mutualistic. While there is no genetic exchange between the species, they are unable to evolve in a direction where they become too genetically different as this would make crossbreeding impossible. Predators and prey interact and coevolve: the predator to catch the prey more effectively, the prey to escape. The coevolution of
1922-495: The cultivated fig, defined by their syconia , the fruit-like vessels that either hold female flowers or pollen on the inside. Each fig species has its own fig wasp which (in most cases) pollinates the fig, so a tight mutual dependence has evolved and persisted throughout the genus. The acacia ant ( Pseudomyrmex ferruginea ) is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia" ( Vachellia ) from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and
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1984-455: The development of yet new resistant crop plant varieties, producing an ongoing cycle of reciprocal evolution in crop plants and diseases that continues to this day. Coevolution as a major topic for study in nature expanded rapidly from the 1960s, when Daniel H. Janzen showed coevolution between acacias and ants (see below) and Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven suggested how coevolution between plants and butterflies may have contributed to
2046-489: The direction of the shift in pollinator preference. Flowers have converged to take advantage of similar birds. Flowers compete for pollinators, and adaptations reduce unfavourable effects of this competition. The fact that birds can fly during inclement weather makes them more efficient pollinators where bees and other insects would be inactive. Ornithophily may have arisen for this reason in isolated environments with poor insect colonization or areas with plants which flower in
2108-415: The diversification of species in both groups. The theoretical underpinnings of coevolution are now well-developed (e.g., the geographic mosaic theory of coevolution), and demonstrate that coevolution can play an important role in driving major evolutionary transitions such as the evolution of sexual reproduction or shifts in ploidy . More recently, it has also been demonstrated that coevolution can influence
2170-443: The ecological conditions, the interspecific interactions may be mutualistic or antagonistic. In mutualisms, both partners benefit from the interaction, whereas one partner generally experiences decreased fitness in antagonistic interactions. Arms races consist of two species adapting ways to "one up" the other. Several factors affect these relationships, including hot spots, cold spots, and trait mixing. Reciprocal selection occurs when
2232-502: The eggs and young of the host and thus having a strong negative impact on the host's reproductive fitness. Their eggs are camouflaged as eggs of their hosts, implying that hosts can distinguish their own eggs from those of intruders and are in an evolutionary arms race with the cuckoo between camouflage and recognition. Cuckoos are counter-adapted to host defences with features such as thickened eggshells, shorter incubation (so their young hatch first), and flat backs adapted to lift eggs out of
2294-623: The evolutionary fitness of the sexes is counteracted to achieve maximum reproductive success. For example, some insects reproduce using traumatic insemination , which is disadvantageous to the female's health. During mating, males try to maximise their fitness by inseminating as many females as possible, but the more times a female's abdomen is punctured, the less likely she is to survive, reducing her fitness. The types of coevolution listed so far have been described as if they operated pairwise (also called specific coevolution), in which traits of one species have evolved in direct response to traits of
2356-474: The flowering plants and pollinating insects such as bees , flies , and beetles . There are a suite of specific hypotheses on the mechanisms by which groups of species coevolve with each other. Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but researchers have applied it by analogy to fields such as computer science , sociology , and astronomy . Coevolution is the evolution of two or more species which reciprocally affect each other, sometimes creating
2418-444: The flowers of Mimulus cardinalis may function primarily to discourage bee visitation. In Penstemon , flower traits that discourage bee pollination may be more influential on the flowers' evolutionary change than 'pro-bird' adaptations, but adaptation 'towards' birds and 'away' from bees can happen simultaneously. However, some flowers such as Heliconia angusta appear not to be as specifically ornithophilous as had been supposed:
2480-608: The insects among the Hexapoda , six-legged animals with segmented bodies; their closest relatives are the Diplura (bristletails). Collembola (springtails) [REDACTED] Protura (coneheads) [REDACTED] Diplura (two-pronged bristletails) [REDACTED] Insecta (=Ectognatha) [REDACTED] The internal phylogeny is based on the works of Wipfler et al. 2019 for the Polyneoptera , Johnson et al. 2018 for
2542-422: The late 1800s studied other examples of how interactions among species could result in reciprocal evolutionary change. Beginning in the 1940s, plant pathologists developed breeding programs that were examples of human-induced coevolution. Development of new crop plant varieties that were resistant to some diseases favored rapid evolution in pathogen populations to overcome those plant defenses. That, in turn, required
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2604-406: The legs or other parts of the body. Their sense of smell is via receptors, usually on the antennae and the mouthparts. Nearly all insects hatch from eggs . Insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton, so development involves a series of molts . The immature stages often differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat. Groups that undergo four-stage metamorphosis often have
2666-402: The name "bugs" for a narrow category of " true bugs ", insects of the order Hemiptera , such as cicadas and shield bugs . Other terrestrial arthropods, such as centipedes , millipedes , woodlice , spiders , mites and scorpions , are sometimes confused with insects, since they have a jointed exoskeleton. Adult insects are the only arthropods that ever have wings, with up to two pairs on
2728-444: The nest. Antagonistic coevolution is seen in the harvester ant species Pogonomyrmex barbatus and Pogonomyrmex rugosus , in a relationship both parasitic and mutualistic. The queens are unable to produce worker ants by mating with their own species. Only by crossbreeding can they produce workers. The winged females act as parasites for the males of the other species as their sperm will only produce sterile hybrids. But because
2790-554: The only invertebrates that can achieve sustained powered flight; insect flight evolved just once. Many insects are at least partly aquatic , and have larvae with gills; in some species, the adults too are aquatic. Some species, such as water striders , can walk on the surface of water. Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as bees , ants and termites , are social and live in large, well-organized colonies . Others, such as earwigs , provide maternal care, guarding their eggs and young. Insects can communicate with each other in
2852-523: The plant to place pollen on a certain part of the bird's body, permitting a variety of morphological co-adaptations . Ornithophilous flowers need to be conspicuous to birds. Birds have their greatest spectral sensitivity and finest hue discrimination at the red end of the visual spectrum , so red is particularly conspicuous to them. Hummingbirds may also be able to see ultraviolet "colors". The prevalence of ultraviolet patterns and nectar guides in nectar-poor entomophilous (insect-pollinated) flowers warns
2914-605: The population level and is driven by both the biotic and the abiotic environment. These environmental factors can constrain coevolution and affect how far it can escalate. Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but has been applied to other fields by analogy. Coevolutionary algorithms are used for generating artificial life as well as for optimization, game learning and machine learning . Daniel Hillis added "co-evolving parasites" to prevent an optimization procedure from becoming stuck at local maxima. Karl Sims coevolved virtual creatures. The concept of coevolution
2976-409: The prevalence of sexual reproduction over the more efficient asexual reproduction. It seems that when a parasite infects a host, sexual reproduction affords a better chance of developing resistance (through variation in the next generation), giving sexual reproduction variability for fitness not seen in the asexual reproduction, which produces another generation of the organism susceptible to infection by
3038-455: The process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species affecting each other's evolution, as well as gene-culture coevolution . Charles Darwin mentioned evolutionary interactions between flowering plants and insects in On the Origin of Species (1859). Although he did not use the word coevolution, he suggested how plants and insects could evolve through reciprocal evolutionary changes. Naturalists in
3100-535: The reproduction of many flowering plants and so to their ecosystems. Many insects are ecologically beneficial as predators of pest insects, while a few provide direct economic benefit. Two species in particular are economically important and were domesticated many centuries ago: silkworms for silk and honey bees for honey . Insects are consumed as food in 80% of the world's nations, by people in roughly 3000 ethnic groups. Human activities are having serious effects on insect biodiversity . The word insect comes from
3162-456: The same parasite. Coevolution between host and parasite may accordingly be responsible for much of the genetic diversity seen in normal populations, including blood-plasma polymorphism, protein polymorphism, and histocompatibility systems. Brood parasitism demonstrates close coevolution of host and parasite, for example in some cuckoos . These birds do not make their own nests, but lay their eggs in nests of other species, ejecting or killing
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#17327810721883224-619: The seeds. Conversely, where there are crossbills but no squirrels, the cones are lighter in construction, but have thicker scales, making it more difficult for crossbills to get at the seeds. The lodgepole's cones are in an evolutionary arms race with the two kinds of herbivore. Both intraspecific competition , with features such as sexual conflict and sexual selection , and interspecific competition , such as between predators, may be able to drive coevolution. Intraspecific competition can result in sexual antagonistic coevolution , an evolutionary relationship analogous to an arms race , where
3286-419: The selective pressures drive an evolutionary arms race between the species involved. Pairwise or specific coevolution , between exactly two species, is not the only possibility; in multi-species coevolution , which is sometimes called guild or diffuse coevolution , several to many species may evolve a trait or a group of traits in reciprocity with a set of traits in another species, as has happened between
3348-490: The species is occasionally (151 visits in 120 hours of observation) visited by Trigona stingless bees. These bees are largely pollen robbers in this case, but may also serve as pollinators. Following their respective breeding seasons, several species of hummingbirds occur at the same locations in North America , and several hummingbird flowers bloom simultaneously in these habitats. These flowers have converged to
3410-487: The structure and function of ecological communities, the evolution of groups of mutualists such as plants and their pollinators, and the dynamics of infectious disease. Each party in a coevolutionary relationship exerts selective pressures on the other, thereby affecting each other's evolution. Coevolution includes many forms of mutualism , host-parasite , and predator-prey relationships between species, as well as competition within or between species . In many cases,
3472-527: The thorax. Whether winged or not, adult insects can be distinguished by their three-part body plan, with head, thorax, and abdomen; they have three pairs of legs on the thorax. Estimates of the total number of insect species vary considerably, suggesting that there are perhaps some 5.5 million insect species in existence, of which about one million have been described and named. These constitute around half of all eukaryote species, including animals , plants , and fungi . The most diverse insect orders are
3534-525: The total of around 22,500 species is probably within 5% of the actual number there; they comment that Canada's list of 30,000 described species is surely over half of the actual total. They add that the 3000 species of the American Arctic must be broadly accurate. In contrast, a large majority of the insect species of the tropics and the southern hemisphere are probably undescribed. Some 30–40,000 species inhabit freshwater ; very few insects, perhaps
3596-434: The tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae. Such mutualism is not automatic: other ant species exploit trees without reciprocating, following different evolutionary strategies . These cheater ants impose important host costs via damage to tree reproductive organs, though their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast. Host–parasite coevolution
3658-436: The two mutually imposes selective pressures . These often lead to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in anti-predator adaptations . The same applies to herbivores , animals that eat plants, and the plants that they eat. Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven in 1964 proposed the theory of escape and radiate coevolution to describe the evolutionary diversification of plants and butterflies. In
3720-488: The winter. Bird-pollinated flowers usually have higher volumes of nectar and higher sugar production than those pollinated by insects. This meets the birds' high energy requirements, the most important determinants of flower choice. In Mimulus , an increase in red pigment in petals and flower nectar volume noticeably reduces the proportion of pollination by bees as opposed to hummingbirds; while greater flower surface area increases bee pollination. Therefore, red pigments in
3782-620: The work of entomologists , arachnologists , and other scientists that study terrestrial arthropods and similar animals. Some insectariums may include museum displays of mounted insects and exhibits about insects. A butterfly house is a type of insectarium that specializes in live butterflies and moths . In addition, there are seasonal butterfly gardens on display at many zoos, botanical gardens , nature centers , natural history museums , and science museums . Public insectariums or insect zoos include: Insect Insects (from Latin insectum ) are hexapod invertebrates of
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#17327810721883844-702: Was introduced in architecture by the Danish architect-urbanist Henrik Valeur as an antithesis to "star-architecture". As the curator of the Danish Pavilion at the 2006 Venice Biennale of Architecture, he created an exhibition-project on coevolution in urban development in China; it won the Golden Lion for Best National Pavilion. At the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Newcastle University ,
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