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46-605: As of 2019, the Ioffe institute employed about 1500 people, around 1000 of whom were scientific researchers (including 560 with a PhD degree and 250 with a Doktor Nauk degree). Most of the research staff members are top graduates of the St. Petersburg (former Leningrad) universities. From 2013 until mid-May 2018 the Ioffe institute was under formal jurisdiction of the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations (FASO Russia), now it

92-478: A cornucopia . The Genius of Science holds the veil which covers Nature's "cold and austere face". It was designed by Erik Lindberg and is manufactured by Svenska Medalj in Eskilstuna . It is inscribed " Inventas vitam iuvat excoluisse per artes " ("It is beneficial to have improved (human) life through discovered arts"), an adaptation of " inventas aut qui vitam excoluere per artes " from line 663 of book 6 of

138-511: A Doctor of Sciences, she or he can make it to a full professor only through 15 years or more of outstanding teaching service on the university level. At least one published and widely accepted textbook and the degree of Kandidat Nauk are required in the latter case, anyway. A Doctor of Sciences degree holder can become a tenured full professor after just one year of teaching experience in a non-tenured faculty position. A degree of Doctor of Sciences also enables its holders to claim an academic rank of

184-515: A Ph.D. degree in Western universities. In particular, for the Doktor , the academic institution, where the scholar is affiliated as a doctoral candidate, must conduct a preliminary review of the research results and personal contribution made by the candidate and, depending on findings, elect whether to render formal support or not. By definition, this highly prestigious degree can be conferred only for

230-538: A diploma and a certificate for the monetary award. The front side of the medal displays the same profile of Alfred Nobel depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry, and Literature. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the extraordinary services he rendered by the discovery of X-rays . This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and

276-437: A few Ph.D. students while working towards his or her Doctor of Sciences dissertation. However, it is normal practice when an experienced consultant is appointed to help the scholar with identifying the research problem and finding the approach to solving it; yet this is not technically regarded a supervision. The procedures of conferring of both Kandidat and Doktor academic degrees are more formal and different from conferring

322-426: A picture with the name of the laureate and a citation explaining their accomplishments. At the awards ceremony, the laureate is given a document indicating the award sum. The amount of the cash award may differ from year to year, based on the funding available from the Nobel Foundation . For example, in 2009 the total cash awarded was 10 million Swedish Kronor (SEK) (US$ 1.4 million), but in 2012 following

368-677: A prize, as the discoverers have died by the time the impact of their work is appreciated. A Physics Nobel Prize laureate is awarded a gold medal, a diploma bearing a citation, and a sum of money. The medal for the Nobel Prize in Physics is identical in design to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry medal. The reverse of the physics and chemistry medals depicts the Goddess of Nature in the form of Isis as she emerges from clouds holding

414-670: A professor awarded by VAK or a new rank of a " Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences " established in 2015. The Doctor of Sciences thus has no academic equivalent in North America, as it is a post-doctoral degree . The German Habilitation and, to some extent, the French habilitation à diriger des recherches ( HDR ) are comparable to it, as are the British higher doctorates (e.g. Doctor of Science), although

460-458: A significant contribution to science and/or technology based on a public defense of a thesis, monograph, or (in rare cases) of a set of outstanding publications in peer-reviewed journals. The defense must be held at the session of a Specialized Dissertation Committee accredited by VAK. Prior to the defense, three referees holding Doctor of Sciences degrees themselves (the so-called "official opponents") must submit their written motivated assessments of

506-614: A yard part, and in 1970 the building was reconstructed and expanded along Kurchatov Street. Beyond this historical building, a more modern building on another side of the Kurchatov Street (the right part of the photo) also belongs to the Ioffe Institute. It was constructed in the 1970s. Furthermore, some laboratories of the Ioffe Institute are placed in Shuvalovo, a north-west outskirts of St. Petersburg. In front of

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552-545: Is a higher doctoral degree in the Russian Empire , Soviet Union and many Commonwealth of Independent States countries. One of the prerequisites of receiving a Doctor of Sciences degree is having a PhD -equivalent Candidate of Sciences degree beforehand. In addition, the Doctor of Sciences conferral also requires applicants to demonstrate significant and outstanding contributions to their research field. This degree

598-621: Is generally regarded as an honor and recognition for lifetime academic achievements rather than an ordinary academic degree by courses and theses. The "Doctor of Sciences" degree was introduced in the Russian Empire in 1819 and abolished in 1917. Later it was revived in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR . By the same decision, a lower degree, " Candidate of Sciences " ( kandidat nauk ), roughly

644-416: Is typically about 20, all holding the Doctor of Sciences degree. The area of research specialization of at least five committee members must match the profile of the materials submitted by the doctoral candidate for the consideration. The candidate must conduct independent research. Therefore, no academic supervisor is required; moreover, typically the candidate is an established scholar him/herself, supervising

690-684: Is under jurisdiction of the established in May 2018 Ministry of Science and Higher Education , like all other institutions of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS). The institute is organized into five divisions: Each of the divisions includes several laboratories. The institute has its own graduate school and a scientific council. There exists an intensive collaboration with the research and industrial establishments in Russia and worldwide. The institute publishes five scientific journals: Semiconductors ( Russian : Физика и техника полупроводников ), Physics of

736-467: Is widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics. It is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on the 10th of December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. As of 2024 , a total of 226 individuals have been awarded the prize. Alfred Nobel , in his last will and testament, stated that his wealth should be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer

782-665: The Aeneid by the Roman poet Virgil . A plate below the figures is inscribed with the name of the recipient. The text " REG. ACAD. SCIENT. SUEC. " denoting the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences is inscribed on the reverse. Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden . Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureate who receives it. The diploma contains

828-737: The Bologna Process and is therefore equivalent to either a PhD , or to a higher doctorate , depending on the institution awarding the degree. Doctor of Sciences degrees are conferred by a national government agency called the Higher Attestation Commission (Vysshaya attestatsionnaya komissiya, VAK) on the solicitation by the specialized dissertation committee before which the candidate has defended her or his dissertation. Such committees are created in academic institutions with established research record and are accredited by VAK. The total number of committee members

874-485: The Great Recession , the amount was 8 million SEK, or US$ 1.1 million. If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients, but if there are three, the awarding committee may opt to divide the grant equally, or award half to one recipient and a quarter to each of the two others. The committee and institution serving as the selection board for

920-592: The Nobel Committee for Physics , a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . During the first stage which begins in September, a group of about 3,000 selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry, and others are sent confidential nomination forms. The completed forms must arrive at the Nobel Committee by 31 January of

966-712: The Russian Academy of Sciences : According to the International Standard Classification of Education, for purposes of international educational statistics: Nobel Prize in Physics The Nobel Prize in Physics ( Swedish : Nobelpriset i fysik ) is an annual award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who have made the most outstanding contributions to mankind in

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1012-584: The "greatest benefit on mankind" in the fields of physics , chemistry , peace , physiology or medicine, and literature. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish kronor (US$ 2.9 million, or €2.7 million in 2023), to establish and endow

1058-532: The Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, "In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Doctor Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of the second doctoral degree. In countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Doctor Nauk should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this degree." According to guidelines published by

1104-625: The Peace Prize were appointed soon after the will was approved. The other prize-awarding organisations followed: Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation then established guidelines for awarding the prizes. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II . According to Nobel's will,

1150-572: The Prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years. While posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the committee (typically in October) and the ceremony in December. Prior to 1974, posthumous awards were permitted if the candidate had died after being nominated. The rules for the Nobel Prize in Physics require that

1196-455: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences would award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics. Compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics. The Nobel laureates are selected by

1242-547: The Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in other countries, was first introduced. This system was generally adopted by the USSR /Russia and many post-Soviet/Eastern bloc states, including Bulgaria , Belarus , former Czechoslovakia , Poland (since abolished), and Ukraine . But the former Yugoslav degree "Doktor nauka" / "Доктор наука" / "Doktor znanosti", still awarded by Bosnia Herzegovina , Croatia , Montenegro , North Macedonia , Serbia , and Slovenia follows

1288-529: The Solid State ( Russian : Физика твёрдого тела ), Optics and Spectroscopy ( Russian : Оптика и спектроскопия ), and Technical Physics (journal + letters) ( Russian : Журнал технической физики (основной + письма )). The foundation date of the Ioffe Institute is September 23, 1918 – the day of signing the decree on the establishment of the physical and technical department in the (established in March of

1334-493: The USSR, State Prizes of Russia, Government prizes and special prizes of the Soviet/Russian Academy of Sciences. Twice, the Nobel Prize was awarded for the works performed at the Ioffe Institute. In 1956, academician N. N. Semyonov (together with C. N. Hinshelwood ) got the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for a discovery and study of chain reactions : the works were made and published in 1927, when N. N. Semyonov

1380-476: The development of renewable energy. The main building of the Ioffe Institute (s. photo at the top of the article and the very left part of the photo below) is located at Polytechnicheskaya Street, 26. It was built in a Neoclassicism style in 1912–1916 by the architect G. D. Grimm and served as "a refuge for the elderly needy hereditary noblemen in commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the Romanovs' house" at

1426-521: The field of physics . It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901, the others being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry , Nobel Prize in Literature , Nobel Peace Prize , and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Physics is traditionally the first award presented in the Nobel Prize ceremony. The prize consists of a medal along with

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1472-534: The five Nobel Prizes. Owing to the level of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting (Norwegian Parliament). The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organise the prizes. The members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award

1518-654: The following year. The nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts and are narrowed to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the final candidates to the Academy, where, in the Physics Class, it is further discussed. The Academy then makes the final selection of the Laureates in Physics by a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never publicly announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for

1564-504: The forty-prized ones, on the second floor they arranged Church (now the Small Assembly Hall of the institute). In 1920 the building was adapted to the institute by the design of civil engineers P. I. Sidorov and Yu. V. Bilinsky. The ceremonial transfer of the building to the institute took place on February 4, 1923. Until 1953, the apartment of A. F. Ioffe was located in the same building. In the years 1927–1928 there appeared

1610-406: The institute became “Leningrad Physicotechnical Institute”. The form “Physicotechnical” is a Russian variant for “Physical & Technical”. Three decades later, in the 1960s, the word “Ioffe” was added to the institute name, in honor of the first director. Since 1939, the institute has been a member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (since 1991 – of the Russian Academy of Sciences). In 1967, it

1656-540: The institute for some time. The research of the institute covers nearly all fields of the contemporary physics, including the solid-state, semiconductors, quantum electronics, astrophysics, plasma, fluid dynamics, cosmology, nuclear synthesis. More than 100 employees of the institute were recognized by awarding the highest prizes and orders of the Soviet Union and of Russia – in particular the Lenin and State Prizes of

1702-420: The last-mentioned are not required for career advancement. On the average, only 10 per cent of Kandidats eventually earn a Doktor degree. Although some exceptionally talented researchers in mathematics do earn Doctor of Sciences in their late 20s, the average age of the scholars reaching Doktor in most disciplines is about 50; this implicitly indicates the amount of contribution that must be made. According to

1748-645: The main facade are the busts of Abram Ioffe (sculptor G. D. Glickman, 1964) and Boris Konstantinov (sculptor Mikhail Anikushin , 1975). On either side of the main entrance are memorial plaques: to the left of the entrance are S. N. Zhurkov, Yulii Borisovich Khariton , Anatoly Alexandrov , Yakov Frenkel , and V. M. Tuchkevich  [ ru ] ; right of the entrance - Igor Kurchatov , B. P. Konstantinov, Nikolay Semyonov . Before 1950 – Abram Ioffe 60°00′24.63″N 30°22′07.72″E  /  60.0068417°N 30.3688111°E  / 60.0068417; 30.3688111 Doktor Nauk A Doctor of Sciences

1794-411: The name “[А. F.] Ioffe [Physical-Technical] Institute [of the Russian Academy of Sciences]” is used (the optional fragments are enclosed in square brackets). The Ioffe Institute is considered the cradle of Soviet physics. Such outstanding scientists as L. D. Landau , P. L. Kapitsa started their career here, many physicists — among them Y. B. Zeldovich , I. V. Kurchatov , I. E. Tamm — have worked at

1840-622: The prize typically announce the names of the laureates during the first week of October. The prize is then awarded at formal ceremonies held annually in Stockholm Concert Hall on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The laureates receive a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount. After Nobel's death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to carry out the provisions of his will and to administer his funds. In his will, he had stipulated that four different institutions—three Swedish and one Norwegian—should award

1886-609: The prizes. From Stockholm, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences confers the prizes for physics, chemistry, and economics, the Karolinska Institute confers the prize for physiology or medicine, and the Swedish Academy confers the prize for literature. The Norwegian Nobel Committee based in Oslo confers the prize for peace. The Nobel Foundation is the legal owner and functional administrator of the funds and serves as

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1932-744: The same year) State Roentgenological and Radiological Institute in Petrograd . Despite tremendous economic problems after the World War I and the October Revolution (1917), the development of science was one of the priorities of the new Communist government. The abovementioned department was headed by A. F. Ioffe . In 1922, on its basis, the State Physicotechnical Radiology Institute has emerged. After several reorganizations and renaming, since 1933,

1978-563: The significance of achievements being recognized has been "tested by time". In practice, that means that the lag between the discovery and the award is typically on the order of 20 years and can be much longer. For example, half of the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar for his work on stellar structure and evolution that was done during the 1930s. As a downside of this tested-by-time rule, not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognized. Some important scientific discoveries are never considered for

2024-502: The thesis. One more similar assessment is to be provided by some university or academic institution, working in the same field of science or technology, and in addition several other reviewers must mail their conclusions made based on a thesis summary (usually a 32-page brochure in natural sciences and 48 pages in social sciences). In the former USSR, this degree is considered a sufficient credential for tenured full professorship at any institution of higher education. Unless an academic holds

2070-420: Was a staff member of the institute. In 2000, Zh. I. Alferov , director of the Ioffe Institute at that time, became a Nobel Prize laureate in Physics (together with H. Kroemer and J. Kilby ) for the development of semiconductor heterostructures for high-speed optoelectronics. The Ioffe Institute has played a central role in the development of photovoltaic solar power in Russia and internationally, and thus in

2116-596: Was awarded the Order of Lenin . These details were reflected in the institute name, especially in Russian. Also now, for historical reasons, there remained the entrance plaque (s. photo): “Academy of Sciences of the USSR, A. F. Ioffe Physicotechnical Institute, awarded the Order of Lenin” ( Russian : Oрдена Ленина Физико-технический институт им. А. Ф. Иоффе АН СССР ). Presently, in English texts, for example in scientific papers,

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