174-534: The Ifugao people are the ethnic group inhabiting Ifugao province in the Philippines . They reside in the municipalities of Lagawe (capital of Ifugao), Aguinaldo , Alfonso Lista , Asipulo , Banaue , Hingyon , Hungduan , Kiangan , Lamut , Mayoyao , and Tinoc . The province is one of the smallest provinces in the Philippines with an area of only 251,778 hectares (622,160 acres), or about 0.8% of
348-717: A census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (representing an average family of seven to ten children and two parents per tribute) and came upon the following statistics: The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%, Cavite at 13%, Laguna 2.28%, Batangas 3%, Bulacan 10.79%, Bataan 16.72%, Ilocos 1.38%, Pangasinan 3.49%, Albay 1.16%, Cebu 2.17%, Samar 3.27%, Iloilo 1%, Capiz 1%, Bicol 20%, and Zamboanga 40%. According to
522-590: A colonial middle-class group known as the Mestizo de Sangley ( Chinese mestizos ) descend from. Its descendants during the late 19th century produced a major part of the ilustrado intelligentsia of the late Spanish Colonial Philippines , that were very influential with the creation of Filipino nationalism and the sparking of the Philippine Revolution . There are also Japanese people , which include escaped Christians (Kirishitan) who fled
696-494: A detachable ladder ( tete ) to the front door. Temporary huts ( abong ) give shelter to workers in the field or forest. William Scott describes the details associated with the Ifugao house, "Square in floor plan, it is elevated to about shoulder height by four posts ( tukud ), around which are fitted cynlindrical wooden rat-guards ( halipan ), carrying two transverse girders ( kuling ) which support three floor joists into which
870-464: A domestication of the wild rice Oryza rufipogon by cultures associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien-speakers. This occurred 13,500 to 8,200 years ago south of the Yangtze River in present-day China. There are two likely centers of domestication for rice as well as the development of the wet-field technology. The first is in the lower Yangtze River , believed to be the homelands of
1044-624: A family name. Many chose a name based on some geographical feature associated with their residence or occupation, and as nearly three-fourths of the population were farmers, many made family names using ta . Some common examples are Tanaka ( 田中 ), literally meaning "in the paddy field;" Nakata ( 中田 ), "middle paddy field;" Kawada (川田), "river paddy field;" and Furuta ( 古田 ), "old paddy field." In recent years, rice consumption in Japan has fallen and many rice farmers are increasingly elderly. The government has subsidized rice production since
1218-559: A great deal of labor and materials to create and need large quantities of water for irrigation. Oxen and water buffalo , adapted for life in wetlands , are important working animals used extensively in paddy field farming. Paddy field farming remains the dominant form of growing rice in modern times. It is practiced extensively in Bangladesh , Cambodia , China , India , Indonesia , northern Iran , Japan , Laos , Malaysia , Mongolia , Myanmar , Nepal , North Korea , Pakistan ,
1392-402: A husband felt compelled to take the head of a stranger so that the soul of the deceased might find rest in the afterlife. Moreover, it was believed that if such an action were not carried out, the close relative would also become ill and die. Headhunting, like all important events in the life of the Ifugao, was surrounded by all kinds of customs and rituals. Beforehand, animals were sacrificed to
1566-548: A major language during the short-lived Republic of Zamboanga . Most Maranaos with part- Tausug or Yakan from Zamboanga and Basilan are conversant, specifically the Zamboanga dialect known as Zamboangueño . The Iranun /Ilanun are a Moro ethnic group native to Mindanao , Philippines , and the west coast of Sabah . The modern Iranun are believed to be descendants of Maranao who left Lake Lanao and settled elsewhere. These migrations were usually of merchant clans of
1740-521: A mechanism for the initiation, maintenance, renewal and reinforcement of kinship and social ties. They also speak different Kalinga tribal languages , Ilocano , Tagalog and English . The Balangao tribe inhabits a barangay in Natonin , Mountain Province , Philippines . The tribe, focuses primarily on farming; which is performed either in rice terraces or from lands that were cleared by fire. At
1914-499: A newly irrigated paddy field, especially those made during or after the Edo period , may be called Nitta or Shinden (both 新田 ), "new paddy field." In some places, lakes and marshes were likened to a paddy field and were named with ta , like Hakkōda ( 八甲田 ). Today, many family names have ta as a component, a practice which can be largely attributed to a government edict in the early Meiji Period which required all citizens to have
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#17327649296352088-586: A population increase was the cause of shifting to wet-rice agriculture. According to Queeny G. Lapeña and Stephen B. Acabado, in order to successfully resist against a colonizing power, a constructive military organization within a complete polity is required. The Spanish took conquest of the Magat Valley, which drove the Ifugao to strategically resettle in the interior of the Cordillera Mountains between 1600 CE and 1700 CE. Wet-rice agriculture
2262-536: A possible environmental and commercial solution. The word "paddy" is derived from the Malay / Indonesian word padi , meaning "rice plant", which is itself derived from Proto-Austronesian *pajay ("rice in the field", "rice plant"). Cognates include Amis panay ; Tagalog pálay ; Kadazan Dusun paai ; Javanese pari ; and Chamorro faʻi , among others. Genetic evidence shows that all forms of paddy rice, including both indica and japonica , spring from
2436-473: A sense, it has been unable to cope with population growth and other rice economies which utilized fertilizers. Rice is now grown in all the three seasons of Myanmar, though primarily in the Monsoon season – from June to October. Rice grown in the delta areas relies heavily on the river water and sedimented minerals from the northern mountains, whilst the rice grown in the central regions require irrigation from
2610-422: A severed head. Afterward, the heads were buried in the ground around the expedition leader's house, after which they were dug up and cleaned again after a few months. The skulls eventually ended up hanging in prominent places in his house, such as by the door or the fire. All kinds of rituals were also performed on the side of the victim. The victim's family performed a war dance ( himong ) and vowed revenge. Later,
2784-499: A significant presence throughout the country's history. The Muslim-majority ethnic groups ethnolinguistic groups of Mindanao, Sulu , and Palawan are collectively referred to as the Moro people , a broad category that includes some Indigenous people groups and some non-Indigenous people groups. With a population of over 5 million people, they comprise about 5% of the country's total population. The Spanish called them Moros after
2958-405: A small square ( ambubulan ) which supports the upper ends of the rafters ( bughol ), the roof being a true pyramid in form with four triangular sides and thus rising to an apex without any ridgepole. The wallboards are rabbeted into a transverse beam ( huklub ) at waist or chest height, at which point a shelf ( patie ) is fitted between them and the roof, whose eaves descend as low as the level of
3132-399: A thin brass instrument that is plucked ( bikkung ), stringed instruments ( ayyuding and babbong ), nose flutes ( ingngiing ) and mouth flutes ( kupliing or ippiip ). The pewpew is a percussion instrument made out of bamboo . Ifugao houses ( Bale ) are built on four wooden posts 3 meters from the ground, and consist of one room, a front door ( panto ) and back door ( awidan ), with
3306-503: A thing of the past. The last incidents occurred in the early 20th century. The basic meal of the Ifugao is composed of a staple starch, more commonly rice as it is their staple food, served with dishes like vegetables, fish or snails, flavorings, and sometimes, cooked animal meat like chicken and pig. During low levels of rice, the Ifugao consume grain or root crops like sweet potatoes. Fresh berries and other plant products and plants are served as snacks. Rice wine (called baya or bubud )
3480-529: A traditional horse culture . They are renowned for their weaving traditions. The Tausūg people (known as Suluk in Sabah ) are an ethnic group of the Philippines , Malaysia and Indonesia . The Tausūg are a Visayan subgroup that mostly converted to Islam in the late AD 1300s, and are closely related to the Surigaonon and Butuanon people . The Muslim Tausugs originally had an independent state known as
3654-405: A wooden guardian called a bulul . The bulul sculptures are highly stylized representations of the ancestors of the Ifugao and are thought to gain power and wealth from the presence of the ancestral spirit. The Ifugao are particularly noted for their skill in carving bulul. Furthermore, Ifugao culture is known for their legal system, based on the elders of the village, amama-a . Their words had
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#17327649296353828-634: Is a South-Central Cordilleran dialect . They have an indigenous Itneg religion with its own pantheon. The Kalinga , also known as "iKalinga", inhabit the drainage basin of the middle Chico River in Kalinga Province . The Kalinga are sub-divided into Southern and Northern groups; the latter is considered the most heavily ornamented people of the northern Philippines. The Kalinga practice both wet and dry rice farming. They also developed an institution of peace pacts called Bodong which has minimised traditional warfare and headhunting and serves as
4002-486: Is a must in most rituals and special occasions with homemade yeast and glutinous rice as the basic ingredients. Wooden rice spoons with sacred carved images of bulul representing deities or ancestral spirits ( anito ) are traditional among the Ifugao people. Despite the animistic carvings, they are everyday utensils used for eating rice or soups or serving rice wine. Today, they are commonly sold as souvenirs to tourists. Among Ifugao men, tattoos were strongly linked to
4176-737: Is archaeological evidence that unhusked rice was stored for the military and for burial with the deceased from the Neolithic period to the Han dynasty in China. By the late Neolithic (3500 to 2500 BC), population in the rice cultivating centers had increased rapidly, centered around the Qujialing - Shijiahe and Liangzhu cultures. There was also evidence of intensive rice cultivation in paddy fields as well as increasingly sophisticated material cultures in these two regions. The number of settlements among
4350-489: Is available, rice farmers typically plant Green Revolution rice varieties allowing three growing seasons per year. Since fertilizer and pesticide are relatively expensive inputs, farmers typically plant seeds in a very small plot. Three weeks following germination, the 15-20 centimetre (6–8 in) stalks are picked and replanted at greater separation, in a backbreaking manual procedure. Rice harvesting in Central Java
4524-518: Is considered a prestige crop. There is an elaborate and complex array of rice culture feasts inextricably linked with taboos and intricate agricultural rites, from rice cultivation to rice consumption. Harvest season calls for grandiose thanksgiving feasts, while the concluding harvest rites tungo or tungul (the day of rest) entail a strict taboo of any agricultural work. Partaking of the rice wine ( bayah ), rice cakes, and moma (mixture of several herbs, powdered snail shell and betel nut/arecoline which
4698-606: Is considered the main rice growing province of the Philippines . The Banaue Rice Terraces are an example of paddy fields in the country. They are located in Banaue in Northern Luzon , Philippines and were built by the Ifugaos 2,000 years ago. Streams and springs found in the mountains were tapped and channeled into irrigation canals that run downhill through the rice terraces. Other notable Philippine paddy fields are
4872-463: Is determined by the variety and quality control of water. The tavy is traditionally the culture of flooded upland rice on burning of cleared natural rain forest (135,966 ha). Criticized as being the cause of deforestation, tavy is still widely practiced by farmers in Madagascar, who find a good compromise between climate risks, availability of labour and food security. By extension,
5046-495: Is estimated at 32,227 (NM 1994). The generalized culture is lowland central Philippines focused on wet rice cultivation, and some localized swidden cultivation. Adaptation to the marine environment is made, but mostly in terms of domestic fishing. The Maranao people ( Maranao: [ˈmәranaw] ; Filipino : Maranaw ), also spelled Meranao, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is the term used by the Philippine government to refer to
5220-457: Is found in some place names, especially small farming townships and villages. However, the specific Korean term for 'paddy' is a purely Korean word, "non" ( Korean : 논 ). In Madagascar , the average annual consumption of rice is 130 kg per person, one of the largest in the world. According to a 1999 study of UPDRS / FAO: The majority of rice is related to irrigation (1,054,381 ha). The choice of methods conditioning performance
5394-580: Is grown in Northern Italy, especially in the valley of the Po River . The paddy fields are irrigated by fast-flowing streams descending from the Alps . In the 19th century and much of the 20th century, the paddy fields were farmed by the mondine , a subculture of seasonal rice paddy workers composed mostly of poor women. The acidic soil conditions common in Japan due to volcanic eruptions have made
Ifugao people - Misplaced Pages Continue
5568-555: Is heavily influenced by the Sulu Sultanate . They are relatively isolated and do not usually consider themselves as Sama. Banguingui , also known as Sama Banguingui or Samal Banguingui (alternative spellings include Bangingi’, Bangingi, Banguingui, Balanguingui, and Balangingi) is a distinct ethno-linguistic group dispersed throughout the Greater Sulu Archipelago and southern and western coastal regions of
5742-550: Is inhabited by more than 182 ethnolinguistic groups, many of which are classified as "Indigenous Peoples" under the country's Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997 . Traditionally-Muslim peoples from the southernmost island group of Mindanao are usually categorized together as Moro peoples , whether they are classified as Indigenous peoples or not. About 142 are classified as non-Muslim Indigenous people groups, and about 19 ethnolinguistic groups are classified as neither Indigenous nor Moro. Various migrant groups have also had
5916-548: Is often performed not by owners or sharecroppers of paddies, but rather by itinerant middlemen, whose small firms specialize in the harvest, transport, milling, and distribution of rice. The fertile volcanic soil of much of the Indonesian archipelago—particularly the islands of Java and Bali—has made rice a central dietary staple. Steep terrain on Bali resulted in complex irrigation systems, locally called subak , to manage water storage and drainage for rice terraces. Rice
6090-425: Is one factor that intensified the social ranking that was already present among the Ifugao society. Those who adopted wet rice cultivation were able to consolidate political resources. "In Ifugao, the adoption of wet-rice agriculture is at the forefront in discussions regarding social ranking vis-à-vis prestige economy." The Ifugao social status is based on their rice lands and ability to sponsor feasts. One reason being
6264-430: Is overseen by a married elder or a childless widow who keeps the parents of the participating males and females well informed of the progress of the courtship process. The Ifugao people had well-established values regarding marriage and sexuality. An example of these is their custom of equating the size of a woman's breast and the wideness of her hips with the price of the dowry . During the marriage ceremony ( uya-uy ),
6438-618: Is sometimes considered offensive. Their preferred endonym is simply "Sama", but they can also be called as Sama Deya or Sama Darat. These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in island interiors. Some examples are the Sama Sibutu and the Sama Sanga-Sanga. They are usually farmers who cultivate rice , sweet potato , cassava , and coconuts for copra through traditional slash-and-burn agriculture (in contrast to
6612-400: Is that an individual needs to be skilled in mobilizing rice terraces, and because rice terraces require labor-intensive work. Ifugao culture values kinship, family ties, religious and cultural beliefs. Ifugao are unique among all ethnic groups in the mountain province for their narrative literature such as the hudhud , an epic dealing with hero ancestors sung in a poetic manner. Also unique to
6786-665: Is the Sama Simunul. They are originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi . They have a more flexible lifestyle than the Sama-Gimba (Sama Dilaut Origin), and will farm when there is available land. They usually act as middlemen in trade between the Sama Dilaut and other land-based peoples. The Sama Dilaut (Bajau) are part of the Sama-Bajau peoples and are the dominant ethnic group of the islands of Tawi-Tawi in
6960-626: Is the largest in the world, only about 15% of its total land area can be cultivated. About 75% of the cultivated area is used for food crops. Rice is China's most important crop, raised on about 25% of the cultivated area. Most rice is grown south of the Huai River , in the Yangtze valley, the Zhu Jiang delta, and in Yunnan , Guizhou , and Sichuan provinces. Rice appears to have been used by
7134-455: Is the name for the Ifugao sport of traditional wrestling . It is often played during town and provincial fiestas . Bultong falls under the international classification of " belt wrestling ". From a person's birth to his death, the Ifugaos follow a lot of traditions. Pahang and palat di oban are performed to a mother to ensure safe delivery. After delivery, no visitors are allowed to enter
Ifugao people - Misplaced Pages Continue
7308-529: Is their most prized agricultural crop. The word Malubog means "murky or turbid water". The Molbog are likely a migrant people from nearby Sabah , North Borneo . Based on their dialect and some socio-cultural practices, they seem to be related to the Orang Tidung or Tirum (Camucone in Spanish), an Islamized ethnolinguistic group native to the lower east coast of Sabah and upper East Kalimantan . They speak
7482-518: Is used as a chewing gum to the Ifugaos) is an indelible practice during the festivities and ritual activities. Agricultural terracing and farming are the principal means of livelihood. Their social status is measured by the number of rice field granaries, family heirlooms, gold earrings, and carabaos (water buffaloes). Prestige is also conferred through time and tradition. A prayer is said by an elderly woman when harvest begins, directed towards Cabunian,
7656-400: The kinabu (dog), usually placed on the chest; tinagu (human figures); and ginawang or ginayaman (centipedes). Betrothals are common among the Ifugao, especially among the wealthy class; and they perform several customs in marriage like bubun (providing a pig to the woman's family). The Ifugao practice a courtship called ca-i-sing (this practice is known as the ebgan to
7830-534: The Aeta of Luzon, the Negrito population was estimated at 31,000 as of 2004. There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos, starting with the " Waves of Migration " hypothesis of H. Otley Beyer in 1948, which claimed that Filipinos were "Indonesians" and "Malays" who migrated to the islands. This is completely rejected by modern anthropologists and is not supported by any evidence, but
8004-887: The Comoros , and the coast of East Africa around the 1st millennium AD by Austronesian settlers from the Greater Sunda Islands . There are ten archaeologically excavated rice paddy fields in Korea. The two oldest are the Okhyun and Yaumdong sites, found in Ulsan , dating to the early Mumun pottery period . Paddy field farming goes back thousands of years in Korea. A pit-house at the Daecheon-ni site yielded carbonized rice grains and radiocarbon dates, indicating that rice cultivation in dry-fields may have begun as early as
8178-615: The Cordillera Administrative Region , Caraballo Mountains , and Sierra Madre . The Isnag people (also Isneg or Apayao) are native to Apayao Province in the Cordillera Administrative Region . Their native language is Isneg (also called Isnag), although most Isnag also speak Ilokano . Two major sub-groups among the Isnag are known: the Ymandaya, mostly concentrated in the municipality of Calanasan ; and
8352-844: The Cordillera Administrative Region , but can also be found in Nueva Vizcaya , Nueva Ecija , and Pangasinan . They speak the Kalanguya language or "Kallahan", which was once the most spoken language in most parts of today's Benguet , Nueva Vizcaya, Ifugao , Mt. Province , and some parts of Nueva Ecija but is no longer due to ethnocentrism. The Kalanguya population in Nueva Vizcaya has also been identified in anthropological literature as "Ikal-lahan". Those who reside in Tinoc and Buguias call themselves Kalangoya. Those who reside in Nueva Vizcaya and Quirino call themselves Ikalahans. In
8526-546: The Ibaloy and Ikalahan . The characteristic village enclosing fences are sometimes composed in part of the houses with the front entry facing inward. Pig sties are part of the residential architecture. The Iwak are found principally in the municipalities of Boyasyas and Kayapa , province of Nueva Vizcaya . The subgroups are: (1) Lallang ni I’Wak, (2) Ibomanggi, (3) Italiti, (4) Alagot, (5) Itangdalan, (6) Ialsas, (7) Iliaban, (8)Yumanggi, (9) Ayahas, and (10) Idangatan. They speak
8700-977: The Ilocano , the Pangasinense , the Kapampangan , the Tagalog , the Bicolano , and the Visayans (including the Cebuano , the Boholano , the Hiligaynon/Ilonggo , and the Waray ). Many of these groups converted to Christianity , particularly both the native and migrant lowland-coastal groups, and adopted foreign elements of culture throughout the country's history. Due to the past history of
8874-541: The Irrawaddy River . The fields are tilled when the first rains arrive – traditionally measured at 40 days after Thingyan , the Burmese New Year – around the beginning of June. In modern times, tractors are used, but traditionally, buffalos were employed. The rice plants are planted in nurseries and then transplanted by hand into the prepared fields. The rice is then harvested in late November – "when
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#17327649296359048-529: The Iwaak language , which is a Pangasinic language which makes it closely related to Pangasinense . Wet rice A paddy field is a flooded field of arable land used for growing semiaquatic crops, most notably rice and taro . It originates from the Neolithic rice-farming cultures of the Yangtze River basin in southern China, associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien cultures. It
9222-563: The Kalinga tribes and as pangis to the Tingguian tribes), wherein males and females are separated into "houses". The house for the males is called the Ato , while the house for females is known as the olog or agamang . The males visit the females in the olog – the "betrothal house" – to sing romantic songs. The females reply to these songs also through singing. The ongoing courtship ritual
9396-573: The Malagasy people . Aside from language and genetics, they also share common cultural markers like multihull and outrigger boats , tattooing , rice cultivation , wetland agriculture , teeth blackening , jade carving, betel nut chewing , ancestor worship , and the same domesticated plants and animals (including dogs, pigs, chickens, yams, bananas, sugarcane, and coconuts). Prehistoric Tabon Man , found in Palawan in 1962 was, until 2007,
9570-625: The Malaysian Peninsula , with most of the fields being located in the northern states such as Kedah , Perlis , Perak , and Penang . Paddy fields can also be found on Malaysia's east coast region, in Kelantan and Terengganu . The central state of Selangor also has its fair share of paddy fields, especially in the districts of Kuala Selangor and Sabak Bernam . Before Malaysia became heavily reliant on its industrial output, people were mainly involved in agriculture, especially in
9744-644: The Manobo people who live in inland Mindanao, and the other in the Sama-Bajau and related people of the Sulu archipelago, Zamboanga Peninsula, and Palawan. The admixture found in the Sama people indicates a relationship with the Lua and Mlabri people of mainland Southeast Asia, and reflects a similar genetic signal found in western Indonesia. These happened sometime after 15,000 years ago and 12,000 years ago respectively, around
9918-573: The Maranao and Iranun . These three groups speak related languages belonging to the Danao language family .They live primarily in Maguindanao , Soccsksargen , Davao Region and Zamboanga Peninsula and speak Maguindanaon with second languages as Hiligaynon , Cebuano , Tagalog and Arabic and/or English . Because of the mass influx of Cebuano and Hiligaynon migrants to Mindanao, many of
10092-411: The Maranao and live in the provinces of Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur . Because of the mass influx of Cebuano migrants to Mindanao, many Maranaos are also fluent in Cebuano . They also use Arabic as a liturgical language of Islam . Most Maranaos, however, do not know Arabic beyond its religious use. Some also know Chavacano , which is a Philippine Spanish Creole that gained popularity as
10266-604: The Molbog language , which is related to Bonggi , spoken in Sabah, Malaysia . However, some Sama words (of the Jama Mapun variant) and Tausug words are found in the Molbog dialect after a long period of exposure with those ethnics. This plus a few characteristics of their socio-cultural life style distinguish them from the Orang Tidung . Molbog livelihood includes subsistence farming, fishing and occasional barter trading with
10440-466: The Moors , despite no resemblance or cultural ties to them apart from their religion. About 142 of the Philippines' Indigenous people groups are not classified as Moro peoples. Some of these people groups are commonly grouped together due to their strong association with a shared geographic area, although these broad categorizations are not always welcomed by the ethnic groups themselves. For example,
10614-412: The Moros and neighbouring ethnolinguistic groups in Sabah. In the past, both the Molbog and the Palawanon Muslims were ruled by Sulu datus , thus forming the outer political periphery of the Sulu Sultanate . Intermarriage between Tausug and the Molbog hastened the Islamization of the Molbog. The offsprings of these intermarriages are known as kolibugan or "half-breed". The Kolibugan resulted from
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#173276492963510788-399: The Philippines , South Korea , Sri Lanka , Taiwan , Thailand , and Vietnam . It has also been introduced elsewhere since the colonial era, notably in northern Italy , the Camargue in France , and in Spain , particularly in the Albufera de València wetlands in the Valencian Community , the Ebro Delta in Catalonia and the Guadalquivir wetlands in Andalusia , as well as along
10962-437: The Philippines , bringing rice cultivation technologies with them. From Luzon, Austronesians rapidly colonized the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia , moving westwards to Borneo , the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra ; and southwards to Sulawesi and Java . By 500 BC, there is evidence of intensive wetland rice agriculture already established in Java and Bali , especially near very fertile volcanic islands. Rice did not survive
11136-422: The Philippines . They are known as the "sea Sama" or "ocean Sama". In the Philippines, they are more popularly known as the Bajau or Badjao / Bajaw, but their preferred ethnonym is Sama Dilaut or Sama Mandilaut / Sama Pala'u; while in Malaysia, they usually identify as Bajau Laut. This subgroup originally lived exclusively on elaborately crafted houseboats called lepa , but almost all have taken to living on land in
11310-467: The Sangihe and Talaud Islands (now part of Indonesia ) and parts of Davao Occidental (particularly in the Sarangani Islands ), Davao del Norte , Davao del Sur , Sultan Kudarat , South Cotabato , and North Cotabato . Their populations (much like the Sama-Bajau ) were separated when borders were drawn between the Philippines and Indonesia during the colonial era . The Sangil people are traditionally animistic, much like other Lumad peoples . During
11484-532: The Sangirese language . The exact population of Sangil people in the Philippines is unknown, but is estimated to be around 10,000 people. Indonesian Sangir live in the Philippines, particularly Balut Island, Davao del Sur , Davao del Norte , Davao Oriental , Sarangani , Sultan Kudarat , North Cotabato , South Cotabato , General Santos and Davao City , because of its proximity to Indonesia; they speak Cebuano & Tagalog as second languages & are Protestant Christians by faith. The Yakan people are among
11658-442: The Senate of the Philippines , there were approximately 1.35 million ethnic (or pure) Chinese within the Philippine population, while Filipinos with any Chinese descent comprised 22.8 million of the population. The results of a massive DNA study conducted by the National Geographic 's "The Genographic Project", based on genetic testings of 80,000 Filipino people by the National Geographic in 2008–2009, found that
11832-440: The Spanish held territories along the way. The Maguindanao people are the historical people of the Sultanate of Maguindanao . The word Maguindanao or Magindanaw means "people of the flood plains", from the word Magi'inged , which means "people or citizen", and danaw , which means "lake or marsh". Thus Maguindanao or Magindanaw can also be translated as "people of the lake", identical to their closely related neighbors,
12006-473: The Spanish colonial control , which became prevalent in the lowlands. According to Acabado, the rugged nature of the highlands around the Ifugao region did not out rightly provide a hindrance to the Spanish conquest. Other regions that had similar rugged environment as found in Ifugao were subjected to colonial rule. Archeological research shows Ifugao practices of successful resistance by strengthening their political and economic resources. The Spanish conquest and
12180-531: The Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), two revolutionary improvements in farming technology took place. One was the use of cast iron tools and beasts of burden to pull plows, and the other was the large-scale harnessing of rivers and development of water conservation projects. Sunshu Ao of the 6th century BC and Ximen Bao of the 5th century BC are two of the earliest hydraulic engineers from China, and their works were focused upon improving irrigation systems. These developments were widely spread during
12354-501: The Sulu Archipelago . The Tausūg in Sabah refer to themselves as Tausūg but refers to their ethnic group as "Suluk" as documented in official documents such as birth certificates in Sabah , which are written Malay . Because of the mass arrival of Cebuano settlers to Mindanao, many Tausug people are exposed in the Cebuano language easily enough to be able to speak it as Tausug & Cebuano languages belong to Visayan languages. Some Tausug in Sulu & Tawi-Tawi speak Chabacano, specifically
12528-720: The Sulu Sultanate , which once exercised sovereignty over the present day provinces of Sulu , coastal areas of Basilan , southern Palawan , Tawi-Tawi , some coastal areas of the Zamboanga Peninsula , and the eastern part of the Malaysian state of Sabah (formerly North Borneo ) and North Kalimantan in Indonesia. "Tausug" means "the people of the current", from the word tau which means "man" or "people" and sūg (alternatively spelled sulug or suluk ) which means "[sea] currents". This refers to their homelands in
12702-461: The Zamboanga Peninsula in Mindanao , Philippines . They are one of the ethnic groups usually collectively known as the Sama-Bajau peoples . The Sama Dea (Samal/Sama) are part of the Sama-Bajau peoples , more accurately a general subgroup of "Land Sama" native to the Philippines. They are popularly known as Samal (also spelled "Siamal" or "Siyamal"), which is a Tausūg and Cebuano term that
12876-430: The floorboards ( dotal ) are fitted and wallboards ( goab and pamadingan ) and studs ( bagad ) are mortised . The four studs , placed at the corner of the house, are mortised at their upper end into four tie-beans or purlins ( wanan ) which form a square to carry much of the weight of the roof as well as the central crossbeam ( pumpitolan ) on which stand two queenposts ( taknang ). These queenposts terminate in
13050-634: The persecutions of Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu which the Spanish authorities in the Philippines had offered asylum from to form part of the Japanese settlement in the Philippines . In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese people traders also migrated to the Philippines and assimilated into the local population. The Philippines was a former American colony and during the American colonial era, there were over 800,000 Americans who were born in
13224-589: The plow agriculture technology brought by the Tausūg). They are originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi and Pangutaran . In the Philippines, the Sama Dea will often completely differentiate themselves from the Sama Dilaut. A large number are now residing around the coasts of northern Sabah , though many have also migrated north to the Visayas and southern Luzon . They are predominantly land-dwelling. They are
13398-523: The tanety , which literally means "hill," is also growing upland rice, carried out on the grassy slopes that have been deforested for the production of charcoal (139,337 ha). Among the many varieties, rice of Madagascar includes: Vary lava - a translucent long and large grain rice, considered a luxury rice; Vary Makalioka - a translucent long and thin grain rice; Vary Rojofotsy - a half-long grain rice; and Vary mena , or red rice, exclusive to Madagascar. Paddy fields can be found in most states on
13572-491: The "Sea Gypsies" or "Sea Nomads". They usually live a seaborne lifestyle, and use small wooden sailing vessels such as the perahu ( layag in Meranau ), djenging , balutu , lepa , pilang , and vinta (or lepa-lepa ). There are more than 100 highland, lowland, and coastland indigenous groups in the Philippines. These include: The Igorots/Cordillerans live in the highlands of Luzon . They are primarily located in
13746-617: The 16th century, Spanish colonization brought new groups of people to the Philippines mainly Spaniards and Mexicans . Many settled in the Philippines, and intermarried with the indigenous population. This gave rise to the Filipino mestizo or individuals of mixed Austronesian and Hispanic descent. There was migration of a military nature from Latin-America (Mexico and Peru) to the Philippines , composed of varying races (Amerindian, Mestizo and Criollo) as described by Stephanie J. Mawson in her book "Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in
13920-515: The 1970s, and favors protectionist policies regarding cheaper imported rice. Arable land in small alluvial flats of most rural river valleys in South Korea are dedicated to paddy-field farming. Farmers assess paddy fields for any necessary repairs in February. Fields may be rebuilt, and bund breaches are repaired. This work is carried out until mid-March, when warmer spring weather allows
14094-512: The 20th century and late 19th century, possibly numbering around 2 million, although there are an estimated 27 percent of Filipinos who have partial Chinese ancestry, stemming from precolonial and colonial Chinese ( Sangley ) migrants from the past centuries especially during the Spanish Colonial Era . Intermarriage between the groups is evident in the major cities and urban areas, and spans back to Spanish colonial times , where
14268-647: The Austronesian voyages into Micronesia and Polynesia ; however, wet-field agriculture was transferred to the cultivation of other crops, most notably for taro cultivation. The Austronesian Lapita culture also came into contact with the non-Austronesian ( Papuan ) early agriculturists of New Guinea and introduced wetland farming techniques to them. In turn, they assimilated their range of indigenous cultivated fruits and tubers before spreading further eastward to Island Melanesia and Polynesia . Rice and wet-field agriculture were also introduced to Madagascar ,
14442-636: The Early Neolithic populations of Lijiacun and Yunchanyan in China. Evidence of possible rice cultivation from ca. 11,500 BC has been found, however it is still questioned whether the rice was indeed being cultivated, or instead being gathered as wild rice. Bruce Smith, an archaeologist at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., who has written on the origins of agriculture, says that evidence has been mounting that
14616-629: The Early Mumun pottery period (c. 1100–850 BC). KUM has conducted excavations, that have revealed similarly dated paddy field features, at Yaeum-dong and Okhyeon, in modern-day Ulsan . The earliest Mumun features were usually located in low-lying narrow gullies, that were naturally swampy and fed by the local stream system. Some Mumun paddy fields in flat areas were made of a series of squares and rectangles, separated by bunds approximately 10 cm in height, while terraced paddy fields consisted of long irregular shapes that followed natural contours of
14790-758: The Eastern World ( Lagud ), the Western World ( Daya ), and the Spiritual World ( Kadungayan ). Talikud carries the Earthworld on his shoulders and cause earthquakes. The ifugaos include nature and ancestor worship, and participate in rituals ( baki ) presided over by a mumbaki . Priests ( munagao and mumbini ) guide the people in rites for good fortune. Ethnic groups in the Philippines The Philippines
14964-482: The Ifugao is their woodcarving art, most notably the carved granary guardians bulul and the prestige bench of the upper class, the hagabi . Their textiles are renowned for their sheer beauty, colorful blankets and clothing woven on looms. The Ifugao are known for their rich oral literary traditions of hudhud and the alim . In 2001, the Hudhud Chants of the Ifugao was chosen as one of the 11 Masterpieces of
15138-447: The Ifugao tend to have more scattered settlements, and recognize their affiliation mostly towards direct kin in households closer to their fields. The Spanish first described the Ifugao rice terraces in 1801. Though as William Scott notes, "These impressive stone-walled fields, irrigated for both rice and taro , had been known from the time of the first expeditions in to Kiangan in the 1750s..." Ifugao culture revolves around rice, which
15312-516: The Ifugao valleys. A theory by Felix Keesing was based on old Spanish sources and proposed that the ancestors of the Ifugao came from the Magat area only after the arrival of the Spanish in Magat. Hence the rice terraces are only a few hundred years old. The Ifugao popular epic The Hudhud of Dinulawan and Bugan of Gonhadan supports this interpretation. A more recent theory by Manuel Dulawan assumes that
15486-517: The Ifugaos came from the western Mountain Province , due to striking similarities with Kankanaey language, architecture, clothing manufacturing and design and the many names and places that originate from this region and feature in Ifugao myths and songs. According to studies, the Ifugao succeeded multiple times resisting against the Spanish at conquest. The groups that migrated to the Cordilleran highlands were believed to be those that resisted
15660-454: The Imallod, with populations distributed among the other towns of the province. Isnag populations can also be found in the eastern part of the adjacent provinces of Ilocos Norte and Cagayan . The Itneg ( exonym Tinguian / Tingguian / Tinggian ) are an Austronesian ethnic group from the upland province of Abra in northwestern Luzon , in the Philippines . The native Itneg language
15834-676: The Indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Mountain Range in northern Luzon are often referred to using the exonym "Igorot people," or more recently, as the Cordilleran peoples . Meanwhile, the non-Moro peoples of Mindanao are collectively referred to as the Lumad , a collective autonym conceived in 1986 as a way to distinguish them from their neighboring Indigenous Moro and Visayan neighbors. Small Indigenous ethnic communities remain marginalized, and often poorer than
16008-606: The Journal of Forensic Anthropology, collating contemporary Anthropological data show that the percentage of Filipino bodies who were sampled from the University of the Philippines , that is phenotypically classified as Asian ( East , South and Southeast Asian ) is 72.7%, Hispanic (Spanish-Amerindian Mestizo, Latin American , and/or Spanish-Malay Mestizo ) is at 12.7%, Indigenous American ( Native American ) at 7.3%, African at 4.5%, and European at 2.7%. In 2013, according to
16182-591: The Kankanaey built sloping terraces to maximize farm space in the rugged terrain of the Cordilleras . They speak the Kankanaey language . The only difference amongst the Kankanaey are the way they speak such as intonation and word usage. In intonation, there is distinction between those who speak Hard Kankanaey ( Applai ) and Soft Kankanaey. Speakers of Hard Kankanaey are from the towns of Sagada and Besao in
16356-808: The Maguindanao people tend to be exposed to the Cebuano or Hiligaynon languages from Visayas easily enough to be able to speak it. Arabic is spoken by a minority of the Moro people, being the liturgical language of Islam . Some also speak Chabacano, which is a Philippine Spanish Creole that gained popularity as a major language during the Spanish rule and during the short-lived Republic of Zamboanga, most specifically Cotabateño dialect, spoken in Cotabato City . The Sangil people (also called Sangir, Sangu, Marore, Sangirezen, or Talaoerezen) are originally from
16530-571: The Malayan Arabic script, with adaptations to sounds not present in Arabic . Yakans speak Chabacano , which is the lingua franca of Basilan, the reason of easier adaptation to the society of Zamboanga City. Because of the mass influx of Cebuano migrants to Mindanao, many of the Yakans also tend to be exposed to the Cebuano language from Visayas easily enough to be able to speak it. The Yakan have
16704-646: The Maranao which established trading routes near the coast. Some Iranun clans, however, are descendants of outcast clans that left Lake Lanao after one of their clan members committed a murder. For several centuries, the Iranuns in the Philippines formed part of the Sultanate of Maguindanao . In the past, the seat of the Maguindanao Sultanate was situated at Lamitan and Malabang . Both of which were
16878-604: The Middle Jeulmun pottery period (c. 3500–2000 BC) in the Korean Peninsula . Ancient paddy fields have been carefully unearthed in Korea by institutes such as Kyungnam University Museum (KUM) of Masan . They excavated paddy field features at the Geumcheon-ni Site near Miryang , South Gyeongsang Province . The paddy field feature was found next to a pit-house that is dated to the latter part of
17052-608: The Monsoon . The paddy cultivation plays a major role in socio-cultural life of rural India. Many regional festivals celebrate the harvest, such as Onam , Bihu , Thai Pongal , Makar Sankranti , and Nabanna . The Kaveri delta region of Thanjavur is historically known as the rice bowl of Tamil Nadu , and Kuttanadu is called the rice bowl of Kerala . Gangavathi is known as the rice bowl of Karnataka . Prime Javanese paddies yield roughly 6 metric tons of unmilled rice (2.5 metric tons of milled rice) per hectare . When irrigation
17226-873: The Neolithic rice-cultivating pre-Austronesian civilizations of the Yangtze River delta in coastal southeastern China pre-dating the conquest of those regions by the Han Chinese . This includes civilizations like the Liangzhu culture , Hemudu culture , and the Majiabang culture . It connects speakers of the Austronesian languages in a common linguistic and genetic lineage, including the Taiwanese indigenous peoples , Islander Southeast Asians , Chams , Islander Melanesians , Micronesians , Polynesians , and
17400-666: The Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity . It was then formally inscribed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008. The Ifugaos' highest prestige feasts are the hagabi , sponsored by the elite ( kadangyan ); and the uyauy , a marriage feast sponsored by those immediately below the wealthiest ( inmuy-ya-uy ). Ifugao heirloom beads are prestigious goods that were limited to the Ifugao community of wealth; moreover, such beads were solely utilized for ritualistic occasions such as: funerals, weddings, and rice harvest festivals and signified respect. Rice granaries ( alang ) are protected by
17574-568: The Philippines since the Spanish colonial era , there are also some historical migrant heritage groups such as the Chinese Filipinos and Spanish Filipinos , both of whom intermixed with the above lowland Austronesian-speaking ethnic groups, which produced Filipino Mestizos . These groups also comprise and contribute a considerable proportion of the country's population, especially its bourgeois , and economy and were integral to
17748-491: The Philippines was only about 667,612 . In the 1600s, Spain deployed thousands of Mexican and Peruvian soldiers across the many cities and presidios of the Philippines. Another 35,000 Mexican immigrants arrived in the 1700s and they were part of a Philippine population of only 1.5 million, forming about 2.3% of the population. In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas" compiled
17922-469: The Philippines. As of 2013 , there were 220,000 to 600,000 American citizens living in the country. There are also 250,000 Amerasians scattered across the cities of Angeles City , Manila , and Olongapo . Practicing forensic anthropology , while exhuming cranial bones in several Philippine cemeteries, researcher Matthew C. Go estimated that 7% of the mean amount, among the samples exhumed, have attribution to European descent. Research work published in
18096-485: The Philippines. Their home islands include Sitangkai and Bongao . They sometimes call themselves the "Sama To'ongan" (literally "true Sama" or "real Sama"), to distinguish themselves from the land-dwelling Sama-Bajau subgroups. They are also found in other islands of the Sulu Archipelago , coastal areas of Mindanao , northern and eastern Borneo , Sulawesi , and throughout eastern Indonesian islands. Within
18270-581: The Seventeenth-Century Pacific". Also, in her dissertation paper called, ‘Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific’, she recorded an accumulated number of 15,600 soldier-settlers sent to the Philippines from Latin-America during the 1600s. In contrast, there were only 600 Spaniards who immigrated from Europe, in which timeframe, the total population of
18444-402: The Yangtze cultures and their sizes increased, leading some archeologists to characterize them as true states , with clearly advanced socio-political structures. However, it is unknown if they had centralized control. In the terminal Neolithic (2500 to 2000 BC), Shijiahe shrank in size, and Liangzhu disappeared altogether. This is largely believed to be the result of the southward expansion of
18618-513: The Yangtze was probably the site of the earliest rice cultivation. In 1998, Crawford & Shen reported that the earliest of 14 AMS or radiocarbon dates on rice from at least nine Early to Middle Neolithic sites is no older than 7000 BC, that rice from the Hemudu and Luojiajiao sites indicates that rice domestication likely began before 5000 BC, but that most sites in China from which rice remains have been recovered are younger than 5000 BC. During
18792-500: The Yangtze, but by 1250, 75% of China's population lived south of it. Such large-scale internal migration was possible due to introduction of quick-ripening strains of rice from Vietnam suitable for multi-cropping. Famous rice paddies in China include the Longsheng Rice Terraces and the fields of Yuanyang County, Yunnan . India has the largest paddy output in the world and is also the largest exporter of rice in
18966-590: The Zamboanga dialect; most of those fluent in Chabacano are residents of Basilan & Zamboanga City. Most Tausug in Sabah and North Kalimantan & some Tausug in Sulu Archipeago & south Palawan speak Sabah Malay . The Jama Mapun are sometimes known by the exonyms 'Sama Mapun", "Sama Kagayan", or "Bajau Kagayan". They are part of the Sama-Bajau peoples. They are from the island of Mapun, Tawi-Tawi (formerly known as Cagayan de Sulu). Their culture
19140-545: The advent of Christianity . In general, however, it can be said that all Bontocs are very aware of their own way of life and are not overly eager to change. The Ifugao (also known as Amganad, Ayangan, Kiangan, Gilipanes, Quiangan, Tuwali Ifugao, Mayoyao, Mayaoyaw) are the people inhabiting Ifugao Province . The country of the Ifugao in the southeastern part of the Cordillera region is best known for its famous Banaue Rice Terraces , which in modern times have become one of
19314-532: The archaeological site of Matsutaka in Mie Prefecture that dates to the late 2nd century. Ta ( 田 ) is used as a part of many place names as well as in many family names. Most of these places are somehow related to the paddy field and, in many cases, are based on the history of a particular location. For example, where a river runs through a village, the place east of the river may be called Higashida ( 東田 ), literally "east paddy field." A place with
19488-693: The area along and the delta of the Kaladan River , and the Central plains around Mandalay , though there has been an increase in rice farming in Shan State and Kachin State in recent years. Up until the later 1960s, Myanmar was the main exporter of rice. Termed the rice basket of Southeast Asia, much of the rice grown in Myanmar does not rely on fertilizers and pesticides, thus, although "organic" in
19662-407: The average Filipino's genes are around 53% Southeast Asian and Oceanian, 36% East Asian, 5% Southern European, 3% South Asian and 2% Native American. The collective term Moro people or Bangsamoro people refers to the, at least 13, islamicized ethnolinguistic groups of Mindanao , Sulu and Palawan . As Muslim-majority ethnic groups, they form the largest non- Christian majority population in
19836-732: The banks of the Chico River in the Central Mountain Province on the island of Luzon . They speak Bontoc and Ilocano . They formerly practiced head-hunting and had distinctive body tattoos . Present-day Bontocs are a peaceful agricultural people who have, by choice, retained most of their traditional culture despite frequent contacts with other groups. The Bontoc social structure used to be centered around village wards ( ato ) containing about 14 to 50 homes. Traditionally, young men and women lived in dormitories and ate meals with their families. This gradually changed with
20010-744: The colonial era, the Sangil (who usually call themselves "Sangir") in the Sangihe Islands mostly converted to Protestant Christianity due to proximity and contact with the Christian Minahasa people of Sulawesi . In the Philippines, most Sangil converted to Islam due to the influence of the neighboring Sultanate of Maguindanao . However, elements of animistic rituals still remain. The Indonesian and Filipino groups still maintain ties and both Manado Malay and Cebuano are spoken in both Indonesian Sangir and Filipino Sangil, in addition to
20184-619: The country, and comprise about 5% of the total Philippine population, or 5 million people. Most Moros are followers of Sunni Islam of the Shafi'i madh'hab . The Muslim Moros originally had a few independent states such as the Maguindanao Sultanate & Buayan Sultanate for Maguindanaon , the Lanao Sultanates for Maranao , and the Sulu Sultanate for Tausug . The Sultanate of Sulu once exercised sovereignty over
20358-510: The data, in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was Spanish-Filipino. Overall the whole Philippines, even including the provinces with no Spanish settlement, as summed up, the average percentage of Spanish Filipino tributes amount to 5% of the total population. The current modern-day Chinese Filipinos are mostly the descendants of immigrants from Southern Fujian in China from
20532-699: The early Sino-Tibetan Longshan culture . Fortifications like walls (as well as extensive moats in Liangzhu cities) are common features in settlements during this period, indicating widespread conflict. This period also coincides with the southward movement of rice-farming cultures to the Lingnan and Fujian regions, as well as the southward migrations of the Austronesian, Kra-Dai, and Austroasiatic -speaking peoples to Mainland Southeast Asia and Island Southeast Asia . The spread of japonica rice cultivation and paddy field agriculture to Southeast Asia started with
20706-707: The eastern coast of Brazil , the Artibonite Valley in Haiti , Sacramento Valley in California , and West Lothian in Scotland among other places. Paddy cultivation should not be confused with cultivation of deepwater rice , which is grown in flooded conditions with water more than 50 cm (20 in) deep for at least a month. Global paddies' emissions account for at least 10% of global methane emissions . Drip irrigation systems have been proposed as
20880-424: The effect of law, without appeal. The jury, agom , consisted of those articulate, mansapit , elders. If the jury could not decide a case, trial by ordeal was invoked. The logic being that the gods and goddesses, Kabunian , would not allow the innocent to suffer. Criminal cases are tried by ordeal . They include duels ( uggub/alao ), wrestling ( bultong ), hot bolo ordeal and boiling water ordeal ( da-u ). Bultong
21054-636: The ensuing Warring States period (403–221 BC), culminating in the enormous Du Jiang Yan Irrigation System engineered by Li Bing by 256 BC for the State of Qin in ancient Sichuan . During the Eastern Jin (317–420) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589), land-use became more intensive and efficient, rice was grown twice a year and cattle began to be used for plowing and fertilization . By about 750, 75% of China's population lived north of
21228-479: The establishment of the country, from the rise of Filipino nationalism by the Ilustrado intelligentsia to the Philippine Revolution . Other peoples of migrant and/or mixed descent include American Filipinos , Indian Filipinos , and Japanese Filipinos . Aside from migrant groups which speak their own languages, most Filipinos speak languages classified under the Austronesian language family , including
21402-439: The ethnic and cultural development of the islands. Papuan ancestry was also detected among the ethnic Blaan and Sangir people of Mindanao, suggesting that there was westward expansion of peoples from Papua New Guinea into the Philippines. The integration of Southeast Asia into Indian Ocean trading networks around 2,000 years ago also shows some impact, with South Asian genetic signals present within some Sama-Bajau communities. By
21576-635: The farmer to buy or grow rice seedlings. They are transplanted (usually by rice transplanter ) from the indoors into freshly flooded paddy fields in May. Farmers tend and weed their paddy fields through the summer until around the time of Chuseok , a traditional holiday held on 15 August of the Lunar Calendar (circa mid-September on the Solar Calendar). The harvest begins in October. Coordinating
21750-410: The fields. Women also work in the fields, aside from managing the homes and reciting ballads. Lastly, the Ifugaos do not mourn for the elderly who died, nor for the baby or the mother who died in a conception. This is to prevent the same event from happening again in the family. Also, the Ifugaos believe in life after death so those who are murdered are given a ritual called opa to force their souls into
21924-408: The floor. Above the tie beams a reed floor or platform is often fitted to make an attic-like storage space ( palan ) for unthreshed rice. Wooden panels close doorways on two opposite sides of the house, and entrance is gained by means of a ladder which is removed at night. This type of house is called bale (or fale ), but the same basic building with a few modifications - the wallboards extend up to
22098-403: The goddess of rice. Then, a protective prayer is said before the rice is placed in the granary. The Ifugao solar calendar included a 365-day year, broken down into 13 months of 28 days each, plus one extra day. Ifugao society is divided into three social classes: the kadangyan or the aristocrats, the tagu or the middle class, and the nawotwot or the lower class. The class immediately below
22272-439: The gods. Also, on the way to the target, they looked out for any bad omens, such as a crossing snake. Such an omen could be a reason to postpone the headhunting expedition. After a successful outcome, there was partying and dancing for five nights around the captured heads, the head of the victim usually going to the leader of the expedition. A fighter's success was reflected in the number of earrings he wore. Each earring represented
22446-399: The harvest can be challenging because many Korean farmers have small paddy fields in a number of locations around their villages, and modern harvesting machines are sometimes shared between extended family members. Farmers usually dry the harvested grains in the sun before bringing them to market. The Hanja character for 'field', jeon ( Korean : 전 ; Hanja : 田 ),
22620-452: The hill", as pugo means hill. The term Igorot or Ygolote was the term used by the Spanish for mountain people. The Ifugaos, however, prefer the name Ifugao . Henry Otley Beyer thought that the Ifugaos originated from southern China 2,000 years ago and migrated to Lingayen Gulf and the west coast of northern Luzon, upon which they migrated to the Agno and Kayapa river valleys and into
22794-402: The house until among is performed when the baby is given a name. Kolot and balihong are then performed to ensure the health and good characteristics of the boy or the girl, respectively. As they grow older, they sleep in exclusive dormitories because it is considered indecent for siblings of different genders to sleep in the same house. The men are the ones who hunt, recite myths, and work in
22968-537: The hypothesis is still widely taught in Filipino elementary and public schools resulting in the widespread misconception by Filipinos that they are " Malays ". The most widely accepted theory, however, is the "Out-of-Taiwan" model which follows the Austronesian expansion during the Neolithic in a series of maritime migrations originating from Taiwan that spread to the islands of the Indo-Pacific ; ultimately reaching as far as New Zealand , Easter Island , and Madagascar . Austronesians themselves originated from
23142-463: The intermingling of the indigenous Subanon populations with the Muslim populations in the coastal areas of Zamboanga . Converted Subanons also created the Kolibugan. The population is concentrated along the western side of the provinces of both northern (6,495) and southern Zamboanga (3,270), and a national count of over 11,000. The concentrations are in Siocon (2,040), Sirawai (1,960), and Sibuco (1,520) (NSO 1980). The total population count
23316-519: The islands. Recent archaeological evidence described by Peter Bellwood claimed that the ancestors of Filipinos, Malaysians, and Indonesians first crossed the Taiwan Strait during the Prehistoric period. These early mariners are thought to be the Austronesian people . They used boats to cross the oceans, and settled into many regions of Southeast Asia, the Polynesian Islands, and Madagascar. Two early East Asian waves ( Austroasiatic and possible Austric ) were detected, one most strongly evidenced among
23490-511: The land at various levels. Mumun Period rice farmers used all of the elements that are present in today's paddy fields, such as terracing, bunds, canals, and small reservoirs. We can grasp some paddy-field farming techniques of the Middle Mumun (c. 850–550 BC), from the well-preserved wooden tools excavated from archaeological rice fields at the Majeon-ni Site. However, iron tools for paddy-field farming were not introduced until sometime after 200 BC. The spatial scale of paddy-fields increased, with
23664-471: The largest single group of Sama-Bajau . In Davao del Norte , the Island Garden City of Samal was possibly named after them. A 2021 genetic study show how the Sama has common ancestry with the Austroasiatic Mlabri and Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. The Sama Bihing or Sama Lipid are also known as "shoreline Sama" or " littoral Sama". These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in stilt houses in shallows and coastal areas. An example
23838-424: The last fifty years, many of the Filipino Sama-Bajau have migrated to neighbouring Malaysia and the northern islands of the Philippines, due to the conflict in Mindanao . A genetic study published in PNAS show that the Dilaut people of the Philippines have South Asian or Indian descent. As of 2010, they were the second-largest ethnic group in the Malaysian state of Sabah . Sama-Bajau have sometimes been called
24012-412: The major indigenous Filipino ethnolinguistic groups in the Sulu Archipelago . Having a significant number of followers of Islam , the Yakans are included among the 13 Moro groups in the Philippines . The Yakans mainly reside in Basilan but are also in Zamboanga City . They speak a language known as Bissa Yakan , which has characteristics of both Sama-Bajau Sinama and Tausug . It is written in
24186-504: The major tourist attractions of the Philippines. The Ifugaos also speak four distinct dialects and are known for their rich oral literary traditions of hudhud and the alim, which were chosen as one of the 11 Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity . It was then formally inscribed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008. The Kankanaey domain includes Western Mountain Province , northern Benguet and southeastern Ilocos Sur . Like most Igorot ethnic groups,
24360-408: The man usually wears a headress known as the kango (literally " hornbill "; also yang ngo ). The kango is a symbol of wealth and is made from the skull and beak of a rufous hornbill flanked by two sweeping horns resembling the horns of a carabao . It is anchored with rattan fiber and is decorated with feathers and beads. It is also wrapped with a newly-woven loincloth whose ends hang down to
24534-444: The migrations of the Austronesian Dapenkeng culture into Taiwan between 3500 and 2000 BC. The Nanguanli site in Taiwan, dated to ca. 2800 BC, has yielded numerous carbonized remains of both rice and millet in waterlogged conditions, indicating intensive wetland rice cultivation and dryland millet cultivation. From about 2000 to 1500 BC, the Austronesian expansion began, with settlers from Taiwan moving south to migrate to Luzon in
24708-537: The nineteenth century. They speak the Karao language (also spelled Karaw). It is spoken in the Karao, Ekip, and Bokod areas of western Benguet Province , and in the southwestern corner of Ifugao Province . The language is named after the barangay of Karaw in Bokod municipality, Benguet . The Iwak people (Oak, Iguat, Iwaak, etc.) is a small ethnic group, which has a population of approximately 3,000, dispersed in small fenced-in villages which are usually enclaves in communities of surrounding major ethnic groups like
24882-424: The older Negrito groups which arrived during the Paleolithic , resulting in the modern Filipino ethnic groups, which all display various ratios of genetic admixture between Austronesian and Negrito groups. By the 14th century, the Malayo-Polynesian ethnolinguistic groups had dominated and displaced the Negrito population in most areas. Traders from southern China, Japan , India , and Arabia also contributed to
25056-476: The oldest human remains discovered by anthropologists in the Philippines. Archaeological evidence indicates similarities with two early human fossils found in Indonesia and China, called the Java Man and Peking Man . In 2007, a single metatarsal from an earlier fossil was discovered in Callao Cave , Peñablanca, Cagayan . That earlier fossil was named as Callao Man . The Negritos arrived about 30,000 years ago and occupied several scattered areas throughout
25230-443: The only indigenous people in Palawan where the majority of its people are Muslims . The area constitutes the homeland of the Molbog people since the classical era prior to Spanish colonization. The Molbog are known to have a strong connection with the natural world, especially with the sacred pilandok ( Philippine mouse-deer ), which can only be found in the Balabac islands. The coconut is especially important in Molbog culture at it
25404-419: The paddy field the most productive farming method. Paddy fields are represented by the kanji 田 (commonly read as ta or as den ) that has had a strong influence on Japanese culture. In fact, the character 田 , which originally meant 'field' in general, is used in Japan exclusively to refer to paddy fields. One of the oldest samples of writing in Japan is widely credited to the kanji 田 found on pottery at
25578-413: The past this ethnolinguistic group was known as Kalanggutan, Keley'I, Mandek'ey, Yatukka, or Kalangoya. The Kalanguya are considered a subgroup of the Ifugao people . The Karao tribe lives in the municipality of Bokod , Benguet . The ancestors of the Karaos are the Panuy-puys (puypuys), who migrated from Palileng, Bontoc to Diyang in Nueva Viscaya , and finally settled in Karao in the latter part of
25752-401: The place where his ancestors dwell. The Ifugao may believe that an illegitimate child might have more than one physical father, and so nominate more than one genitor. The Ifugao, like the other peoples of the Cordillera Central , are known for their past as headhunters . The two main reasons for the Ifugao's headhunting were honor killings and prestige. After a murder or other serious crime,
25926-527: The pre-Austronesians and possibly also the Kra-Dai , and associated with the Kuahuqiao , Hemudu , Majiabang , Songze , Liangzhu , and Maquiao cultures . The second is in the middle Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of the early Hmong-Mien speakers and associated with the Pengtoushan , Nanmuyuan , Liulinxi , Daxi , Qujialing , and Shijiahe cultures . Both of these regions were heavily populated and had regular trade contacts with each other, as well as with early Austroasiatic speakers to
26100-422: The present day provinces of Basilan , Palawan , Sulu , Tawi-Tawi , the eastern part of the Malaysian state of Sabah (formerly North Borneo) and North Kalimantan in Indonesia. The Molbog (referred to in the literature as Molebugan or Molebuganon) are concentrated in southern Palawan , around Balabac , Bataraza , and are also found in other islands of the coast of Palawan as far north as Panakan. They are
26274-489: The present, many of the younger generation of the tribe have gained education and are exposed to modernization thus changing the once traditional society of the tribe. The Balangao/Farangao/Balangao Bontoc language is used by the Balangao tribe and is confined to the tribe and other nearby tribes who have their own languages related to the language. It is spoken in the central area of Mountain Province , and into Tanudan municipality of Kalinga Province . The Bontoc live on
26448-408: The prestige of the mostly young participating men. Such attacks, often on a distant village, killed indiscriminately. In some areas, such as the area around Kiangan , women and children were spared and sold into slavery, but other headhunters did not spare them either. Besides the above reason, there were other reasons for an Ifugao to headhunt, such as the death of a wife during childbirth, whereupon
26622-412: The production of rice. It was for that reason, that people usually built their houses next to paddy fields. The very spicy chili pepper that is often eaten in Malaysia, the bird's eye chili , is locally called cili padi , literally "paddy chili". Some research pertaining to Rainfed lowland rice in Sarawak has been reported. Rice is grown in Myanmar primarily in three areas – the Irrawaddy Delta ,
26796-447: The regular use of iron tools, in the Three Kingdoms of Korea Period (c. AD 300/400-668). The first paddy fields in Japan date to the Early Yayoi period (300 BC – 250 AD). The Early Yayoi has been re-dated, and based on studies of early Japanese paddy formations in Kyushu it appears that wet-field rice agriculture in Japan was directly adopted from the Lower Yangtze river basin in Eastern China. Although China's agricultural output
26970-402: The rest of society. About 86 to 87 percent of the Philippine population belong to the 19 ethnolinguistic groups are classified as neither Indigenous nor Moro. These groups are sometimes collectively referred to as "Lowland Christianized groups," to distinguish them from the other ethnolinguistic groups. The most populous of these groups, with populations exceeding a million individuals, are
27144-492: The rice bends with age". Most of the rice planting and harvesting is done by hand. The rice is then threshed and stored, ready for the mills. In Nepal, rice (Nepali: धान, Dhaan) is grown in the Terai and hilly regions. It is mainly grown during the summer monsoon in Nepal . Paddy fields are a common sight in the Philippines. Several vast paddy fields exist in the provinces of Ifugao , Nueva Ecija , Isabela , Cagayan , Bulacan , Quezon , and other provinces. Nueva Ecija
27318-475: The roof, there is only one door, and the whole thing is smaller - serves as a rat-proof granary ( alang )." Although a majority of the Ifugao already converted to Roman Catholic from their original animistic religion , from their mythology, they believed that they descended from Wigan and Bugan, who are the children of Bakkayawan and Bugan of the Skyworld ( Kabunyan ). Ifugaos believe in 6 worlds, Skyworld ( Kabunyan ), Earthworld ( Pugaw ), Underworld ( Dalom ),
27492-406: The southern tribe who are the "people of the lake", a predominantly Muslim Lanao province region of the Philippine island of Mindanao . They are known for their artwork, weaving, wood, plastic and metal crafts and epic literature, the Darengen . They live around Lake Lanao , the ancestral homeland of the Maranao people. They are related to modern the Maguindanao and Iranun people . They speak
27666-416: The strongholds of the Iranun society. Iranuns fought the Western invaders under the flag of the Maguindanao Sultanate. They formed part of the Moro resistance against the US occupation of the Philippines from 1899 to 1913 . The Iranun were excellent in maritime activity as they are traditionally sailors and pirates . They used to ply the route connecting the Sulu Sea , Moro Gulf to Celebes Sea , and raided
27840-429: The terrain, Ifugaos usually speak in Ilocano, Tagalog, and English as their alternative to their mother tongue. Ifugao farming is characterized by wet rice terraces, supplemented with slash-and-burn farming of camote. They are famous for their Banaue Rice Terraces , which became one of the main tourist attractions in the country. The Ifugaos host a number of similarities with the Bontocs in terms of agriculture, but
28014-401: The time the last glacial period was coming to an end. The first Austronesians reached the Philippines at around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands and northern Luzon . From there, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and Southeast Asia , as well as voyaging further east to reach the Northern Mariana Islands by around 1500 BC. They assimilated
28188-435: The total Philippine land area. As of 1995, the population of the Ifugaos was counted to be 131,635. Although the majority of them are still in Ifugao province, some of them have moved to Baguio , where they work as woodcarvers, and to other parts of the Cordillera Region . The term Ifugao is derived from ipugo , which means "earth people", "mortals" or "humans", as distinguished from spirits and deities. It also means "from
28362-406: The various Negrito peoples of the archipelago, which are genetically and phenotypically distinct from the other ethnic groups of the Philippines. While these groups have maintained a culture and identity distinct from neighboring ethnic groups, they have long adapted their neighbors' Austronesian languages. Traditionally subcategorized geographically as the Ati people of Visayas and Mindanao, and
28536-420: The victim was buried in a sitting position with a spear in his hand, as a sign that revenge was about to be taken. Finally, a ritual was performed that determined who should lead the revenge against the killers. The family of the deceased sat in a circle around a mortally injured chicken and the man where the chicken would eventually fall dead became the expedition leader. The practice of headhunting has long been
28710-404: The victim's family organized a punitive expedition. The perpetrator or someone close to him was tracked down, murdered, and beheaded, in order to uphold the honor of the family. Such a punitive expedition usually also provoked a counteraction and such feuds could thus continue for generations. In addition to such acts of revenge, attacks were also organized in which a successful outcome increased
28884-495: The village was increasing in population, the shift to wet rice cultivation, increase of exotic goods procurement, and finally increase in the distribution of ritual animals indicates "political elaboration as a response to Spanish conquest." The Ifugao are divided into subgroups based on the differences in dialects, traditions, and design/color of costumes. The main subgroups are Ayangan, Kalanguya , and Tuwali. The Ifugao language consists of four dialects. Due to being isolated by
29058-421: The waist. The kango is also worn by wealthy men on other special occasions, including their funeral. Men wear a loincloth ( wanoh ) while women wear a wraparound skirt ( ampuyo , also known as tapis ). On special occasions, men wear a betel bag ( pinuhha ) and their bolo ( gimbattan ). Musical instruments include gongs ( gangha ), a wooden instrument that is struck with another piece of wood ( bangibang ),
29232-752: The wealthiest are called the inmuy-ya-uy . The kadangyans sponsor the prestige rituals called hagabi and uyauy and this separates them from the tagus who cannot sponsor feasts but are economically well off. The nawotwots are those who have limited land properties and are usually hired by the upper classes to do work in the fields and other services. The more affluent Ifugao, known as kadangyan or baknang , were usually generous by nature, lending rice to poor neighbors in time of food shortage(s) and/or hardship(s), in return for labor. Acting as village or spiritual leaders, creditors or commercial managers, these rich families exhibited their wealth by providing for many feasts, or cañaos . Shifting to wet rice cultivation
29406-460: The west, and early Kra-Dai speakers to the south, facilitating the spread of rice cultivation throughout southern China. The earliest paddy field found dates to 4330 BC, based on carbon dating of grains of rice and soil organic matter found at the Chaodun site in Kunshan . At Caoxieshan, a site of the Neolithic Majiabang culture , archaeologists excavated paddy fields. Some archaeologists claim that Caoxieshan may date to 4000–3000 BC. There
29580-437: The western Mountain Province as well as their environs. They speak Kankanaey with a hard intonation where they differ in some words from the soft-speaking Kankanaey. Soft-speaking Kankanaey come from Northern and other parts of Benguet, and from the municipalities of Sabangan , Tadian and Bauko in Mountain Province. They also differ in their ways of life and sometimes in culture. The Kalanguya (also called Ikalahan) live in
29754-455: The widespread practice of head-hunting raids. In head-hunting societies, like the Ifugao, tattoos were records of how many heads the warriors had taken in battle, and were part of the initiation rites into adulthood. The number, design, and location of tattoos, therefore, were indicative of a warrior's status and prowess. They were also regarded as magical wards against various dangers like evil spirits and illnesses. Common Ifugao motifs include
29928-420: The world as of 2020. In India, West Bengal is the largest rice producing state. Paddy fields are a common sight throughout India, both in the northern Gangetic Plains and the southern peninsular plateaus. Paddy is cultivated at least twice a year in most parts of India, the two seasons being known as Rabi and Kharif respectively. The former cultivation is dependent on irrigation, while the latter depends on
30102-428: Was adopted soon after, and extensive rice terraces were built. This was a subsistence shift for the Ifugao because they cultivated taro before the start of the wet rice cultivation. The author emphasizes that the Ifugao people kept their culture and identity alive by spending large amounts of time in rice fields, since they treated them as ritual areas to "reinforce community solidarity." Stephen Acabado states that since
30276-470: Was spread in prehistoric times by the expansion of Austronesian peoples to Island Southeast Asia , Madagascar , Melanesia , Micronesia , and Polynesia . The technology was also acquired by other cultures in mainland Asia for rice farming, spreading to East Asia , Mainland Southeast Asia , and South Asia . Fields can be built into steep hillsides as terraces or adjacent to depressed or steeply sloped features such as rivers or marshes . They require
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