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81-418: Conversely, one who reveres or venerates religious images is called (by iconoclasts) an iconolater ; in a Byzantine context, such a person is called an iconodule or iconophile. Iconoclasm does not generally encompass the destruction of the images of a specific ruler after his or her death or overthrow, a practice better known as damnatio memoriae . While iconoclasm may be carried out by adherents of

162-426: A Christian work. For I am convinced that it is God's will that we should hear and learn what He has done, especially what Christ suffered. But when I hear these things and meditate upon them, I find it impossible not to picture them in my heart. Whether I want to or not, when I hear, of Christ, a human form hanging upon a cross rises up in my heart: just as I see my natural face reflected when I look into water. Now if it

243-516: A booty of 20 million dinars . The attack may have been inspired by the belief that an idol of the goddess Manat had been secretly transferred to the temple. According to the Ghaznavid court-poet Farrukhi Sistani , who claimed to have accompanied Mahmud on his raid, Somnat (as rendered in Persian ) was a garbled version of su-manat referring to the goddess Manat. According to him, as well as

324-580: A complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior." For Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image." Lutheran scholar Jeremiah Ohl writes: Zwingli and others for the sake of saving the Word rejected all plastic art; Luther, with an equal concern for the Word, but far more conservative, would have all the arts to be the servants of the Gospel. "I am not of

405-440: A consequence of any outwardly seditious behaviour. Sulla's proscription was bureaucratically overseen, and the names of informers and those who profited from killing proscribed men were entered into the public record. Because Roman law could criminalise acts ex post facto , many informers and profiteers were later prosecuted. The proscription of 82 BC was overseen by Sulla's freedman steward Lucius Cornelius Chrysogonus , and

486-556: A different religion , it is more commonly the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion. The term originates from the Byzantine Iconoclasm , the struggles between proponents and opponents of religious icons in the Byzantine Empire from 726 to 842 AD. Degrees of iconoclasm vary greatly among religions and their branches, but are strongest in religions which oppose idolatry , including

567-448: A few of them survive." In Japan during the early modern age, the spread of Catholicism also involved the repulsion of non-Christian religious structures, including Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines and figures. At times of conflict with rivals or some time after the conversion of several daimyos , Christian converts would often destroy Buddhist and Shinto religious structures. Many of the moai of Easter Island were toppled during

648-459: A hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market-place were heaped together. Protestant Christianity was not uniformly hostile to

729-519: A later Ghaznavid historian Abu Sa'id Gardezi , the images of the other goddesses were destroyed in Arabia but the one of Manat was secretly sent away to Kathiawar (in modern Gujarat) for safekeeping. Since the idol of Manat was an aniconic image of black stone, it could have been easily confused with a lingam at Somnath. Mahmud is said to have broken the idol and taken away parts of it as loot and placed so that people would walk on it. In his letters to

810-755: A mosque in 1453. Most icons were desecrated and the rest were covered with plaster. In 1934 the government of Turkey decided to convert the Hagia Sophia into a museum and the restoration of the mosaics was undertaken by the American Byzantine Institute beginning in 1932. Certain Muslim denominations continue to pursue iconoclastic agendas. There has been much controversy within Islam over the recent and apparently on-going destruction of historic sites by Saudi Arabian authorities, prompted by

891-784: A person for such a crime. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant carried out iconoclastic attacks such as the destruction of Shia mosques and shrines. Notable incidents include blowing up the Mosque of the Prophet Yunus ( Jonah ) and destroying the Shrine to Seth in Mosul . In early Medieval India , there were numerous recorded instances of temple desecration mostly by Indian Muslim kings against rival Indian Hindu kingdoms , which involved conflicts between Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains. In

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972-562: A proscribed man was entitled to keep part of his estate (the remainder went to the state). No person could inherit money or property from proscribed men. Many victims of proscription were decapitated and their heads were displayed on spears in the Forum . Sulla used proscription to restore the depleted Roman Treasury ( Aerarium ) , which had been drained by costly civil and foreign wars in the preceding decade, and to eliminate enemies (both real and potential) of his reformed state and constitutions;

1053-483: A purely Islamic coinage with lettering only. A letter by the Patriarch Germanus , written before 726 to two iconoclast bishops, says that "now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter," but there is little written evidence of the debate. Government-led iconoclasm began with Byzantine Emperor Leo III , who issued a series of edicts between 726 and 730 against

1134-598: A significant shift in Egyptian artistic styles alongside a campaign of intolerance towards the traditional gods and a new emphasis on a state monolatristic tradition focused on the god Aten , the Sun disk—many temples and monuments were destroyed as a result: In rebellion against the old religion and the powerful priests of Amun , Akhenaten ordered the eradication of all of Egypt's traditional gods. He sent royal officials to chisel out and destroy every reference to Amun and

1215-580: A strong tradition of forbidding the depiction of figures, especially religious figures, with Sunni Islam forbidding it more than Shia Islam . In the history of Islam , the act of removing idols from the Ka'ba in Mecca has great symbolic and historic importance for all believers. In general, Muslim societies have avoided the depiction of living beings (both animals and humans) within such sacred spaces as mosques and madrasahs . This ban on figural representation

1296-570: Is allowed to be pictured. This article about religious studies is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Proscription Proscription ( Latin : proscriptio ) is, in current usage, a 'decree of condemnation to death or banishment' ( Oxford English Dictionary ) and can be used in a political context to refer to state-approved murder or banishment. The term originated in Ancient Rome , where it included public identification and official condemnation of declared enemies of

1377-678: Is not based on the Qur'an , instead, it is based on traditions which are described within the Hadith . The prohibition of figuration has not always been extended to the secular sphere, and a robust tradition of figural representation exists within Muslim art . However, Western authors have tended to perceive "a long, culturally determined, and unchanging tradition of violent iconoclastic acts" within Islamic society . The first act of Muslim iconoclasm dates to

1458-585: Is not sinful for me to have Christ's picture in my heart, why should it be sinful to have it before my eyes? The Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent , who had pragmatic reasons to support the Dutch Revolt (the rebels, like himself, were fighting against Spain) also completely approved of their act of "destroying idols," which accorded well with Muslim teachings. A bit later in Dutch history, in 1627

1539-530: Is strange that Aaron could so easily avoid the role of the religious criminal. It is more than probable that these traditions evolved under mutual influence. In this respect, Moses and Akhenaten became, after all, closely related. According to the Hebrew Bible , God instructed the Israelites to "destroy all [the] engraved stones, destroy all [the] molded images, and demolish all [the] high places" of

1620-627: Is the opposite of iconoclasm , and it also should not be confused with iconophilia , designating the moderate veneration of icons. Both extreme positions, iconolatry and iconoclasm, were rejected in 787 by the Second Council of Nicaea , being the seventh Ecumenical Council . The Council decided that holy icons should not be destroyed, as was advocated and practiced by the Byzantine iconoclasm , nor veritable (full) worshiped or adored ( Greek : ἀληθινήν λατρείαν ; Latin : veram latriam ), as

1701-712: The Abrahamic religions . Outside of the religious context, iconoclasm can refer to movements for widespread destruction in symbols of an ideology or cause, such as the destruction of monarchist symbols during the French Revolution . In the Bronze Age , the most significant episode of iconoclasm occurred in Egypt during the Amarna Period , when Akhenaten , based in his new capital of Akhetaten , instituted

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1782-571: The Bible in Genesis 1:27 , Colossians 1:15 . The Eastern Orthodox Church (which finally reinstated the icons) held at least two Church councils in order to make a decision about the proper use of icons. The Council of Hieria in 754 expressly forbade the making of icons, and ordered all pictures of Jesus and the saints to be removed from the churches, saying that they ought instead to be decorated with pictures of birds, flowers, and fruit. This council

1863-574: The Caliphate , Mahmud exaggerated the size, wealth and religious significance of the Somnath temple, receiving grandiose titles from the Caliph in return. The wooden structure was replaced by Kumarapala (r. 1143–72), who rebuilt the temple out of stone. Historical records which were compiled by the Muslim historian Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai attest to the religious violence which occurred during

1944-585: The Eastern Association of counties. This covered some of the wealthiest counties in England , which in turn financed a substantial and significant military force. After Earl of Manchester was appointed the commanding officer of these forces, in turn he appointed Smasher Dowsing as Provost Marshal , with a warrant to demolish religious images which were considered to be superstitious or linked with popism. Bishop Joseph Hall of Norwich described

2025-675: The Mamluk dynasty under Qutb-ud-din Aybak . The first mosque built in Delhi, the " Quwwat al-Islam " was built with demolished parts of 20 Hindu and Jain temples. This pattern of iconoclasm was common during his reign. During the Delhi Sultanate , a Muslim army led by Malik Kafur , a general of Alauddin Khalji , pursued four violent campaigns into south India, between 1309 and 1311, against

2106-588: The Synod of Elvira appeared to endorse iconoclasm; Canon 36 states, "Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration." A possible translation is also: "There shall be no pictures in the church, lest what is worshipped and adored should be depicted on the walls." The date of this canon is disputed. Proscription ceased after the destruction of pagan temples. However, widespread use of Christian iconography only began as Christianity increasingly spread among Gentiles after

2187-594: The Tuareg rebellion of 2012 , the radical Islamist militia Ansar Dine destroyed various Sufi shrines from the 15th and 16th centuries in the city of Timbuktu , Mali . In 2016, the International Criminal Court (ICC) sentenced Ahmad al-Faqi al-Mahdi , a former member of Ansar Dine, to nine years in prison for this destruction of cultural world heritage. This was the first time that the ICC convicted

2268-532: The history of Christianity , iconolatry was mainly manifested in popular worship, as freedom of worship while others viewed it as superstitious belief in the divine nature of icons or deities. It was practiced as a focal point on icons, and other deities representing various saints , angels and the God . One of extreme practices of iconolatry was scraping parts of icons into the Holy Communion . Iconolatry

2349-597: The legalization of Christianity by Roman Emperor Constantine (c. 312 AD). During the process of Christianisation under Constantine, Christian groups destroyed the images and sculptures expressive of the Roman Empire 's polytheist state religion. Among early church theologians, iconoclastic tendencies were supported by theologians such as Tertullian , Clement of Alexandria , Origen , Lactantius , Justin Martyr , Eusebius and Epiphanius . The period after

2430-476: The plutocratic knights of the Ordo Equester were particularly hard-hit. Giving the procedure a particularly sinister character in the public eye was the fact that many of the proscribed men, escorted from their homes at night by groups of men all named "Lucius Cornelius", never appeared again. (These men were all Sulla's freedmen.) This gave rise to a general fear of being taken from one's home at night as

2511-656: The veneration of images. The religious conflict created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society; iconoclasm was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire who had to frequently deal with raids from the new Muslim Empire. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of Constantinople and the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces strongly opposed iconoclasm. Peter of Bruys opposed

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2592-473: The 18th century in the iconoclasm of civil wars before any European encounter. Other instances of iconoclasm may have occurred throughout Eastern Polynesia during its conversion to Christianity in the 19th century. After the Second Vatican Council in the late 20th century, some Roman Catholic parish churches discarded much of their traditional imagery, art, and architecture. Islam has

2673-772: The 8th century, Bengali troops from the Buddhist Pala Empire looted temples of Vishnu , the state deity of Lalitaditya 's kingdom in Kashmir . In the early 9th century, Indian Hindu kings from Kanchipuram and the Pandyan king Srimara Srivallabha looted Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka . In the early 10th century, the Pratihara king Herambapala looted an image from a temple in the Sahi kingdom of Kangra , which

2754-514: The Buddhas and the Muslim population that marveled at them for over a millennium" before their destruction. According to art historian F. B. Flood, analysis of the Taliban's statements regarding the Buddhas suggest that their destruction was motivated more by political than by theological concerns. Taliban spokesmen have given many different explanations of the motives for the destruction. During

2835-472: The Hindu kingdoms of Devgiri (Maharashtra), Warangal (Telangana), Dwarasamudra (Karnataka) and Madurai (Tamil Nadu). Many Temples were plundered; Hoysaleswara Temple and others were ruthlessly destroyed. Iconolatry Iconolatry ( Greek : εἰκών, eikon , 'picture or image', + λατρεία, latreia , 'veritable (full) worship or adoration') designates the idolatric worship or the adoration of icons . In

2916-642: The Orthodox Church , unless they were depicted in the context of the Revelation or the Apocalypse of Saint John , where God the Father is described as an older version of Jesus . Some prefer the depiction of God in the icon type of Rublev 's Holy Trinity. Others believe that, because no-one has ever seen God the Father, he should never be depicted in icons, while Jesus, who was seen by human eyes,

2997-670: The Reconstitution of the Republic "). Sulla proceeded to have the Senate draw up a list of those he considered enemies of the state and published the list in the Roman Forum . Any man whose name appeared on the list was ipso facto stripped of his citizenship and excluded from all protection under law; reward money was given to any informer who gave information leading to the death of a proscribed man, and any person who killed

3078-507: The Revelation of St. John, in the books of Moses, and in the book of Joshua. We therefore kindly beg these fanatics to permit us also to paint these pictures on the wall that they may be remembered and better understood, inasmuch as they can harm as little on the walls as in books. Would to God that I could persuade those who can afford it to paint the whole Bible on their houses, inside and outside, so that all might see; this would indeed be

3159-486: The ancient Roman government may have desired to proscribe or attribute multiple other forms of pain. One of the most prevalent reasons for punishment are treason crimes, also known as lex maiestatis . Treason crimes consisted of a very broad and large number of regulations, and such crimes had a negative effect on the government. This list includes, but is not limited to: assisting an enemy in any way, Crimen Laesae Majestasis , acts of subversion and usurpation, offense against

3240-427: The artist Johannes van der Beeck was arrested and tortured, charged with being a religious non-conformist and a blasphemer , heretic , atheist , and Satanist . The 25 January 1628 judgment from five noted advocates of The Hague pronounced him guilty of "blasphemy against God and avowed atheism, at the same time as leading a frightful and pernicious lifestyle. At the court's order his paintings were burned, and only

3321-508: The beginning of Islam, in 630, when the various statues of Arabian deities housed in the Kaaba in Mecca were destroyed. There is a tradition that Muhammad spared a fresco of Mary and Jesus . This act was intended to bring an end to the idolatry which, in the Muslim view, characterized Jahiliyyah . The destruction of the idols of Mecca did not, however, determine the treatment of other religious communities living under Muslim rule after

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3402-471: The condemned were often mutilated and dragged before being thrown into the Tiber River . Additionally, those who were condemned lost rights even after their brutal death. Those killed were denied the right to a funeral, and all of their possessions were auctioned off, often to the ones who killed them. Negative consequences arose for anyone that chose to assist those on the list, despite not being listed on

3483-462: The country, conquering Debal , Sehwan , Nerun , Brahmanadabad, Alor and Multan one after the other in quick succession, and in less than a year and a half, the far-flung Hindu kingdom was crushed ... There was a fearful outbreak of religious bigotry in several places and temples were wantonly desecrated. At Debal, the Nairun and Aror temples were demolished and converted into mosques. Perhaps

3564-569: The destruction of divine presence ; in the eyes of the Egyptians, this same effect was attained by the destruction of images. In Egypt, iconoclasm was the most terrible religious crime; in Israel , the most terrible religious crime was idolatry . In this respect Osarseph alias Akhenaten, the iconoclast, and the Golden Calf , the paragon of idolatry, correspond to each other inversely, and it

3645-444: The events of 1643 when troops and citizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and idolatry , behaved thus: Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up of monuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! What defacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes! And what

3726-509: The expansion of the caliphate . Most Christians under Muslim rule, for example, continued to produce icons and to decorate their churches as they wished. A major exception to this pattern of tolerance in early Islamic history was the "Edict of Yazīd", issued by the Umayyad caliph Yazīd II in 722–723. This edict ordered the destruction of crosses and Christian images within the territory of the caliphate. Researchers have discovered evidence that

3807-516: The fear they could become the subject of " idolatry ." A recent act of iconoclasm was the 2001 destruction of the giant Buddhas of Bamyan by the then- Taliban government of Afghanistan . The act generated worldwide protests and was not supported by other Muslim governments and organizations. It was widely perceived in the Western media as a result of the Muslim prohibition against figural decoration. Such an account overlooks "the coexistence between

3888-712: The indigenous Canaanite population as soon as they entered the Promised Land . In Judaism , King Hezekiah purged Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem and all figures were also destroyed in the Land of Israel , including the Nehushtan , as recorded in the Second Book of Kings . His reforms were reversed in the reign of his son Manasseh . Scattered expressions of opposition to the use of images have been reported:

3969-558: The manufacture of graven (sculpted) images of God. As a result, individuals attacked statues and images, most famously in the beeldenstorm across the Low Countries in 1566. The belief of iconoclasm caused havoc throughout Europe . In 1523, specifically due to the Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli , a vast number of his followers viewed themselves as being involved in a spiritual community that in matters of faith should obey neither

4050-430: The mental picturing of Christ when reading the Scriptures was similar in character to artistic renderings of Christ. In contrast to the Lutherans who favoured certain types of sacred art in their churches and homes, the Reformed (Calvinist) leaders, in particular Andreas Karlstadt , Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin , encouraged the removal of religious images by invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry and

4131-467: The mildest forms of treason. Julius Caesar was an influential framer of the law on treason . The Interdiction from Water and Fire was a civil excommunication resulting in ultimate exile, which included forfeiture of citizenship and forfeiture of property. Those who were condemned would be deported to an island. Emperor Augustus frequently utilized this method of exile, as he desired to keep banished men from banding together in large groups. Such punishment

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4212-403: The missing nose has been debated by historians. Mark Lehner , having performed an archaeological study, concluded that it was broken with instruments at an earlier unknown time between the 3rd and 10th centuries. Certain conquering Muslim armies have used local temples or houses of worship as mosques. An example is Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople ), which was converted into

4293-467: The most notorious episode of iconoclasm in India was Mahmud of Ghazni 's attack on the Somnath Temple from across the Thar Desert . The temple was first raided in 725, when Junayad, the governor of Sind , sent his armies to destroy it. In 1024, during the reign of Bhima I , the prominent Turkic-Muslim ruler Mahmud of Ghazni raided Gujarat, plundering the Somnath Temple and breaking its jyotirlinga despite pleas by Brahmins not to break it. He took away

4374-422: The names of other deities on tombs, temple walls, and cartouches to instill in the people that the Aten was the one true god. Public references to Akhenaten were destroyed soon after his death. Comparing the ancient Egyptians with the Israelites , Jan Assmann writes: For Egypt, the greatest horror was the destruction or abduction of the cult images. In the eyes of the Israelites, the erection of images meant

4455-423: The neighbouring Eastern Orthodox " in the Baltic region. The Seventeen Provinces (now the Netherlands, Belgium, and parts of Northern France) were disrupted by widespread Calvinist iconoclasm in the summer of 1566. During the Reformation in England , which started during the reign of Anglican monarch Henry VIII , and was urged on by reformers such as Hugh Latimer and Thomas Cranmer , limited official action

4536-404: The ninth. Al-Maqrīzī , writing in the 15th century, attributes the missing nose on the Great Sphinx of Giza to iconoclasm by Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr , a Sufi Muslim in the mid-1300s. He was reportedly outraged by local Muslims making offerings to the Great Sphinx in the hope of controlling the flood cycle, and he was later executed for vandalism. However, whether this was actually the cause of

4617-400: The one depicted by the image. The principle of respected worship is that, in honoring an image, the honor is to paid not to the image itself, but the one who is portrayed. After the period of Iconoclasm was over, respected veneration of icons spread to Serbia , Bulgaria , and to distant Russia . Depictions of icons which bear the image of God the Father and the Holy Spirit were forbidden in

4698-424: The opinion" said [Luther], "that through the Gospel all the arts should be banished and driven away, as some zealots want to make us believe; but I wish to see them all, especially music, in the service of Him Who gave and created them." Again he says: "I have myself heard those who oppose pictures, read from my German Bible.... But this contains many pictures of God, of the angels, of men, and of animals, especially in

4779-409: The order was followed, particularly in present-day Jordan , where archaeological evidence shows the removal of images from the mosaic floors of some, although not all, of the churches that stood at this time. But Yazīd's iconoclastic policies were not continued by his successors, and Christian communities of the Levant continued to make icons without significant interruption from the sixth century to

4860-582: The peace of the state, offenses against the administration of justice, and violating absolute duties. Overall, crimes in which the state, emperor, the state's tranquility, or offenses against the good of the people would be considered treason, and, therefore, would constitute proscription. Some of these regulations are understandable and comparable to safety laws today. Others, like violating absolute duties, could very easily be accidents or circumstantial crises that would deserve punishment regardless. Punishments for treason were quite harsh and were meant to highlight

4941-455: The people who assisted the government by killing any person on the proscription list were actually rewarded. The proscription of 43 BC was the second major proscription. It began with an agreement in November 43 between the triumvirs Octavian Caesar , Marcus Antonius , and Marcus Lepidus after two long meetings. Their aim was to avenge Julius Caesar ’s assassination, eliminate political enemies, and acquire their properties. The proscription

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5022-462: The proscribed lists themselves. Anyone who was found guilty of assisting the condemned was capitally punished . Families were also punished as a result of being related to one of the proscribed. It was forbidden to mourn the death of a proscribed person. According to Plutarch , the greatest injustice of all the consequences was stripping the rights of their children and grandchildren. While those proscribed and their loved ones faced harsh consequences,

5103-688: The proscription. Cicero's head and hands were famously cut off and fastened to the Rostra . Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was most responsible for the proscriptions and killing. They agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies. Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them. Cassius Dio defended Octavian as trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many more enemies to deal with. This claim

5184-452: The reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527–565) evidently saw a huge increase in the use of images, both in volume and quality, and a gathering aniconic reaction. One notable change within the Byzantine Empire came in 695, when Justinian II 's government added a full-face image of Christ on the obverse of imperial gold coins. The change caused the Caliph Abd al-Malik to stop his earlier adoption of Byzantine coin types. He started

5265-414: The sacred mystery of the incarnation of Jesus Christ. The Person of Jesus was thought to reveal not only the Word of God ( 1Jn 1:1–4 ), but the image of God ( 1Jn 4:9 ). Pre-Christian scriptures defined idolatry as worshipping of false gods. Church leaders defended images of Christ on the basis that they were representations of the true incarnation of God and clarified the relationship between an image and

5346-592: The same rewards were given to anyone who gave information on where someone on the list was hiding. Anyone who tried to save people on the list was added to the list. The material belongings of the dead victims were to be confiscated. Some of the listed were stripped of their property but protected from death by their relatives in the Triumvirate ( e.g. , Lucius Julius Caesar and Lepidus ' brother Paullus ). Most were killed, in some cases gruesomely. Cicero , his younger brother Quintus Tullius Cicero (one of Julius Caesar 's legates ) and Marcus Favonius were all killed in

5427-414: The seriousness and shamefulness of the treason crimes committed. There were a variety of punishments for capital crimes, including death, loss of a freedman's status, loss of citizenship with a loss of family rights, and a loss of family rights only. Death was a very common punishment and was referred to as summum supplicium , or the "extreme penalty". The death sentence was often the punishment for all but

5508-408: The state and it often involved confiscation of property. Its usage has been significantly widened to describe governmental and political sanctions of varying severity on individuals and classes of people who have fallen into disfavor, from the en masse suppression of adherents of unorthodox ideologies to the suppression of political rivals or personal enemies. In addition to its recurrences during

5589-432: The state of those supporters of his populist rivals, Gaius Marius and his son . He instituted a notice for the sale of confiscated property belonging to those declared public enemies of the state (some modern historians estimate about 520 people were proscribed as opposed to the ancient estimate of 4,700 people) and therefore condemned to death those proscribed, called proscripti in Latin. There were multiple reasons why

5670-470: The usage of religious images, the Strigolniki were also possibly iconoclastic. Claudius of Turin was the bishop of Turin from 817 until his death. He is most noted for teaching iconoclasm. The first iconoclastic wave happened in Wittenberg in the early 1520s under reformers Thomas Müntzer and Andreas Karlstadt , in the absence of Martin Luther , who then, concealed under the pen-name of 'Junker Jörg', intervened to calm things down. Luther argued that

5751-437: The use of religious images. Martin Luther taught the "importance of images as tools for instruction and aids to devotion," stating: "If it is not a sin but good to have the image of Christ in my heart, why should it be a sin to have it in my eyes?" Lutheran churches retained ornate church interiors with a prominent crucifix , reflecting their high view of the real presence of Christ in Eucharist . As such, "Lutheran worship became

5832-462: The various phases of the Roman Republic , it has become a standard term to label: Proscriptions (Latin proscriptio , plural proscriptiones ) initially meant public advertisements or notices signifying property or goods for sale. During the dictatorial reign of Sulla , the word took on a more sinister meaning. In 82 or 81 BC, Sulla instituted the process of proscription in order to purge

5913-968: The visible Church nor lay authorities. According to Peter George Wallace "Zwingli's attack on images, at the first debate, triggered iconoclastic incidents in Zürich and the villages under civic jurisdiction that the reformer was unwilling to condone." Due to this action of protest against authority, "Zwingli responded with a carefully reasoned treatise that men could not live in society without laws and constraint". Significant iconoclastic riots took place in Basel (in 1529), Zürich (1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), Augsburg (1537), Scotland (1559), Rouen (1560), and Saintes and La Rochelle (1562). Calvinist iconoclasm in Europe "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized

5994-418: Was aimed at Julius Caesar’s conspirators, such as Brutus and Cassius , and other individuals who had taken part in the civil war, including wealthy people, senators, knights, and republicans such as Sextus Pompey and Cicero . There were 2,000 names on the list in total, and a handsome reward of 2,500 drachmae for bringing back the head of a free person on the list (a slave's head was worth 1,000 drachmae);

6075-435: Was given for only the mildest forms of treason, in comparison to the death penalty, which served for most other treason crimes. Augustus also created the prefect , whose powers included the ability to banish, deport, or send to the mines. The prefect also heard appeals. An early instance of mass proscription took place in 82 BC, when Lucius Cornelius Sulla was appointed dictator rei publicae constituendae ("Dictator for

6156-566: Was held near Constantinople, and all attending bishops were from the Constantinople Patriarchate. The other patriarchs refused to send any delegates. The Second Council of Nicaea held in 787 reversed the decisions of that council. This Council of Church leaders (bishops) was a key step towards an alternate understanding of the use of religious art in the Church. An early Church council defined veneration of icons based on

6237-542: Was later looted by the Pratihara king Yashovarman. Records from the campaign recorded in the Chach Nama record the destruction of temples during the early 8th century when the Umayyad governor of Damascus , al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , mobilized an expedition of 6000 cavalry under Muhammad bin Qasim in 712. Historian Upendra Thakur records the persecution of Hindus and Buddhists : Muhammad triumphantly marched into

6318-520: Was practiced by iconolatry, but to be only venerated as symbolic representations of God, angels, or saints. Icon in Greek simply denotes a picture but it has now come to be closely associated with religious art which is used by the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches . Icons are used to assist in prayer and the worship of God by Orthodox Churches. Icon (image) is the same word used in

6399-451: Was rejected by Appian , who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies. Suetonius said that Octavian was at first reluctant to proscribe officials, but eventually pursued his enemies with more vigor than the other triumvirs. Plutarch described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family among Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed

6480-473: Was rife with corruption. The proscription lists created by Sulla led to mass terror in Rome . During this time, "the cities of Italy became theaters of execution." Citizens were terrified to find their names on the lists. Those whose names were listed were ultimately sentenced to death. The executions were brutal and consisted of beheading. Often, the heads were then put on display for the city to see. The bodies of

6561-557: Was taken against religious images in churches in the late 1530s. Henry's young son, Edward VI , came to the throne in 1547 and, under Cranmer's guidance, issued injunctions for Religious Reforms in the same year and in 1550, an Act of Parliament "for the abolition and putting away of divers books and images." During the English Civil War , the Parliamentarians reorganised the administration of East Anglia into

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