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97-678: The two main figures behind the Plan were Agustín de Iturbide (who would become Emperor of Mexico ) and Vicente Guerrero , revolutionary rebel leader and later President of Mexico . The Army of the Three Guarantees was formed by the unified forces of Iturbide and Guerrero to defend the ideals of the Plan of Iguala. On 24 August 1821, Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba in Córdoba, Veracruz , ratifying

194-453: A century, historians believed that Iturbide had first attempted to carry out his duty in destroying Guerrero but that he met with failure and so decided to strike an alliance with the rebel. However, in 2006, new evidence was discovered by Mexican historian Jaime del Arenal Fenochio: a letter between the two military leaders dated 20 November 1820, which also referenced a previous letter. Since communications had been proven to have existed between

291-651: A family of the Basque gentry who were confirmed in nobility by King Juan II of Aragon . One of his ancestors, Martín de Iturbide, was designated as Royal Merino in the High Valley of Baztan in the 1430s, and thereafter many in the family held political or administrative positions in the Basque Country from the 15th century. As a younger son, Joaquín was not in line to inherit the family lands, so he migrated to New Spain to make his fortune there. While

388-535: A foreign view of Iturbide's regime. Poinsett also took advantage of the opportunity to proposition Iturbide's government on the issue of the US wish of acquiring Mexico's northern territories but was soundly refused. Famed Mexican author José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi , El Pensador ("the Mexican Thinker"), the author of El Periquillo Sarniento , wrote about the subject at the time: "If your excellency be not

485-439: A letter to the viceroy in 1814, he wrote of how he had 300 rebels, to whom he referred as excommunicates, executed to celebrate Good Friday . Iturbide was also criticized for his arbitrariness and his treatment of civilians, in particular his jailing of the mothers, wives, and children of known insurgents. In 1814, he had captured 100 women and incarcerated them into different houses in order to be "re-educated. As for corruption,

582-466: A mutiny, headed by Gabriel J. de Yermo . He quickly grew in popularity amongst the royalists, whilst becoming a feared foe for the Insurgents. A peerless horseman and a valiant dragoon who acquired a reputation for achieving victory against numerical odds, his prowess in the field gained him the nom de guerre of "El Dragón de Hierro" or "The Iron Dragon", in reference to his skill and position in

679-544: A new junta, the National Institutional Junta , to legislate in its place, answering only to himself. The National Institutional Junta was directed to create much-needed legislation in economic matters, create a provisional set of laws for the Empire, and then issue a call for a new Constituent Congress. The formulation of the new Congress was changed in how many representatives each Mexican province

776-527: A new monarchical Mexican Constitution with a role for the Emperor. Furthermore, people loyal to the Emperor became aware of a conspiracy that involved several members of the Congress who planned to kidnap the Emperor and his family and overthrow the Empire. As a response to this claimed threat to his life and to combat the resistance, Iturbide dismissed the Congress on 31 October 1822 and two days later created

873-431: A number of accusations of cruelty and corruption surfaced. The accusations could not be proved, but Iturbide considered his honor to be tarnished by them and expressed so in his memoirs, written in exile. Iturbide's persistence against the rebels was widely known as well as his views against their liberal, anti-monarchical politics. In his diary, he refers to the insurgents as "perverse," "bandits," and "sacrilegious." In

970-399: A number of colonial-era taxes. However, he still insisted on a large and very well-paid army and lived extravagantly himself. The elite turned against him when he imposed a 40% property tax. The situation did not last long. Soon, Iturbide was unable to pay his army, creating discontent in a significant portion of his power base. When criticism of the government grew strong, Iturbide censored

1067-480: A political vacuum developed that the Mexican nobility sought to fill, seeking limited representation and autonomy for themselves within the empire. An idea arose in the class that if Mexico became independent or autonomous, and Ferdinand were deposed, he could become king of Mexico. Iturbide was convinced that independence for Mexico was the only way to protect the country from a republican tide. He decided to become

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1164-509: A prosperous family of businessmen and landowners. She was the daughter of wealthy and powerful noble Isidro de Huarte, governor of the district, and the granddaughter of the Marquis of Altamira . With her dowry of 100,000 pesos , the couple bought the Hacienda of San José de Apeo in the small town of Maravatío , not far from property owned by Father Miguel Hidalgo , who became leader of

1261-547: A suitable monarch would be sought among the various European royal houses. In the meantime, a regency would replace the viceroy. All existing laws, including the 1812 Constitution, would remain in force until a new constitution for Mexico was written. A key element was added at O'Donojú's suggestion: if Spain refused its right to appoint a regent for the Mexican Empire, the Mexican congress would have freedom to elect whomever it deemed worthy as emperor. That crucial clause

1358-473: A symbolic representation of the three guarantees, and is the colour scheme for the post-independence red, green, and white Mexican flag. The document explicitly includes all residents of Mexico's geographic territory among its citizens: the preamble refers to "Americans, under which term are included not only those born in America, but Europeans, Africans and Asians who reside in it," and Article 12 states: "All

1455-623: A town called Puruarán , Michoacán, on 5 January 1814. In the battle, rebel forces were soundly defeated by forces led by Iturbide, forcing Morelos to retreat to the Hacienda of Santa Lucía and to leave Mariano Matamoros and Ignacio López Rayón in command of the rebel army, with over 600 insurgents killed and 700 captured. That marked a turn in the war as Morelos would never again achieve the same level of competency as he had before this defeat. Iturbide and other Spanish commanders relentlessly pursued Morelos, capturing and executing him in late 1815. Iturbide's fortunes reversed after his victory when

1552-500: Is now known as the Battle of Monte de las Cruces . Royalist forces, under the command of Colonel Torcuato Trujillo, withdrew from the area, allowing rebels to take Toluca . Despite the loss by his side, Iturbide distinguished himself in this battle for valor and tenacity. He would later maintain in his memoirs that it was the only battle he considered to have lost (in which he was directly involved). Iturbide's next major encounter with

1649-433: The 1824 Constitution of Mexico on 4 October 1824. Agust%C3%ADn de Iturbide Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu ( Spanish pronunciation: [aɣusˈtin de ituɾˈbiðe] ; 27 September 1783 – 19 July 1824), commonly known as Agustín de Iturbide and later by his regnal name Agustín I , was the first Emperor of Mexico from 1822 until his abdication in 1823. An officer in

1746-584: The Americanos (people born in Mexico, that is, the Americas ) would enjoy equal political and social rights. It took its name from the city of Iguala in the modern-day state of Guerrero . The two main figures behind the Plan were Agustín de Iturbide (who would become Emperor of Mexico ) and Vicente Guerrero , revolutionary rebel leader and later President of Mexico . The Army of the Three Guarantees

1843-782: The Santa María–Calatrava Treaty , signed in Madrid by the Mexican Commissioner, Miguel Santa Maria, and the Spanish state minister, Jose Maria Calatrava. Following the fall of Iturbide's empire , the Mexican Congress abrogated both the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba as the basis for the government on 8 April 1823. Instead, a new constitutional convention was called which led to the adoption of

1940-526: The United Provinces of Central America . Santa Anna's army marched toward Mexico City, winning small victories along the way. Iturbide gathered and sent troops to combat Santa Anna who did not put up a strong resistance. Many military leaders who Iturbide appointed turned on him upon contacting Santa Anna's forces. Iturbide later admitted he had made a mistake by not leading his armies himself. Iturbide recognized that although his provisional junta

2037-607: The Cadiz model, but the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba were clear that the order of things would be kept as it had been before the Cadiz Constitution. Thus, Iturbide and the junta declared that they would not be bound by the Cadiz Constitution but kept the Congress that was convened. That led to division, which came to a head in February 1822. In its inauguration, Congress swore that it would never abide for all of

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2134-624: The Congress, in itself a statement by Congress: the state, not the church or any other power, would be sovereign. The Congress decreed the crown to be hereditary with the title of "Prince of the Union." As emperor, Iturbide had sovereignty over lands bordered by Panama in the south and the Oregon Country in the north, including the current countries of Central America and the US states of California , Texas , Arizona , Utah , Nevada , Colorado , and New Mexico . Central America only briefly

2231-535: The Count of Pérez Galvez extensively testified that profiteering by many royalist officers, of whom Iturbide was the most visible, was draining the effectiveness of the royal army. Iturbide acquired a large personal fortune before 1816 by questionable dealings. Some of those shady practices included creating commercial monopolies in areas that he controlled militarily. Other accusations against Iturbide included sacking private property and embezzling military funds. In 1816,

2328-459: The Emperor, then our Independence be damned. We do not wish to be free if your excellency will not be at the lead of his countrymen." Timothy E. Anna points out that in the months between the achievement of Independence and his crowning as Emperor, Iturbide already practically ruled the nation, as he was president of the Regency, and the junta had granted him command over all land and sea forces. He

2425-527: The Plan of Iguala, and thus confirming Mexico's independence. The Plan, a compromise, introduced new ideas and preserved others. For example, it established a new army, but it preserved the constitutional right of all males to vote regardless of place of birth, ethnic origin, or economic condition, which had been enshrined in the Constitution of 1812 and which was in force at the time of the Plan. The Plan of Iguala established three central principles for

2522-661: The Three Guarantees ("Plan Trigarante") or Act of Independence of North America , was a revolutionary proclamation promulgated on 24 February 1821, in the final stage of the Mexican War of Independence from Spain . The Plan stated that Mexico was to become a constitutional monarchy , whose sole official religion would be Roman Catholicism , in which both the Peninsulares (people born in Spain and residing in Mexico) and

2619-512: The Treaty of Córdoba, the Spanish Congress meeting in Madrid on 13 February 1822 repudiated the Treaty as "illegal, null, and void." The Mexican government, however, insisted upon O'Donojú's acceptance of the Plan as legally establishing the country's independence and sovereignty. Spain responded with a series of efforts to reconquer Mexico over the following decade. It eventually recognized Mexico's independence on 28 December 1836 by

2716-488: The advantage of having most of the former royalist army on his side. Iturbide marched into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, his own birthday, with the Army of the Three Guarantees . The army was received by a jubilant populace who had erected arches of triumph and decorated houses and themselves with the tricolor (red, white, and green) of the army. Cries of "¡Viva Iturbide I!" were heard first on that day. The next day, Mexico

2813-619: The area, managing to capture Albino Licéaga y Rayón , leading to another promotion. In 1813, Viceroy Félix María Calleja promoted Iturbide to colonel and put him in charge of the regiment in Celaya . Then, in 1814, he was named the commander of forces in the Bajío area of Guanajuato , where he continued to pursue the rebels with vigor in a strongly contested area, and was Morelos's principal military opponent from 1813 to 1815. The next major encounter between Morelos and Iturbide occurred in

2910-461: The aristocratic and Spanish lineage of Agustín's father was not in doubt, his mother's ancestry was less clear. His mother was of pure Spanish blood born in Mexico, and therefore, a criolla . Some sources state she came from a high-ranking family in Michoacán. In the Spanish colonial era, racial caste was important to advancement, including military rank, and having some indigenous ancestry

3007-423: The army. He was given an important charge in the army. However, he was accused by locals of using his authority for financial gain although he was recognized as valiant in combat. Those accusations could not be proved but cost him his post. He turned down the offer to reclaim his post since he felt that his honor had been damaged. He may have been involved in the initial conspiracy to declare independence in 1809 that

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3104-491: The clashes, and Iturbide further attempts to convince Guerrero of his intentions of liberating Mexico. From 1810 to 1820, Iturbide had fought against those who sought to overturn the Spanish monarchy and Bourbon dynasty 's right to rule New Spain and replace that regime with an independent government. He was solidly aligned with the Criollos. However, events in Spain caused problems, as the very monarchy for which that class

3201-400: The common folk were present during the vote and loudly proclaimed Iturbide, and no member voted against his crowning as Emperor. However, three days after Iturbide had been elected Emperor, Congress held a private session in which only it was present. It ratified the decision, created titles for the royal family, and declared Iturbide's title to be lifelong and hereditary. Iturbide's coronation

3298-413: The condescension–or, call it weakness—of allowing myself to be seated in a throne I had created for others." Historians point out that Iturbide had quite possibly all the power, influence, and support he needed before redacting the Plan of Iguala, to crown himself Emperor, and he still wrote the Plan with the clear intention of creating a throne meant for a European noble. Most historical accounts mention

3395-452: The constitutional right of all males to vote regardless of place of birth, ethnic origin, or economic condition, which had been enshrined in the Constitution of 1812 and which was in force at the time of the Plan. The Plan of Iguala established three central principles for the nascent Mexican state: the primacy of Roman Catholicism , the absolute political independence of Mexico, and full social equality for all social and ethnic groups in

3492-475: The copy. Although the Spanish Viceroy had ratified the Treaty of Córdoba, the Spanish Congress meeting in Madrid on 13 February 1822 repudiated the Treaty as "illegal, null, and void." The Mexican government, however, insisted upon O'Donojú's acceptance of the Plan as legally establishing the country's independence and sovereignty. Spain responded with a series of efforts to reconquer Mexico over

3589-440: The country. He even had credible plans for the reconquest of the old colony. For those reasons, no European noble would accept the offer of a Mexican crown. In Mexico itself, there was no Mexican noble family that the populace would accept as imperiality. In the meantime, the governing junta that Iturbide headed convened a constituent congress to set up the new government. The new government had indirect representation, based on

3686-566: The crowd that gathered outside what is now the Palace of Iturbide in Mexico City shouting "Viva Iturbide!" and insist for him to take the throne of Mexico in May 1822. The crowd included Iturbide's old regiment from Celaya. Some detractors of Iturbide insist that this demonstration was staged by Iturbide himself or his loyalists. From a balcony of the palace, Iturbide repeatedly denied his desire for

3783-418: The disparate parties involved in the scheme, the plan offered three guarantees: Mexico would be independent from Madrid, Roman Catholicism would be the official religion, and all inhabitants of the new nation, later México, would be considered equals, with no distinction being made between Spaniards, Creoles, Mestizos, etc., thus eliminating the complicated caste system that had been used until then and abolishing

3880-476: The empire; away from Mexico City, the loyalty of the imperial armies proved patchy. Santa Anna, joined by republicans Guerrero, and Bravo, and imperial generals Echávarri, Cortázar y Rábago, and Lobato, proclaimed the Plan of Casa Mata , which called for the installation of a new Congress and declared the election of the emperor null and void. Casa Mata also called for giving provinces the right to govern themselves in

3977-450: The event of it being impossible to install a European on the Mexican throne, a national sovereign could be chosen, some of the royalists who had supported Iturbide had hoped for a European ruler. Many of the landed classes supported Iturbide and those documents because they offered a sense of continuity with the past. Iturbide's election to the throne was against their wishes, and many of them withdrew their support for him and conspired against

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4074-424: The existence of the throne was legitimate. Instead, they nullified their own election of Iturbide as emperor and refused to acknowledge the Plan of Iguala or the Treaty of Córdoba. Executive leadership of the country was passed to the "triumvirate," made up of the generals Guadalupe Victoria , Nicolás Bravo , and Pedro Celestino Negrete . Plan of Iguala The Plan of Iguala , also known as The Plan of

4171-526: The final terms of capitulation at the landed estate of his longtime friend, Doña María Ignacia Rodríguez de Velasco (La Güera Rodríguez). The hastily negotiated Treaty of Córdoba was similar in terms of its outcomes to the Plan de Iguala—the document tried to guarantee an independent monarchy for New Spain under the Bourbon dynasty. The successor state would invite Ferdinand VII to rule as emperor or, if he defaulted, his brother Don Carlos . If both refused,

4268-435: The following decade. It eventually recognized Mexico's independence on 28 December 1836 by the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty , signed in Madrid by the Mexican Commissioner, Miguel Santa Maria, and the Spanish state minister, Jose Maria Calatrava. Following the fall of Iturbide's empire , the Mexican Congress abrogated both the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba as the basis for the government on 8 April 1823. Instead,

4365-416: The inhabitants of the Mexican Empire, without any other distinction besides merit and virtue, are suitable citizens to apply for any employment," or "All the inhabitants of New Spain, without any distinction between Europeans, Africans, nor Indians, are citizens of this Monarchy with option to all employment depending on their merit and virtues," depending on the copy. Although the Spanish Viceroy had ratified

4462-513: The insurgency for independence in 1810. Iturbide had a longstanding friendship and had business dealings with the wealthy Mexico City beauty María Ignacia Rodríguez , known as La Güera Rodríguez ("Rodríguez the Fair"), who supported the insurgency for independence. In the early 19th century, there was political unrest in New Spain. One of Iturbide's first military campaigns was to help put down

4559-466: The interim until the new Congress was formed, an attractive prospect for the provincial governments. They accepted the plan, with the exception of the province of Chiapas. Much of the area now known as Central America declared its opposition to Mexico City and Iturbide's rule. In 1823, authorities in what are now Guatemala , El Salvador , Nicaragua , Costa Rica , and Honduras convened a Congress to declare themselves independent from Mexico and Spain as

4656-571: The leader of the Criollo independence movement. However, to succeed, he would need to put together a very-unlikely coalition of Mexican liberal insurgents, landed nobility, and the Church . Therefore, he penned The Plan of Iguala, which held itself up on Three Guarantees: Freedom (from Spain), Religion (with Catholicism being the only accepted religion in the new country) and Union (with all inhabitants of México to be regarded as equals). In that manner, he

4753-470: The meantime, Ferdinand VII rejected the offer of the Mexican throne and forbade any of his family from accepting the position, and the Spanish Cortes rejected the Treaty of Córdoba, granting Mexico its independence. Shortly after signing the Treaty of Córdoba, the Spanish government reneged. Ferdinand VII had regained the upper hand against the liberals in Spain and increased his influence outside

4850-452: The nascent Mexican state: the primacy of Roman Catholicism , the absolute political independence of Mexico, and full social equality for all social and ethnic groups in the new country. These are the "Three Guarantees" by which the Plan is sometimes known, summarized as "Religion, Independence and Unity" ("Religión, Independencia y Unión"). The tricolor flag of the Army of Three Guarantees is

4947-512: The new Congress's composition. Among those were prominent Insurgent leaders Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria. Meanwhile, Mexico suffered as an independent country. Ferdinand's resurgence as a ruler in Spain and his clear intentions to reconquer Mexico meant that no European nation was willing to recognize Mexico's independence, and most broke off economic ties with the new state. Iturbide's economic policies were draining resources as well. To increase his popularity, he abolished

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5044-419: The new Spanish government and what was left of the viceregal government. Military leaders, soldiers, families, villages, and towns that had been fighting against one another for almost ten years found themselves joining forces to gain Mexican independence. However, their reasons for joining together were very different, and those differences would later foment the turmoil that occurred after independence. Both

5141-466: The new country. These are the "Three Guarantees" by which the Plan is sometimes known, summarized as "Religion, Independence and Unity" ("Religión, Independencia y Unión"). The tricolor flag of the Army of Three Guarantees is a symbolic representation of the three guarantees, and is the colour scheme for the post-independence red, green, and white Mexican flag. The document explicitly includes all residents of Mexico's geographic territory among its citizens:

5238-538: The new empire. The strongest opposition to Iturbide's reign came from the Congress, where a significant number of its members supported republican ideas. Many of these members also belonged to Masonic lodges, which provided an easy forum for communication. Those ideas found a voice when Manuel Codorniu founded the newspaper El Sol , essentially becoming the in-house publication for the Scottish Rite lodge in its struggle against Iturbide. Iturbide's government

5335-597: The new state. That was important because the Peninsulares owned a significant part of the valuable real estate and many of the businesses in Mexico. If the Spaniards had left, that would have been disastrous for the Mexican economy. The plan gained wide support because it demanded independence without attacking the landed classes and did not threaten social dissolution. Therefore, Iturbide succeeded in bringing together old insurgents and royalist forces to fight against

5432-415: The newly independent Mexico. The junta had 36 members who would have legislative power until the convocation of a congress. Iturbide controlled both the membership of the junta and the matters that it considered. The junta would be responsible for negotiating the offer of the throne of Mexico to a suitable royal. Members of the former insurgent movement were left out of the government. This new government

5529-453: The night to think it over, and to respect the wishes of the government. The Congress convened the next day to discuss the matter of Iturbide's election as Emperor. Iturbide's supporters filled the balconies overlooking the chamber. The Congress confirmed him and his title of Agustín I, Constitutional Emperor of Mexico, by a vast majority. After Iturbide's abdication, members would state that it had elected Iturbide out of fear for their lives, as

5626-403: The old Insurgent hero, Guadalupe Victoria. Santa Anna would later admit in his recollections that at the time, he did not know what a republic was. Iturbide had tried to stop Santa Anna by inviting him to Mexico City. Recognizing the danger of such an invitation, Santa Anna responded with his Plan de Veracruz, which called for the reinstatement of the old Constituent Congress, which would then have

5723-470: The outbreak of the War of Independence in 1810, leader of the insurgency, Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , offered Iturbide the rank of lieutenant general in the insurgent forces, which Iturbide rejected, remaining firmly a royal army officer at the outbreak of the war . From the start, Iturbide was ambitious and compiled a brilliant record of victories against the insurgents, often against far larger numbers. He

5820-462: The pardon but agreed to meet with Iturbide to discuss the independence of Mexico. In the " Embrace of Acatempán ", named after the locale, they agreed to implement the plan, which was made public on 24 February 1821 by Iturbide, Guerrero, and another insurgent leader, Guadalupe Victoria . On 1 March 1821, Iturbide was proclaimed head of the Army of the Three Guarantees , with Guerrero fully supporting him and recognizing him as his leader. The plan

5917-486: The powers of the state to fall into the hands of a single person or entity. It, however, proceeded to assign sovereignty to itself, rather than to the people, and proclaimed that it held all three powers of the State. It also considered lowering military pay and decreasing the size of the army. Those moves threatened to reduce Iturbide's influence in current and future governments. That led to political destabilization, which

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6014-541: The preamble refers to "Americans, under which term are included not only those born in America, but Europeans, Africans and Asians who reside in it," and Article 12 states: "All the inhabitants of the Mexican Empire, without any other distinction besides merit and virtue, are suitable citizens to apply for any employment," or "All the inhabitants of New Spain, without any distinction between Europeans, Africans, nor Indians, are citizens of this Monarchy with option to all employment depending on their merit and virtues," depending on

6111-463: The press, an act that backfired against him. Opposition groups began to band together against him. Leaders such as Valentín Gómez Farías and Antonio López de Santa Anna began to conspire against the imperial concept altogether and became convinced that a republican model was needed to combat despotism. Santa Anna publicly opposed Iturbide in December 1822 in the Plan of Veracruz , supported by

6208-491: The promises it had made would prove very difficult, if not impossible, to accomplish. This state of affairs started to lead to turmoil, even among those in power. Iturbide moved back to Mexico City and settled himself in a large palatial home that now bears the name Palace of Iturbide . The mansion was lent to him by the family that owned it but was not living in it. Iturbide began to live extravagantly. He demanded preference for his army and also personally chose ministers. In

6305-408: The rebels would be against José María Morelos himself and in his native city of Valladolid. Iturbide led the defenders. He demonstrated his tactical skill and horsemanship by breaking Morelos's siege of the town with a well-executed cavalry charge that caused the insurgent forces to withdraw into the forest. For that action, Iturbide was promoted to captain. As a captain, he pursued rebel forces in

6402-547: The rebels. Santa Anna considered escaping to the United States but was stopped by Victoria. Santa Anna retreated and fortified himself in the city of Veracruz with his superior artillery. Victoria was separated from Veracruz, fighting behind Imperial lines. Bravo and Guerrero were defeated, with Guerrero suffering such a grievous injury in battle that the nation believed him dead until he resurfaced months later. However, Echávarri and several other imperial officers turned on

6499-442: The rebels. In a proclamation that explained their reasons, they also called for the reinstatement of the disintegrated Congress, which would then decide the fate of the nation. Bravo and Guerrero wrote that they swore to abide by the Congress's decision, even if it decided to stay as a Constitutional Empire and it elected Iturbide again to lead them. Iturbide sent his most trusted man, his protégé of sorts, General Echávarri, to combat

6596-450: The right to decide the form of government of the new nation. Curiously, it did not specifically call for a republic or for the abdication of Iturbide. Santa Anna wrote to Iturbide, explaining his reasons and swearing to sacrifice his own life if it was necessary to ensure the safety of the Emperor. Iturbide's enemy-turned-ally, Vicente Guerrero, turned back to enemy when he and General Nicolás Bravo escaped México City and allied themselves with

6693-471: The royal Spanish army, during the Mexican War of Independence he initially fought insurgent forces rebelling against the Spanish crown before changing sides in 1820 and leading a coalition of former royalists and long-time insurgents under his Plan of Iguala . The combined forces under Iturbide brought about Mexican independence in September 1821. After securing the secession of Mexico from Spain, Iturbide

6790-484: The sitting viceroy and Fernando VII rejected the Plan of Iguala. The Spanish parliament sent a new "viceroy," Juan O'Donojú , to Mexico. (Technically, the office of viceroy had been replaced by a "superior political chief" under the 1812 Spanish Constitution.) O'Donojú, however, arrived to witness a nation on the brink of achieving independence and knew that its consummation could not be stopped. Iturbide met with O’Donojú and Field Marshall Francisco Novella to negotiate

6887-423: The throne. One interesting twist to the story is reported by Mexico City daily La Jornada , which states that Iturbide held the first popular referendum in Mexico. According to the article, Iturbide sent out a questionnaire to military and civilian leaders as to whether the people preferred a republic or a monarchy. The answer came back in favor of a monarchy. Iturbide asked the demonstrators that night to give him

6984-411: The two leaders before Iturbide ever set out to seek out Guerrero, it is now believed that both were then carrying out negotiations. Regardless, some encounters between the two military forces were unavoidable, as the troops of Guerrero and Pedro Ascencio (another insurgent leader) managed to force Iturbide's rear guard to withdraw from an ambush. In their further correspondence, Iturbide and Guerrero lament

7081-588: The use of slaves in the territory of the new nation as well. The promise of independence convinced the insurgents to accept the proposal. The promise of the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church was offered to the clergy, who were frightened by anticlerical policies of Spanish Liberalism. The offer of equality between Criollos and the Spanish-born Peninsulares assured the latter that they and their property would be safe in

7178-424: The viceroy relieved Iturbide of his command for corruption and cruelty. However, one year later, with the support of an auditor named Bataller, and staunch monarchists in the viceregal government, the charges were withdrawn. Iturbide's supporters further convinced the viceroy that he was needed to vanquish the last remaining rebel leader. However, Iturbide never forgot the humiliation of his dismissal. Iturbide

7275-531: Was declared an independent empire . What remained of the royalist army retreated to Veracruz and was cornered in the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa , and O'Donoju, who had been assured an important position in the government of the new empire, died shortly afterwards, dishonored by his Spaniard compatriots. Iturbide was named President of the Provisional Governing Junta, which selected the five-person regency that would temporarily govern

7372-426: Was a rather vague document that sought the transition of the center of power in New Spain from Madrid to Mexico City. Essentially, the idea was to bring Ferdinand VII to Mexico City to rule. If he did not come to Mexico, another member of the Bourbon royal family would be chosen to rule there. If no European ruler would come to rule México, the nation would have the right to elect a ruler by its own people. To attract

7469-589: Was a very good horseman. Iturbide entered the royal army in 1805, commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Valladolid regiment of the provincial infantry. In 1806, he was promoted to full lieutenant. In 1805, when he was twenty-two, Iturbide married Doña Ana María Josefa Ramona de Huarte y Muñiz , member of the House of Tagle of the family of the Marquises of Altamira . She came from Valladolid, from

7566-541: Was also well known by contemporaries of all factions for his cruelty against his opponents, the insurgents themselves as well as their families, including women and children. One of Agustín's first encounters with the rebel army was in the Toluca Valley in 1810 as it advanced toward Mexico City from Valladolid. Royalist and rebel forces engaged on the east bank of the Lerma River at the end of October in what

7663-448: Was appointed protector of commerce, navigation, local order and ports and was given the right to expedite passports and navigation licenses even after the Emperor had been instated (and according to the Emperor's wishes). Iturbide had what he could have possibly wanted before becoming Emperor, Anna notes, and so it is not probable that Iturbide conspired to appoint himself Emperor. Iturbide himself notes in his memoirs written in exile: "I had

7760-441: Was baptized with the names of Saints Augustine , Cosmas, and Damian at the cathedral. The fifth child born to his parents, he was the only male to survive and eventually became head of the family. Iturbide's parents were part of the privileged landed class of Valladolid, owning agricultural land including the haciendas of Apeo and Guaracha as well as lands in nearby Quirio. Iturbide's father, Joaquín de Iturbide, came from

7857-462: Was fighting was in serious trouble. The 1812 Cadiz Constitution , which was reinstated in Spain in 1820 after the successful Riego Revolt , established a constitutional monarchy , which greatly limited Ferdinand VII 's powers. There was serious concern in Mexico that the Bourbons would be forced to abandon Spain altogether. That led to the disintegration of viceregal authority in Mexico City, and

7954-423: Was formed by the unified forces of Iturbide and Guerrero to defend the ideals of the Plan of Iguala. On 24 August 1821, Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba in Córdoba, Veracruz , ratifying the Plan of Iguala, and thus confirming Mexico's independence. The Plan, a compromise, introduced new ideas and preserved others. For example, it established a new army, but it preserved

8051-562: Was fully reinstated to military command in November 1820 by viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca . He was reinstated as colonel of the royalist army and general of the south of New Spain. For a couple of years after the defeat of Morelos at Puruarán, the independence movement had diminished significantly. However, Iturbide was given the task of putting down the remaining insurrectionist movement southwest of Mexico City led by Guerrero. Iturbide installed his headquarters at Teloloapan . For more than

8148-407: Was granted. The new Congress would also be in charge of issuing a new Mexican Constitution. Iturbide persecuted his enemies, arresting and jailing a score of former members of the Congress, but that did not bring peace. A number of prominent politicians and military leaders, many of whom had supported Agustín as emperor, turned against him for having "made a mockery of national representation" in

8245-505: Was headed by José Mariano Michelena in Valladolid. It is known by his and Hidalgo's documents that he was a distant relative of Miguel Hidalgo, the initial leader of the Insurgent Army. Hidalgo wrote to Iturbide, offering him a higher rank in his army. Iturbide writes in his memoirs that he considered the offer, but that ultimately turned it down because he considered Hidalgo's uprising ill-executed and his methods barbaric. After

8342-481: Was held at the Mexico City Cathedral on 21 July 1822, and his wife, Ana María, was crowned empress, in an elaborate ceremony. It was attended by the bishops of Puebla , Guadalajara , Durango , and Oaxaca . According to the author Pérez Memen, Archbishop of Mexico Pedro José de Fonte y Hernández Miravete objected and did not attend. Iturbide was crowned by Rafael Mangino y Mendivil, the head of

8439-520: Was not in Iturbide's Plan de Iguala, a point against the argument that Iturbide entertained the notion of becoming the ruler when he started his campaign for Mexico's independence. To show the military might of the alliance, Iturbide co-ordinated with associated royalist and insurgent commanders in the provinces, opting for a replay of the strategy of closing in on Mexico City from the periphery, which Morelos had attempted in 1811–14. However, Iturbide had

8536-437: Was notoriously harsh in turning down territorial negotiations with agents of the US government, as attested by Poinsett. The United States was itself a republic as well, meaning Iturbide's relations with the US were on shaky ground. The Congress, believing itself to be sovereign over the Emperor and the people and the recipient of the executive, legislative, and judicial powers, antagonized Iturbide. The Congress refused to draw up

8633-474: Was often regarded as a disadvantage. Iturbide insisted throughout his life that he was criollo (native born of Spanish descent). Agustín studied at the Catholic seminary called Colegio de San Nicolás in Valladolid, enrolled in the program for secular officials, though he was not a distinguished student. After that, he worked as an overseer at one of his family's haciendas for a short time, discovering he

8730-489: Was overwhelmingly loyal to Iturbide. Opposition groups included the old insurgents as well as a number of progressives and those loyal to Ferdinand VII. Many liberals and progressives also belonged to Masonic lodges of the Scottish rite , leading these branches of the opposition to be called escoceses (Scots). The plan of Iguala was a compromise of the differing factions, but after independence, it became clear that some of

8827-472: Was part of the Mexican Empire of Iturbide (from 1821 to 1823), because by 1823 the local patriots, both liberal and conservative, made a move for total and absolute independence from Mexico and Spain. The republicans were not happy with Iturbide as emperor. While the Catholic clergy supported him, the coronation dashed republican hopes, and while the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba directed that in

8924-419: Was paving the road to gaining the support of the most powerful factions: the insurgents, the clergy and the Spaniards. The plan envisioned a monarchy, thus assuring the support of the royalists as well. Iturbide held a series of negotiations with Guerrero and made a number of demonstrations of his intentions to form an independent Mexico. Iturbide offered Guerrero a full pardon if he surrendered. Guerrero rejected

9021-547: Was proclaimed president of the Regency in 1821; a year later, he was proclaimed Emperor, reigning from 19 May 1822 to 19 March 1823, when he abdicated. In May 1823 he went into exile in Europe. When he returned to Mexico in July 1824, he was arrested and executed. Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu was born in what was then called Valladolid, now Morelia , the provincial capital of Michoacán , on 27 September 1783. He

9118-481: Was publicly proclaimed Emperor by the people but again refused any such attempt. The US government appointed Joel Roberts Poinsett as a special envoy to independent Mexico when Iturbide was declared emperor since James Monroe was concerned about how popular and long-lasting the regime might be. Poinsett indicated the empire was not likely to be enduring, but the US still recognized Mexico as an independent country. Poinsett's Notes on Mexico are an important source as

9215-399: Was resolved temporarily when Iturbide was elected Emperor of the Mexican nation. However, it is not clear whether he took the crown at the insistence of the people or simply took advantage of the political situation. Some call Iturbide's decision a coup and state that the public support for him was orchestrated by him and his followers. Others insist that the people's offer of the throne

9312-461: Was sincere, as there was no other candidate and the people were grateful to him for the liberation of Mexico. The latter accounts stress that Iturbide initially rejected the offer, in favor of persuading Ferdinand VII to change his mind about ruling Mexico, but then reluctantly accepted. When the liberating army entered Mexico on 27 September 1821, the army sought to proclaim Iturbide as Emperor, which he himself stopped. A month later, on 28 October, he

9409-485: Was working to call a new Congress, most of the nation had already accepted the Plan of Casa Mata. Recognizing the wishes of the country, Iturbide personally reopened the same Congress that he had closed in March 1823 and presented his abdication to them. He later wrote that he was choosing abdication over bloody civil war. However, Congress refused to accept his abdication, arguing that acceptance of abdication would imply that

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