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65-479: The poem is addressed to Aratus , a friend of Theocritus, who is also referenced in Idyll VII. The poem tells the tale of two herdsmen, Damoetas and Daphnis , gathering their herds in the same spot where Daphnis engages Damoetas in a singing competition. Daphnis addresses the state of the relationship between Polyphemus and Galatea , whereby she both flirts with and teases him. However, Daphnis warns Polyphemus of

130-577: A Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered

195-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,

260-614: A commentary upon the Phenomenas of Eudoxus and Aratus, accompanied by the discrepancies which he had noticed between his own observations and their descriptions. The Diosemeia consists of forecasts of the weather from astronomical phenomena, with an account of its effects upon animals. It appears to be an imitation of Hesiod , and to have been imitated by Virgil in some parts of the Georgics . The materials are said to be taken almost wholly from Aristotle 's Meteorologica , from

325-508: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on

390-590: A lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and

455-400: A limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by

520-459: A mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes ,

585-450: A motion of their own, without any attempt to define their periods; nor is anything said about the Moon's orbit. The opening of the poem asserts the dependence of all things upon Zeus . From the lack of precision in the descriptions, it would seem that Aratus was neither a mathematician nor observer or, at any rate, that in this work he did not aim at scientific accuracy. He not only represents

650-460: A state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in the early 19th century that

715-438: Is also said to have been his profession), grammar , and philosophy . Several poetical works on various subjects, as well as a number of prose epistles, are attributed to Aratus, but none of them have come down to us, except his two astronomical poems in hexameter . These have generally been joined as parts of the same work; but they seem to be distinct poems, the first, called Phenomena ("Appearances"), consists of 732 verses;

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780-536: Is characterized by teasing, willful ignorance, and a lack of shared love. Therefore, the poem uses the relationship between Galatea and Polyphemus to highlight the flaws of real relationships. It is meant to act as advice to avoid such flaws in order to live in mutual harmony as the characters of Damoetas and Daphnis seem to do. Gutzwiller also noted that only a small difference in age exists between Damoetas and Daphnis, while Polyphemus and Galatea are portrayed as near opposites. In contrast to Lawall, Gutzwiller interpreted

845-511: Is fair i' the eyes of love. Then Damoetas in answer lifted up his voice, singing: I saw, I saw her fling them, Lord Pan my witness be; I was not blind, I vow, by this my one sweet – this Wherewith Heav’n send I see to the end, and Télemus when he Foretells me woe, then be it so, but woe for him and his! – ; ‘Tis tit for tat, to tease her on I look not on the jade And say there’s other wives to wed, and lo! she’s jealous made, Jealous for me, Lord save us! and ‘gins to pine for me And glowers from

910-604: Is full of god. Even the sea and the harbour are full of this deity . Everywhere everyone is indebted to god. For we are indeed his offspring ... Authors of twenty-seven commentaries are known; ones by Theon of Alexandria , Achilles Tatius and Hipparchus of Nicaea survive. An Arabic translation was commissioned in the ninth century by the Caliph Al-Ma'mun . He is cited by Vitruvius , Stephanus of Byzantium and Stobaeus . Several accounts of his life are extant, by anonymous Greek writers. The crater Aratus on

975-763: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,

1040-632: Is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near the Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in

1105-562: The British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in

1170-657: The European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute the objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek

1235-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as

1300-450: The Moon and the minor planet 12152 Aratus are named in his honour. Two important recent editions of Aratus's work: Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized :  Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized :  Hellēnikḗ ) is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within

1365-768: The Suda and Eudocia also mention him. From these it appears that he was a native of Soli in Cilicia , (although one authority says Tarsus ). He is known to have studied with Menecrates in Ephesus and Philitas in Cos . As a disciple of the Peripatetic philosopher Praxiphanes , in Athens , he met the Stoic philosopher Zeno , as well as Callimachus of Cyrene and Menedemus ,

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1430-780: The United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout the Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to

1495-521: The ecliptic , are described by reference to the principal groups surrounding the north pole ( Ursa Major , Ursa Minor , Draco , and Cepheus ), whilst Orion serves as a point of departure for those to the south. The immobility of the Earth , and the revolution of the sky about a fixed axis are maintained; the path of the Sun in the zodiac is described; but the planets are introduced merely as bodies having

1560-468: The genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in

1625-417: The syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However,

1690-566: The 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as

1755-756: The Evangelist ), in Acts 17:28 , where he relates Saint Paul 's address on the Areopagus . Paul, speaking of God , quotes the fifth line of Aratus's Phenomena ( Epimenides seems to be the source of the first part of Acts 17:28 , although this is less clear): Ἐκ Διὸς ἀρχώμεσθα, τὸν οὐδέποτ' ἄνδρες ἐῶμεν ἄρρητον· μεσταὶ δὲ Διὸς πᾶσαι μὲν ἀγυιαί, πᾶσαι δ' ἀνθρώπων ἀγοραί, μεστὴ δὲ θάλασσα καὶ λιμένες· πάντη δὲ Διὸς κεχρήμεθα πάντες. τοῦ γὰρ καὶ γένος εἰμέν . κτλ. Let us begin with Zeus, whom we mortals never leave unspoken. For every street, every market-place

1820-544: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit

1885-549: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in

1950-593: The Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek

2015-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),

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2080-479: The arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from

2145-406: The challenge: See Cyclops! Galatéa's at thy flock with apples, see! The apples fly, and she doth cry ‘A fool’s-in-love are ye’; But with never a look to the maid, poor heart, thou sit’st and pipest so fine. Lo yonder again she flings them amain at that good flock-dog o’ thine! See how he looks to seaward and bays her from the land! See how he's glassed where he runs so fast i' the pretty wee waves o’

2210-436: The configurations of particular groups incorrectly, but describes some phenomena which are inconsistent with any one supposed latitude of the spectator, and others which could not coexist at any one epoch. These errors are partly to be attributed to Eudoxus himself, and partly to the way in which Aratus has used the materials supplied by him. Hipparchus (about a century later), who was a scientific astronomer and observer, has left

2275-401: The consequences of actively wooing her. Following Daphnis’ song, Damoetas answers by assuming the role of Polyphemus and singing of his actions, which are meant to make her desire him more. The poem ends with the exchange of instruments by the two singers and the recognition that neither lost in the competition. Lawall argues that the poem is meant to be instructions directed to both Aratus and

2340-796: The country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine ,

2405-441: The dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before

2470-477: The deep on the cave and the sheep like a want-wit lass o’ the sea And the dog that bayed, I hissed him on; for when ‘twas I to woo He’ld lay his snout to her lap, her lap, and whine her friendly to. Maybe she’ll send me messages if long I go this gate; But I’ll bar the door till she swear o’ this shore to be my wedded mate. Ill-favoured? nay, for all they say; I have looked i' the glassy sea, And, for aught I could spy, both beard and eye were pretty as well could be, And

2535-528: The earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of

2600-412: The extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English

2665-613: The first half of which is a verse setting of a lost work of the same name by Eudoxus of Cnidus . It describes the constellations and other celestial phenomena. The second half is called the Diosemeia (Διοσημεῖα "Forecasts"), and is chiefly about weather lore. Although Aratus was somewhat ignorant of Greek astronomy , his poem was very popular in the Greek and Roman world, as is proven by the large number of commentaries and Latin translations, some of which survive. There are several accounts of Aratus's life by anonymous Greek writers, and

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2730-734: The founder of the Eretrian school . He was the son of Athenodoros, and also had a brother with this name. About 276 BC Aratus was invited to the court of the Macedonian king Antigonus II Gonatas , whose victory over the Gauls in 277 Aratus set to verse. Here he wrote his most famous poem, Phenomena . He then spent some time at the court of Antiochus I Soter of Syria , but subsequently returned to Pella in Macedon, where he died sometime before 240/239. His chief pursuits were medicine (which

2795-519: The fragments of them preserved by Hipparchus , that Aratus has in fact versified, or closely imitated parts of them both, but especially of the first. The purpose of the Phenomena is to give an introduction to the constellations , with the rules for their risings and settings; and of the circles of the sphere, amongst which the Milky Way is reckoned. The positions of the constellations, north of

2860-449: The language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows

2925-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write

2990-452: The many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is

3055-465: The morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of

3120-454: The reader about the pitfalls of love. In addition, Lawall interpreted the relationship between Damoetas and Daphnis as ideal love in contrast to the relationship between Polyphemus and Galatea, which most closely resembles real love. The ideal love shared between Damoetas and Daphnis is characterized by the lack of conflict between the two figures and the complementary nature of their respective songs. The relationship between Polyphemus and Galatea

3185-643: The regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of

3250-403: The relationship allows Damoetas and Daphnis to ignore their more slight differences. Translation by J.M Edmonds [1] : Damoetas and neatherd Daphnis, Aratus, half-bearded one, the other's chin ruddy with the down, had driven each his herd together to a single spot at noon of a summer's day, and sitting them down side by side at a water-spring began to sing. Daphnis sang first, for from hi came

3315-444: The second, Diosemeia ("On Weather Signs"), of 422 verses. The Phenomena appears to be based on two prose works— Phenomena and Enoptron (Ἔνοπτρον, "Mirror", presumably a descriptive image of the heavens)—by Eudoxus of Cnidus , written about a century earlier. We are told by the biographers of Aratus that it was the desire of Antigonus to have them turned into verse, which gave rise to the Phenomena of Aratus; and it appears from

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3380-424: The story of Polyphemus and Galatea as a way for Damoetas and Daphnis to explore their own differences as lovers. For Gutzwiller, this exploration results in the inversion of gender roles in a relationship, since Galatea pursues Polyphemus, which lessens the importance of difference in the relationship, since even two opposites can assume each other's roles. Gutzwiller argues that this reduced importance of difference in

3445-400: The strand! Beware of he'll leap as she comes from the deep, leap on her legs so bonny, And towse her sweet pretty flesh – But lo where e’en now she wantons upon ye! O the high thistle-down and the dry thistle-down i' the heat o’the pretty summer O! – She'll fly ye and deny ye if ye’ll a-wooing go, But cease to woo and she'll pursue, aye, then the king's the move; For oft the foul, good Polypheme,

3510-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of

3575-408: The teeth all a-row like marble below, – and that none should o’erlook me of it, As Goody Cotyttaris taught me, thrice in my breast I spit. So far Damoetas, and kissed Daphnis, and that to this gave a pipe and this to that a pretty flue. Then lo! the piper was neatherd Daphnis and the flute-player Damoetas, and the dancers were the heifers who forthwith began to bound mid the tender grass. And as for

3640-443: The victory, that fell to neither one, being they both stood unvanquished in the match. 1. Translation of Idyll 6 Aratus Aratus ( / ə ˈ r eɪ t ə s / ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἄρατος ὁ Σολεύς ; c. 315/310  – 240 BC) was a Greek didactic poet . His major extant work is his hexameter poem Phenomena ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Φαινόμενα , Phainómena , "Appearances"; Latin : Phaenomena ),

3705-400: The work of Theophrastus , On Weather Signs , and from Hesiod. Nothing is said in either poem about Hellenistic astrology . The two poems were very popular both in the Greek and Roman world, as is proved by the number of commentaries and Latin translations. He enjoyed immense prestige among Hellenistic poets, including Theocritus , Callimachus and Leonidas of Tarentum . This assessment

3770-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or

3835-557: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe

3900-556: Was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and

3965-413: Was picked up by Latin poets, including Ovid and Virgil . Latin versions were made by none other than Cicero (mostly extant), Ovid (only two short fragments remain), the member of the imperial Julio-Claudian dynasty Germanicus (extant, with scholia ), and the less-famous Avienius (extant). Quintilian was less enthusiastic. Aratus was also cited by the author of Acts (believed to be Luke

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4030-485: Was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with the epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in

4095-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect

4160-637: Was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to

4225-673: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage

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