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64-933: The Ibálong , also known as Handiong or Handyong , is a 60-stanza fragment of a Bicolano full-length folk epic of the Bicol region of the Philippines , based on the Indian Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata . The epic is said to have been narrated in verse form by a native bard called Kadunung . It was passed on orally until it was presumably jotted down in its complete Bicol narrative by Fray Bernardino de Melendreras de la Trinidad . The Ibalong portrays deeds in heroic proportions, centering on white men or tawong-lipod who were warrior-heroes named, among others, Tambaloslos , Baltog , Handyong , and Bantong . They came from Boltavara (present-day India), settling and ruling Bicol and its people. The epic

128-644: A talisay tree in front of his house in Tondol. For this marvelous feat, he was acknowledged as chief of the local hunters. The clans of Panicuason and Asog came over to marvel at the monstrous wild boar in Ibálong. Next to come was Handyong. With his followers, he fought the monsters of the land. But Oryol, a wily serpent who appeared as a beautiful maiden with a seductive voice, was one whom Handyong could not destroy. Meanwhile, Oryol admired Handyong's bravery and gallantry. Because of this, Oryol helped Handyong clear

192-619: A Franciscan missionary in Guinobatan, Albay , when he got acquainted with an errant Bicolano bard referred to in the epic as Kadunung. It was put afterward into Spanish by Melendreras in Ibal, a 400-page manuscript in verse on the ancient customs of the Albay indios. The 60-stanza portion was later included in a treatise on the Bicol region by Fray Jose Castaño in 1895. However, no credit

256-416: A sustainable way. Many varieties of rice have been bred to improve crop quality and productivity. Biotechnology has created Green Revolution rice able to produce high yields when supplied with nitrogen fertiliser and managed intensively. Other products are rice able to express human proteins for medicinal use; flood-tolerant or deepwater rice ; and drought-tolerant and salt-tolerant varieties. Rice

320-403: A branched inflorescence which arises from the last internode on the stem. There can be up to 350 spikelets in a panicle, each containing male and female flower parts ( anthers and ovule ). A fertilised ovule develops into the edible grain or caryopsis . Rice is a cereal belonging to the family Poaceae . As a tropical crop, it can be grown during the two distinct seasons (dry and wet) of

384-466: A catastrophe destroyed it some 4,500 years ago. The Ibálong is an invaluable piece of literature that marks the spontaneous record of the ancient Bicol's early struggle for principle, survival, and growth. It commemorates the Bicolano people 's resilience against the typhoons that annually beset their region. It stresses the humble accomplishments and peaceful pursuits of the early Bicolanos, including

448-483: A golden period in Ibálong when even slaves were respected under the laws of Handyong. Then came a great flood, freed by Unos, that changed the features of the land. Three volcanoes, named Hantik , Kulasi , and Isarog erupted simultaneously. Inundations caused lands to sink, from which Lake Buhi came about, or rise, as in the strip of seacoast in Pasacao , Camarines Sur , and wiped out many settlements, especially

512-411: A role in various religions and traditions, such as in weddings . The rice plant can grow to over 1 m (3 ft) tall; if in deep water, it can reach a length of 5 m (16 ft). A single plant may have several leafy stems or tillers . The upright stem is jointed with nodes along its length; a long slender leaf arises from each node. The self-fertile flowers are produced in a panicle ,

576-514: A single domestication event for O. sativa . Both indica and japonica forms of Asian rice sprang from a single domestication event in China from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon . Despite this evidence, it appears that indica rice arose when japonica arrived in India about 4,500 years ago and hybridised with another rice, whether an undomesticated proto- indica or wild O. nivara . Rice

640-440: A wide variety of pests including insects, nematodes, rodents such as rats, snails, and birds. Major rice insect pests include armyworms, rice bugs , black bugs , cutworms, field crickets, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, mealybugs, and planthoppers. High rates of nitrogen fertiliser application may worsen aphid outbreaks. Weather conditions can contribute to pest outbreaks: rice gall midge outbreaks are worsened by high rainfall in

704-436: Is rainfed like wheat or maize. Across Asia, unmilled rice or "paddy" (Indonesian and Malay padi ), was traditionally the product of smallholder agriculture, with manual harvesting . Larger farms make use of machines such as combine harvesters to reduce the input of labour. The grain is ready to harvest when the moisture content is 20–25%. Harvesting involves reaping , stacking the cut stalks, threshing to separate

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768-678: Is 69% water, 29% carbohydrates , 2% protein , and contains negligible fat (table). In a reference serving of 100 grams (3.5 oz), cooked white rice provides 130 calories of food energy , and contains moderate levels of manganese (18% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (all less than 10% of the Daily Value ). In 2018, the World Health Organization strongly recommended fortifying rice with iron , and conditionally recommended fortifying it with vitamin A and with folic acid . Golden rice

832-744: Is a cereal grain and in its domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population , particularly in Asia and Africa . Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice)—or, much less commonly, Oryza glaberrima (African rice). Asian rice was domesticated in China some 13,500 to 8,200 years ago; African rice was domesticated in Africa about 3,000 years ago. Rice has become commonplace in many cultures worldwide; in 2021, 787 million tons were produced, placing it fourth after sugarcane , maize , and wheat . Only some 8% of rice

896-627: Is a major food staple in Asia, Latin America, and some parts of Africa, feeding over half the world's population. However, a substantial part of the crop can be lost post-harvest through inefficient transportation, storage, and milling. A quarter of the crop in Nigeria is lost after harvest. Storage losses include damage by mould fungi if the rice is not dried sufficiently. In China, losses in modern metal silos were just 0.2%, compared to 7–13% when rice

960-445: Is a variety produced through genetic engineering to synthesize beta-carotene , a precursor of vitamin A, in the endosperm of the rice grain. It is intended to be grown and eaten in parts of the world where Vitamin A deficiency is prevalent. Golden rice has been opposed by activists, such as in the Philippines . In 2016 more than 100 Nobel laureates encouraged the use of genetically modified organisms , such as golden rice, for

1024-581: Is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance, landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape—from biological to social. Farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary. Pesticides may actually induce resurgence of populations of rice pests such as the brown planthopper , both by destroying beneficial insects and by enhancing the pest's reproduction. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers. Farmers in China, Indonesia and

1088-578: Is celebrated in Legazpi City during the month of August. The Ibalong festival features the various characters from the epic while celebrating through song and dance. It is also performed in theaters like Tanghalang Pilipino 's Ibalong the Musical by Rody Vera. Many accomplishments and advances made by the ancient Bikols were credited to various characters mentioned in the epic. Long before Spaniards arrived in Bicol and introduced Christianity ,

1152-508: Is from Asia. The average world yield for rice was 4.7 metric tons per hectare (2.1 short tons per acre), in 2022. Yuan Longping of China's National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center set a world record for rice yield in 1999 at 17.1 metric tons per hectare (7.6 short tons per acre) on a demonstration plot. This employed specially developed hybrid rice and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an innovation in rice farming. Rice

1216-431: Is known about the legendary beginnings of Bicol might describe the area circa 4,500 years ago. The epic-fragment portrays ancient Bicol as lush in jungle growth, teeming with fish and wild game, and dotted by mountain ranges, hills, and volcanoes. The bard Kadunung in the epic recounted this as the glorious Bikolandia , a beautiful and fertile ancient land of long ago, inhabited by strong and brave people, that existed before

1280-481: Is now called the Strait of San Bernardino and is considered enchanted or engkantado. The parallelism of the events in the Ibálong and the above-cited legend with what actually happened under Spanish rule seems to suggest the total transformation of the inhabitants from a sturdy phase to becoming passive people. There is no definite date that can be given to where the epic-fragment starts and ends, however, what little

1344-585: Is set in the land of Aslon and Ibalong. The mountains Asog , Masaraga , Isarog , and Lingyon were prominent features of the area. In its oldest known text, the folk epic does not have a title. Its oldest existing account is written in Spanish . A non-religious festival called the Ibalong Festival is celebrated annually in honor of the epic Ibalong as a commemoration of the Ibalon geography. It

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1408-812: Is sister to the bamboos, Bambusoideae , and the cereal subfamily Pooideae . The rice genus Oryza is one of eleven in the Oryzeae; it is sister to the Phyllorachideae . The edible rice species O. sativa and O. glaberrima are among some 300 species or subspecies in the genus. other grasses (inc. the C4 grasses , maize , sorghum ) Streptogyneae Ehrharteae Phyllorachideae Wild rices inc. Zizania other rice species and subspecies O. sativa (Asian rice) O. glaberrima (African rice) Bambusoideae (bamboos) Pooideae (grasses and cereals inc. wheat , barley ) Oryza sativa rice

1472-694: Is stickier, and is used for sweet dishes, and in Italy for risotto ; and sticky short-grain rice is used in Japanese sushi as it keeps its shape when cooked. White rice when cooked contains 29% carbohydrate and 2% protein, with some manganese . Golden rice is a variety produced by genetic engineering to contain vitamin A . Production of rice is estimated to have caused over 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2022. Predictions of how rice yields will be affected by climate change vary across geographies and socioeconomic contexts. In human culture, rice plays

1536-438: Is subjected to a steaming process before it is milled. This makes the grain harder, and moves some of the grain's vitamins and minerals into the white part of the rice so these are retained after milling. Rice does not contain gluten , so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet . Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein as it does not contain all of

1600-406: Is to flood the field to a depth of 5 cm (2 in), then to let the water level drop to 15 cm (6 in) below surface level, as measured by looking into a perforated field water tube sunk into the soil, and then repeating the cycle. Deepwater rice varieties tolerate flooding to a depth of over 50 centimetres for at least a month. Upland rice is grown without flooding, in hilly or mountainous regions; it

1664-509: Is traded internationally. China, India, and Indonesia are the largest consumers of rice. A substantial amount of the rice produced in developing nations is lost after harvest through factors such as poor transport and storage. Rice yields can be reduced by pests including insects , rodents , and birds , as well as by weeds , and by diseases such as rice blast . Traditional rice polycultures such as rice-duck farming , and modern integrated pest management seek to control damage from pests in

1728-420: Is unusual because Spaniards introduced saints and fiestas and all religious-related activities except Ibalong. It is also a celebration of the province's people and their resiliency, given the string of calamities that regularly befall the region given its typhoon -prone geographical location. The full-length narrative is presumably jotted down by Fray Bernardino de Melendreras de la Trinidad (1815-1867),

1792-471: Is used as a model organism in biology. Dry rice grain is milled to remove the outer layers; depending on how much is removed, products range from brown rice to rice with germ and white rice. Some is parboiled to make it easy to cook. Rice contains no gluten ; it provides protein but not all the essential amino acids needed for good health. Rice of different types is eaten around the world. Long-grain rice tends to stay intact on cooking; medium-grain rice

1856-464: The close central unrounded vowel /ɨ/ as a reflex of Proto-Austronesian *ə . However, Proto-Austronesian *ə is realized as / o / in Libon . Two Bikol dialects have unique additional consonants, namely Southern Catanduanes, which has an interdental lateral consonant /l̟/ (also transcribed as l̪͆ ), and Buhi-non, which has the voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ . Rice Rice

1920-440: The essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health. World trade figures are much smaller than those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally. China, an exporter of rice in the early 2000s, had become the world's largest importer of rice by 2013. Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade; by 2012, India was the largest exporter of rice, with Thailand and Vietnam

1984-564: The nomadic state to the settled life. The Ibalong teaches about courage, of how a simple act can bring about positive change. The heroes made use of this courage to lead the community out of chaos without any regard for self-glorification. This gives evidence of good leadership. All three heroes were foreigners and not pure inhabitants of the Ibalong. This poses an argument that the locals had to depend on foreign abilities and leadership before they were able to obtain progress. Also portrayed in

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2048-426: The supernatural ." She also added that Handyong could have “correctly foresaw the coming of a new age and aptly mourned the death of his time.” Meanwhile, some others speculate that he foresaw the subjugation and destitution of his people under a less benevolent leader - as what, indeed, happened under the Spanish colonial rule . The existence of various Bicolano oral accounts focus on a curse allegedly cast against

2112-478: The 21st century as people in Asia and elsewhere ate less grain and more meat. An exception is Sub-Saharan Africa, where both per capita consumption of rice and population are increasing. Rice is a commonly-eaten food around the world. The varieties of rice are typically classified as short-, medium-, and long-grained. Oryza sativa indica varieties are usually long-grained; Oryza sativa japonica varieties are usually short- or medium-grained. Short-grain rice, with

2176-704: The Americas by the Spanish. In British North America by the time of the start of the American War of Independence , rice had become the fourth most valuable export commodity behind only tobacco, wheat, and fish. In 2021, world production of rice was 787 million tonnes , led by China and India with a combined 52% of the total. This placed rice fourth in the list of crops by production, after sugarcane , maize , and wheat . Other major producers were Bangladesh , Indonesia and Vietnam . 90% of world production

2240-609: The Bicolano people seem to bridge the gap between the Ibalong epic and the subsequent decline and destitution of the Bicolanos. Some of these oral accounts indicated such a transformation. In Sorsogon , the legend of San Bernardino embodied this turn of events against the land and its inhabitants. The legend spoke about a mighty spirit who dwelt in Mt. Bulusan and fell in love with a maiden there. This maiden did not love him back, and so

2304-522: The Bicolanos already believed in gods and supernatural beings. The epic-fragment contains many of the supernatural faith and religion that the ancient Bicols had, among them are supernatural creatures. The differences of the Ibalong from other Philippine epics may suggest culture differences of the Ancient Bicols from other ancient groups. Bikol languages Ethnologue groups the languages of Bikol as follows: Curtis McFarland gives

2368-740: The Dagatnong settlement in the Kalabangan Gulf. The Malbogong Islet formed in the Bicol River while the Inarihan River altered its course. A lofty mountain sank at Bato, forming a lake . Despite the calamities, Ibálong grew powerful under the elder Handyong, whose constant companion and good friend, by then, was the young Bantong. Although given a thousand men to destroy the half man and half beast Rabot, who could change its enemies into rocks, Bantong slew it single-handedly – to

2432-466: The Philippines have traditionally managed weeds and pests by the polycultural practice of raising ducks and sometimes fish in their rice paddies. These produce valuable additional crops, eat small pest animals, manure the rice, and in the case of ducks also control weeds. Rice plants produce their own chemical defences to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as

2496-541: The bard Kadunung to recount the tale of the glorious Ibálong of long ago. Forthwith Kadunung described the ancient land and spoke of its first hero, Baltog, a white Aryan , who had come from Boltavara ( Bharata-varsha or India ). He planted a taro ( linsa ) patch in Tondol (now in Kamalig) which, one night, was foraged by Tandayag na Upon , a giant wild boar . The furious Baltog chased Tandayag na Upon , killed it with his bare hands, and hung its enormous jawbones on

2560-465: The benefits these could bring. In 2022, greenhouse gas emissions from rice cultivation were estimated at 5.7 billion tonnes CO2eq, representing 1.2% of total emissions. Within the agriculture sector, rice produces almost half the greenhouse gas emissions from croplands , some 30% of agricultural methane emissions , and 11% of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions. Methane is released from rice fields subject to long-term flooding, as this inhibits

2624-511: The crop would be lost under these conditions. In the Po Valley in Italy, the arborio and carnaroli risotto rice varieties have suffered poor harvests through drought in the 21st century. The Ente Nazionale Risi  [ it ] is developing drought-resistant varieties; its nuovo prometeo variety has deep roots that enable it to tolerate drought, but is not suitable for risotto. Rice yield can be reduced by weed growth, and

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2688-400: The epic is the concept of social class , of slaves and masters. However, this did not hinder the growth of the community because the classes respected each other. The Ibalong stresses the humble accomplishments and peaceful pursuits of the early Bicolanos. It is unlikely that the ancient Bicolanos had worshiped idols. Nothing is mentioned about gods in the epic except perhaps in passing, Onos,

2752-425: The exception of Spanish Bomba, is usually sticky when cooked, and is suitable for puddings. Thai Jasmine rice is aromatic, and unusually for a long-grain rice has some stickiness, with a soft texture. Indian Basmati rice is very long-grained and aromatic. Italian Arborio rice , used for risotto , is of medium length, oval, and quite sticky. Japanese sushi rice is a sticky short-grain variety. Cooked white rice

2816-425: The field where they will grow, or seedlings can be grown in a seedbed and transplanted into the field. Direct seeding needs some 60 to 80 kg of grain per hectare, while transplanting needs less, around 40 kg per hectare, but requires far more labour. Most rice in Asia is transplanted by hand. Mechanical transplanting takes less time but requires a carefully-prepared field and seedlings raised on mats or in trays to fit

2880-500: The fierce half-man and beast, Rabot. Curiously, Handyong was saddened by Rabot's death. In her study of the Ibalong Epic, the Bicolano scholar, Ma. Lilia F. Realubit, explained that the reason behind this is that Handyong might have "mourned the passing of an era, when men were proved men by monsters and the skill of the hunt, when magic and ceremonial incantations infused life and explained his questions about life and nature and

2944-601: The following classification for the Bikol languages. Pandan (North Catanduanes ) Iriga ( Rinconada ) Buhi (Buhi'non) Libon Oas (West Miraya) Daraga (East Miraya) Naga (Standard Bikol), Legazpi , and Partido Virac (South Catanduanes ) San Pascual (Northern Burias Island ) While McFarland (1974) splits Bikol into 11 dialects, Lobel (2000) splits Bikol into 12 different dialects (including Partido Bikol, which McFarland does not differentiate) and 4 main branches. Some dialects of Southern Bikol have

3008-482: The god of floodwaters. The very survival of these pre-Hispanic legends is direct proof of the vitality of Bicol culture. Folk history or not, this epic is valuable for it enabled the Bicolanos of today to gain valuable insights into the misty past of their land and their ancestors. The epic is celebrated through street performances and floats on Ibalong Festival in Legazpi City , Bicol region since 1992. This

3072-511: The grain, and cleaning by winnowing or screening . The rice grain is dried as soon as possible to bring the moisture content down to a level that is safe from mould fungi. Traditional drying relies on the heat of the sun, with the grain spread out on mats or on pavements. The edible rice species are members of the BOP clade within the grass family, the Poaceae . The rice subfamily, Oryzoideae ,

3136-575: The herbicide 2,4-D , cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plant's resistance to some types of pests. Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid , appear to induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that make the plant more susceptible to certain pests. Plant breeders have created rice cultivars incorporating resistance to various insect pests . Conventional plant breeding of resistant varieties has been limited by challenges such as rearing insect pests for testing, and

3200-399: The implementation of just laws. Among other pursuits is the cultivation of upland and lowland crops, the construction of dwellings on tall trees, the creation of the first boat in the region, the making of utensils, tools, and wares, but most importantly, the invention of writing. The epic depicts the transition of the ancient Bicolanos from the hunting stage to the agricultural stage, from

3264-410: The later years of the 20th century decreased rice yield by between 10% and 20% across 200 farms in seven Asian countries. This may have been caused by increased night-time respiration. IRRI has predicted that Asian rice yields will fall by some 20% per 1°C rise in global mean temperature. Further, rice is unable to yield grain if the flowers experience a temperature of 35 °C or more for over one hour, so

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3328-410: The loud cheers of his thousand warriors that reverberated throughout the forests and mangrove swamps. Brought to Ligmanan, the corpse of Rabot was horrible to behold that the great Handyong himself was shocked at the sight. At this point, the Ibálong epic-fragment ends abruptly, and Kadunung promises to continue the story some other time. The fragmentary epic ended at that part where Bantong killed

3392-417: The machine. Rice does not thrive if continuously submerged. Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability. The usual arrangement is for lowland fields to be surrounded by bunds and flooded to a depth of a few centimetres until around a week before harvest time; this requires a large amount of water. The "alternate wetting and drying" technique uses less water. One form of this

3456-428: The other largest exporters. As of 2016, the countries that consumed the most rice were China (29% of total), India, and Indonesia. By 2020, Bangladesh had taken third place from Indonesia. On an annual average from 2020-23, China consumed 154 million tonnes of rice, India consumed 109 million tonnes, and Bangladesh and Indonesia consumed about 36 million tonnes each. Across the world, rice consumption per capita fell in

3520-400: The region of ferocious beasts until peace came to the whole of the land. With Ibálong rid of wild creatures, Handyong turned to making wise laws and planting the land to linsa and rice . A period of the invention followed: boat , farming tools, weaving looms , claywares , kitchen utensils, tree houses , and even a syllabary . Together, the people built a society with culture . It was

3584-1011: The soil from absorbing atmospheric oxygen, resulting in anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. Emissions can be limited by planting new varieties, not flooding continuously, and removing straw. It is possible to cut methane emissions in rice cultivation by improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or executing a sequence of wetting and drying . This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields. Predictions of climate change's effects on rice cultivation vary. Global rice yield has been projected to decrease by around 3.2% with each 1°C increase in global average temperature while another study predicts global rice cultivation will increase initially, plateauing at about 3°C warming (2091–2100 relative to 1850–1900). The impacts of climate change on rice cultivation vary across geographic location and socioeconomic context. For example, rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during

3648-403: The spirit was enraged. Panic filled everyone except one man - the favored suitor of the maiden. He killed the spirit to stop its violence in the area. Once killed, the spirit fell into the sea. The part of the water in which the spirit fell transformed into land. The old folks claim that the two islands with a slender strip of water between Samar and Sorsogon were the spirit of Mt. Bulusan . It

3712-648: The voyage to the rest of the Pacific. It reached Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai -speakers in Mainland Southeast Asia and southern China by 5000 years ago. Rice spread around the rest of the world through cultivation, migration and trade, eventually to the Americas as part of the Columbian exchange after 1492. The now less common Oryza glaberrima (African rice) was independently domesticated in Africa around 3,000 years ago, and introduced to

3776-785: The wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought. Rice blast , caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea , is the most serious disease of growing rice. It and bacterial leaf streak (caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae ) are perennially the two worst rice diseases worldwide; they are both among the ten most important diseases of all crop plants. Other major rice diseases include sheath blight (caused by Rhizoctonia solani ), false smut ( Ustilaginoidea virens ), and bacterial panicle blight ( Burkholderia glumae ). Viral diseases include rice bunchy stunt, rice dwarf, rice tungro , and rice yellow mottle. Crop protection scientists are developing sustainable techniques for managing rice pests. Sustainable pest management

3840-539: The year provided that sufficient water is made available. It is normally an annual, but in the tropics it can survive as a perennial , producing a ratoon crop. Like all crops, rice depends for its growth on both biotic and abiotic environmental factors. The principal biotic factors are crop variety, pests , and plant diseases . Abiotic factors include the soil type, whether lowland or upland, amount of rain or irrigation water, temperature, day length , and intensity of sunlight. Rice grains can be planted directly into

3904-469: Was first domesticated in China 9,000 years ago, by people of Neolithic cultures in the Upper and Lower Yangtze , associated with Hmong-Mien -speakers and pre-Austronesians , respectively. The functional allele for nonshattering , the critical indicator of domestication in grains, as well as five other single-nucleotide polymorphisms , is identical in both indica and japonica . This implies

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3968-572: Was given to Melendreras by Castaño in the work, and so students of the Ibalong have since presumed that it was recorded and translated by Castaño himself. The full English translation of the Ibalong was published in 1996 in the Far Eastern University Faculty Journal, Manila by Merito B. Espinas . Luis G. Dato , a Bicolano poet laureate translated the epic into English from the Spanish version of Fray Jose Castaño in 1965. The epic opens with Iling requesting

4032-574: Was introduced early into Sino-Tibetan cultures in northern China by around 6000 to 5600 years ago, and to the Korean peninsula and Japan by around 5500 to 3200 years ago. It was also carried into Taiwan by the Dapenkeng culture by 5500 to 4000 years ago, before spreading southwards via the Austronesian migrations to Island Southeast Asia , Madagascar , and Guam , but did not survive

4096-439: Was stored by rural households. The dry grain is milled to remove the outer layers, namely the husk and bran . These can be removed in a single step, in two steps, or as in commercial milling in a multi-step process of cleaning, dehusking, separation, polishing, grading, and weighing. Brown rice only has the inedible husk removed. Further milling removes bran and the germ to create successively whiter products. Parboiled rice

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