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86-680: The Ikelan's situation is somewhat analogous to that of the Haratin within Maure society in Mauritania . Like the Haratin, the name "Ikelan", and to a much greater degree Bouzou and Bella , are exonyms (a name not used by that people themselves) with negative connotations. Historically the term "Ikelan" has been used to refer to the slaves of the Tuareg. The Tuareg people have in the past had

172-506: A nomadic life, warfare, study, animal husbandry, and trade. Consequently, Higher caste communities travel, at least seasonally, if able. Lower caste groups, not limited to the Ikelan are more likely to live in settled communities, either in Sahara oasis towns or in villages scattered among other ethnic groups in the sahel region to the south. As the Tuareg moved south on the continent in

258-526: A caravan route from Egypt to ancient Ghana via Kawkaw, but Ibn Hawqal (writing c. 988) states that the old route from Egypt to the Sudan was abandoned in the reign of the Egyptian ruler Ibn Tulun (ruled 868–884) as some of the caravans were attacked by bandits while others were overwhelmed by the wind-blown sand. The more direct route was replaced by one that went to Sijilmasa before heading south across

344-474: A dark-skinned girl must have an approval from her "master". Without this, the marriage cannot be performed by a qadi . The report notes that Polisario claims to oppose any such discrimination, but raises questions about possible official collusion in, or indifference to, the practice. In addition, a case of an official document that grants freedom to a group of enslaved families has been found by HRW. The document in question dates as recently as 2007. The document

430-529: A general lack of historical records about their origins and ethnography, leading to several constructed proposals, and their mention in older Moroccan literature is generally limited to their status as slaves and more focused on the rights on their owners. It is their contemporary economic and social marginalization that has awakened renewed interest in their history and their oral histories. The Haratins remain indispensable workers in modern oases societies, states Ensel, and continue to be mistreated in contrast to

516-505: A highly socially stratified society, with specific social roles (warriors, religious leaders) or professions (blacksmiths, farmers, merchants) assigned to specific castes. The tiny aristocratic caste of warrior elite which once sat atop a pyramid of Tuareg society was decimated during the wars of the colonial period, and this, along with economic necessity, post-colonial border restrictions, and modern education, have broken down many traditional caste barriers. Tuareg higher caste traditions value

602-705: A number of islands appear in the river. There is very little flow, only 5% of the maximum, in June and July. The history of the Gao Empire precedes that of the Songhai Empire in the region of the Middle Niger. Both empires had the town of Gao as their capital. Apart from some Arabic epitaphs on tombstones discovered in 1939 at the cemetery of Gao-Saney (6 km to the east of the city) there are no surviving indigenous written records that date from before

688-528: A plurality), Morocco , Western Sahara , and Algeria . In Tunisia and Libya , they are referred to as Shwashin ( Chouachin , Chouachine ; singular: Shwashin , Chouchan ). The Haratin speak Maghrebi Arabic dialects as well as various Berber languages . They have traditionally been characterized as the descendants of former Sub-Saharan slaves. They form the single largest defined ethnolinguistic group in Mauritania where they account for 40% of

774-540: A pre 9th century settlement. This could be the west bank Gao mentioned by 10th and 11th-century authors. The site has not been excavated. al-Idrisi , writing in around 1154, does not mention a second town, and archaeological excavations in Gao-Saney indicate the site may have beena abandoned by this time. Al-Sadi in his Tarikh al-Sudan gives lists 32 rulers of the Zuwa dynasty and states that in 1009–1010 A.D.

860-630: A professor of anthropology specializing in Maghreb studies, the word "Haratin" in Moroccan is a pejorative that connotes "subordination, disrepute" and in contemporary literature; it is often replaced with "Drawi", "Drawa", "Sahrawi", "Sahrawa", or other regional terms. The Moroccan Haritin, states Chouki El Hamel, a professor of history specializing in African Studies, are the diaspora of black West Africans who were forcefully transported across

946-824: A separate sense of ethnic identity. During the Roman occupation of Mauretania , the Godala Berber tribe fled to the south towards the Draa oasis and enslaved the local Haratin population. They have historically inherited their slave status and family occupation, have been endogamous, and socially segregated. Some communities differentiated two types of slaves, one called 'Abid or "slave" and Haratin or "freed slave". However, per anthropologist John Shoup, both 'Abid and Haratin were not free to own land or had equivalent property rights . Regardless of whether they were technically free or not, they were treated as socially inferior in

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1032-442: A social caste-like hierarchy that likely developed from a Bedouin legacy between the 14th and 16th century. The "Hassan" monopolized the occupations related to war and politics, the "Zwaya" (Zawaya) the religious roles, the "Bidan" (White Moors) owned property and held slaves (Haratins, Black Moors). Each of these were immovable castes, endogamous, with hereditary occupations and where the upper strata collected tribute ( horma ) from

1118-529: A study has found that more than 800,000 people are still slaves, almost 8% of the population. Slavery dates back for centuries in Niger and was finally criminalised in 2003, after five years of lobbying by Anti-Slavery International and Nigerien human-rights group, Timidria . Descent-based slavery, where generations of the same family are born into bondage , is traditionally practiced by at least four of Niger's eight ethnic groups. The slave holders are mostly from

1204-571: A survey conducted during the reign of Askiya Al-Hajj (1582–1586) found that there were 7,626 houses without counting the huts made of straw. Assuming each house was occupied by an average of 6 people, this would imply a population of around 45,000, making Gao one of the largest cities in West Africa at the time. The Moroccan invasion of 1591 led to the collapse of the Songhai Empire. The invaders chose to make Timbuktu their capital and

1290-634: Is a city in Mali and the capital of the Gao Region . The city is located on the River Niger , 320 km (200 mi) east-southeast of Timbuktu on the left bank at the junction with the Tilemsi valley. For much of its history Gao was an important commercial centre involved in the trans-Saharan trade . In the 9th century external Arabic writers described Gao as an important regional power, and by

1376-432: Is a square where on market days huge numbers of slaves are sold, both male and female. A young girl of fifteen is worth about six ducats, and a young man almost as much; small children are worth about half as much as grown slaves. Towards the end of the 16th century, Gao controlled an empire that extended for over 1,400,000 km , an area comparable in size to the modern state of Mali. The Tarikh al-fattash reports that

1462-686: Is absent from the Arabic language and has been used by the Sanhaja tribe and Zenata tribe before the arrival of the Beni Ḥassān . Others claim it comes from the Arabic phrase al-Hurr al-Thani or second class (second group of free people). Neither of these claims have much proof. The Haratin form an ethnic group distinct from Arab and Tuareg populations, as well as from the contemporary ethnic groups of sub-Saharan Africa. In Mauritania, however, where there are nearly 1.5 million Haratin, they have developed

1548-699: Is connected to the capital, Bamako at the western end of Mali, by 1200 km (750 mi) of paved road. In 2006, the Wabaria bridge was opened to replace the ferry service across the Niger. The bridge was constructed by the China State Construction Engineering Corporation and financed by the Islamic Development Bank and the Malian government. The town is located with road links (unpaved) to

1634-518: Is continuous traffic from all parts. He has another town to the west of the Nile [Niger] where he and his men and those who have his confidence live. There is a mosque there where he prays but the communal prayer ground is between the two towns. The archaeological evidence suggests that there were two settlements on the eastern bank of the Niger: Gao Ancien situated within the modern town, to

1720-479: Is mutually consensual. This position has been questioned by the United Nations and human rights advocacy groups. The Amnesty International report states that "[s]social attitudes have changed among most urban Moors, but in rural areas, the ancient divide is still very alive." There have been many attempts to assess the real extension of slavery in modern Mauritania, but these have mostly been frustrated by

1806-503: Is the kingdom of the Kawkaw, which is the greatest of the realms of the Sūdān, the most important and most powerful. All the kingdoms obey its king. Al-Kawkaw is the name of the town. Besides this there are a number of kingdoms of which the rulers pay allegiance to him and acknowledge his sovereignty, although they are kings in their own lands. Ibn al-Faqih (writing c.  903 ) mentions

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1892-778: The 2012 rebellion forced the Malian Army out of Gao and the state of Azawad was proclaimed, the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad took control of the governor's building, flying the flag of Azawad over it and rechristening it the Palace of Azawad . On 26 June 2012, the tension came to all-out combat in Gao between the MNLA and MOJWA, with both sides firing heavy weapons. MNLA Secretary General Bilal ag Acherif

1978-807: The Bella are still slaves in all but name. In Niger , where the practice of slavery was outlawed in 2003, a study found that almost 8% of the population were still enslaved two years later. In Mali, members of hereditary Tuareg servile communities reported that they have not benefited from equal education opportunities and were deprived of civil liberties by other groups and castes. Ikelan communities in Gao and Ménaka also reported systematic discrimination by local officials and others that hindered their ability to obtain identity documents or voter registration cards, locate adequate housing, protect their animals from theft, seek legal protection, or access development aid. In 2008,

2064-539: The Drâa-Tafilalet region, specifically towns such as Zagora where they make up a significant portion of the populace. Haratin have been the slave strata of the Moroccan society through its recorded history. They were owned in every town and farming center before the time of Moroccan ruler Ismail Ibn Sharif . They provided domestic labor, farm labor, physical labor inside towns and markets, as well as were conscripted to fight wars. According to Remco Ensel –

2150-592: The Nouakchott government's official stance that the practice has been eliminated. Amnesty further estimated that some 300,000 freed slaves continued to be in service of their former masters. On 27 April 2007, Messaoud Ould Boulkheir was elected Speaker of the National Assembly, becoming the first black Haratin to hold the position. Haratin in Morocco are mostly concentrated in the southern part of

2236-490: The Polisario Front in southwestern Algeria ; Polisario denies this and claims to have eradicated slavery through awareness campaigns. A 2009 investigative report by Human Rights Watch interviewed some dark-skinned Sahrawi people , who are a small minority in the camps; they stated that some "blacks" are "owned" by "whites", but this ownership is manifested only in "granting" marriage rights to girls. In other words,

2322-605: The Songhai Empire . He made Gao his capital. Leo Africanus visited Gao sometime between 1506 and 1510 when the town was ruled by Askiya Muhammad I , the first ruler of the Askiya dynasty . He observed that the large town lacked a surrounding wall and was full of rich merchants. The town is very civilized compared to Timbuktu. Bread and meat are abundant, though you cannot find wine or fruits. Actually, melons, cucumbers, and excellent squash are plentiful, and there are enormous quantities of rice. There are many sweet water wells. There

2408-575: The nomadic ethnic groups— Tuareg , Fula , Toubou and Arabs . In the region of Say on the right bank of the river Niger, it is estimated that three-quarters of the population around 1904–1905 was composed of slaves. Haratin The Haratin ( Arabic : حراطين , romanized :  Ḥarāṭīn , singular Ḥarṭānī ), also spelled Haratine or Harratin , are an ethnic group found in western Sahel and southwestern Maghreb . The Haratin are mostly found in modern Mauritania (where they form

2494-398: The war of liberation ; a discourse of emancipation and the absence of state racism, which constitutes a tradition of Algerian nationalism, had succeeded in mobilizing this social category. Social success through education allowed the former Haratin to be represented in local communities and to access the most influential positions. Gao Gao / ɡ aʊ / , or Gawgaw/Kawkaw ,

2580-751: The 11th century AD, they took slaves as prisoners of war. Most slaves were taken from adjacent populations, as well from rival Tuareg Kel s (tribal confederations). These éklan once formed a distinct social class in Tuareg society. Servile groups came in two forms: domestic slaves lived near their owners as domestic servants and herders, and functioned as part of the family, with close social interactions. Additionally, entire communities became servile to aristocratic tribes, conquered in situ , formed by migration of Ikelan families or even other ethnic groups moving into Tuareg controlled communities seeking protection. Sometimes members of rival Kels, defeated in war, were subsumed as lower castes, but usually of higher level than

2666-524: The 15th ruler, Zuwa Kusoy, was the first to convert to Islam. He does not actually specify where they lived except for the legendary founder of the dynasty, Zuwa Alayman who he claims came from the Yemen to Kukiya. John Hunwick , among others, speculates that the first version of Islam was Ibadism . In c.1079-1082, a Sanhaja Berber group, inspired by the Sunni Almoravids , took control of

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2752-714: The 1914–1916 Firouan revolt. Despite this, French officials following the Second World War reported there were some 50,000 " Bella " under direct control of Tuareg masters in the Gao–Timbuktu areas of French Soudan alone. This was at least four decades after French declarations of mass freedom had happened in other areas of the colony. In 1946, a series of mass desertions of Tuareg slaves and bonded communities began in Nioro and later in Menaka , quickly spreading along

2838-606: The Arabs and Berbers and were forcibly recruited into the Moroccan army by Ismail Ibn Sharif (Sultan of Morocco from 1672–1727) to consolidate power. Traditionally, many Haratin have held occupations in agriculture – as serfs , herdsmen , and indentured workers . The origin and meaning of the name Haratin (singular Hartani) are controversial. Some claim that it comes from the Berber word ahardan (pl. ihardin ) referring to skin color, more specifically "dark color". This word

2924-403: The Ikelan. Servile farming or salt extraction communities, somewhat analogous to European serfs were gradually assimilated into Tuareg culture, maintained Tuaregs herders during their annual transhumance cycle, or provided trade or farming centers for Tuareg clans. Prior to the 20th century, the Tuareg captured most individual slaves during raids into other communities and in war. War was then

3010-570: The Islamists were driven out from the city. On 17 March 2015, a United Nations AH-64 helicopter crashed during an exercise near the town, killing both pilots. The AH-64 came from the Dutch Air Force's Defense Helicopter Command. On 18 January 2017, a suicide bomber from Al-Mourabitoun drove a vehicle filled with explosives into a military camp near Gao, killing 77 people and injuring at least 115 (see 2017 Gao bombing ). The incident

3096-516: The Niger Bend and the pre-Saharan steppe form a group corresponding to the northern extremity of the Sahel, in direct contact with the desert. The main façade of the mosques of the Niger Bend is smooth, with no vertical elements, and terraces with merlons are rare. On the external façade, the mihrab forms a low projection ending in a conical point, but is not surmounted by a tower. Inside the mosque,

3182-612: The Niger River valley. In the first decade of the 20th century, French administrators in southern Tuareg areas of French Soudan estimated "free" to "servile" Tuareg populations at rations of 1 to 8 or 9. At the same time the servile " rimaibe " population of the Masina Fulbe , roughly equivalent to the Bella , made up between 70% and 80% of the Fulbe population, while servile Songhai groups around Gao made up some 2/3 to 3/4 of

3268-483: The Niger River. A service between Gao and Koulikoro , a distance of 1380 km (860 mi), is managed by the Compagnie Malienne de Navigation (COMANAV). It usually operates from the end of July, after the annual rains when there is sufficient water in the river, until mid November. Smaller boats are able to operate for a longer season between Bourem and Ansongo. In the 1998 census, the population of

3354-457: The Sahara and sold in Moroccan slave markets over centuries. They absorbed the "Arabo-centric values in the dominant interpretation of Islam", states El Hamel, over the generations and they see themselves as Muslim Moroccans, rather than by their ethnic or native group. The Haratin strata, as slave workers, were a major institution of Moroccan society through the 19th century. Yet, there has been

3440-463: The Sahara. In the 10th century, Gao was already Muslim and was described as consisting of two separate towns. Al-Muhallabi, who died in 990, wrote in a lost work quoted in the biographical dictionary compiled by Yaqut : Their king pretends before his subject to be a Muslim and most of them pretend to be Muslims too. He has a town on the Nile [Niger], on the eastern bank, which is called Sarnāh, where there are markets and trading houses and to which there

3526-530: The Tuareg-based human rights group Temedt , along with Anti-Slavery International , reported that "several thousand" members of the Tuareg Bella caste remain enslaved in the Gao Region and especially around the towns of Ménaka and Ansongo . They complain that while laws provide redress, cases are rarely resolved by Malian courts. In Niger, where the practice of slavery was outlawed in 2003,

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3612-556: The area, leaving behind royal epitaphs at a cemetery in Gao-Saney. Whether or not these kings feature on the kings lists of the Za dynasty recorded in the Tarikh s is debated. Dierk Lange posits that these upstarts, whether they were longstanding residents or newcomers, represent the founding of the Sonni dynasty . Towards the end of the 13th century Gao lost its independence and became part of

3698-458: The capture of Kidal , Malian military forces retreated from Gao's military bases, allowing it to be occupied by Tuareg rebellion member groups MNLA and Ancar Dine . Timbuktu was captured the following day. On 6 April, the MNLA declared the region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad . After the Battle of Gao on 26 and 27 June 2012, the MNLA lost control to Islamist militias. After

3784-537: The city's importance as a Songhay cultural capital. Attractions in Gao include the original fourteenth century Kankou Moussa Mosque  [ fr ] , the Askia Tomb (a UNESCO World Heritage Site ) built in 1495 and incorporating another mosque, a museum devoted to the Sahel , markets including a night market, and La Dune Rose , a sand dune named after its appearance at dawn and nightfall . The mosques of

3870-508: The communities they lived in. Being denied the right and the ability to own any land, they historically survived by accepting a patron-client serf relationship either as domestic servant or as share-cropping labor ( khammasin ). They became a common target of mandatory conscription by the Moroccan ruler Sultan Ismail Ibn Sharif (himself having a Haratin mother) as he sought to build a military that had no social or cultural attachment to any other Arab or Berber group in Maghreb. He conscripted

3956-493: The coolest months, with daily low temperatures of 15 °C. From October to March during the dry period, the north-easterly Harmattan wind blows from the Sahara. With the low rainfall, the vegetation further away from the river is sparse and consists mainly of various species of Acacia ( Acacia raddiana , Acacia nilotica , Acacia ehrenbergiana ) and Balanites aegyptiaca . The herbaceous plants are dominated by Cenchrus biflorus and Panicum laetum . Almost all

4042-426: The desert Kidal Region to the north and to Niamey , the capital of Niger , to the south. The road to the south runs along the left bank of the river. The town of Ansongo is 103 km (65 mi) from Gao. The border with Niger is just south of the village of Labbézanga , a distance of 204 km (127 mi). The prime meridian marker runs right through Gao, Mali. There are also seasonal ferry services on

4128-639: The east of the Tomb of Askia , and the archaeological site of Gao-Saney (Sané in French) situated around 4 km to the east. The bed of the Wadi Gangaber passes to the south of the Gao-Saney occupation mound ( tell ) but to the north of Gao Ancien. The imported pottery and glass recovered from Gao-Saney suggest that the site was occupied between the 8th and 11th centuries. Gao-Saney corresponds to Sarnāh of al-Muhallabi. Al-Bakri writing in 1068 also records

4214-456: The eighth to tenth centuries, coexisted with Gao Saney and served as an integral part of the city's urban fabric. In Old Gao, excavations. uncovered two monumental buildings dating from the early tenth century. One of these structures, believed to be a mosque, has dimensions that indicate its importance within the community. The dimensions of the mosque are approximately [insert dimensions here] and include architectural elements characteristic of

4300-556: The end of the 10th century, the local ruler was said to be a Muslim. Towards the end of the 13th century, Gao became part of the Mali Empire . In the first half of the 15th century the town regained its independence. With the conquests of Sunni Ali (ruled 1464–1492) it became the capital of the Songhai Empire . The Empire collapsed after the Moroccan invasion in 1591 and the invaders chose to make Timbuktu their capital. By

4386-638: The excavations at Gao. Archaeological digs in Gao-Saney show that the site was occupied by roughly 700CE, and was a center of manufacturing, iron smelting, and trade with areas as far away as Mesopotamia . It was the southern terminus of a trade route powered by chariots that linked it to the Mediterranean. At some point no later than the early 10th century the Songhay king based in Kukiya moved to

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4472-502: The existence of two towns, Both al-Muhallabi (see quote above) and al-Bakri situate Gao on the west (or right bank) of the Niger. The 17th century Tarikh al-fattash also states that in the 10th century Gao was situated on the Gourma side (i.e. the west bank) of the river. A large sand dune, La Dune Rose , lies on the west bank opposite Gao, but at Koima, on the edge of the dune at a site 4 km north of Gao, surface deposits indicate

4558-606: The expanding Mali Empire . What happened to the Zuwa rulers is not recorded, though royal epitaphs have been found in Kukiya which may indicate they took shelter there. Lange, again going against more long-established opinions, argues that the Za were in fact Malian vassals and the Sonni were the ones who took refuge in Kukiya. Ibn Battuta visited Suleyman (mansa) in Gao in 1352–53, when

4644-514: The flood peaks in September, while in Gao the flood lasts longer and reaches a maximum in December. There is a large year-to-year variation in the extent of the flooding. The existing and proposed dams upstream of Gao reduce the overall flow of the river and could potentially have a large effect on the local agriculture. When in flood the river is 4 km wide at Gao but during the dry season

4730-425: The importance of Gao declined. The German explorer Heinrich Barth visited Gao in 1854 on his return journey from Timbuktu . He found a village of about 300 huts constructed of matting and grouped in clusters. The inhabitants were very poor and had only a few boats as they lacked wood for their construction. The site of the ancient town was overgrown with Capparis decidua bushes. On 31 March 2012, one day after

4816-551: The lives of a portion of the black minority in the Tindouf camps. The practices involve historical ties between families that involve certain rights and obligations that are not always clear. Being a slave does not necessarily preclude enjoying freedom of movement." Responding to questions about slavery, the Polisario has acknowledged the survival "to a limited extent, of certain practices related to antiquated thinking" and said it

4902-581: The local agriculture depends on river water for irrigation. The annual flood of the Niger River is a result of the heavy rainfall in the headwaters of the Niger and Bani rivers in Guinea and the northern Ivory Coast . The rainfall in the headwater areas peaks in August but the flood water takes time to pass down the river system, through the Inner Niger Delta region and arrive at Gao. At Koulikoro

4988-444: The local youth are reported to have lynched Islamic police commissioner Aliou Toure who was recruited by MUWA , Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa, who took control of the town in June 2012. In January 2013 French warplanes bombed parts of Gao, including the airport, in an attempt to drive out fighters from the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa. Gao was captured by French and Malian forces on 26 January 2013, as

5074-520: The lower strata of Mauritanian society, considered them socially inferior, and denied them the right to own land or weapons thereby creating a socio-economically closed system. In 1981, Mauritania officially abolished slavery. However, even after the formalities, abolishment, and new laws, discrimination against Haratin is still widespread, and many continue to be, for all practical purposes, enslaved, while large numbers live in other forms of informal dependence on their former masters. Although slavery

5160-515: The main source of supply of slaves, although many were bought at slave markets, run mostly by indigenous peoples. Some Tuareg noble and vassal men married slaves, and their children became freemen. In this sense, éklan formed distinct subsections of a family: "fictive children." Entire Ikelan communities, on the other hand were a class held in an inherited serf-like condition, common among some societies in pre-colonial West Africa, and often having little interaction with "their" nobles though most of

5246-624: The majority of able-bodied male Haratin and 'Abid that were present in Morocco at the time. This army was then commonly coerced into a series of wars in order to consolidate Ibn Sharif's power. In Mauritania, the Haratin form one of the largest ethnic groups and account for as much as 40% of the Mauritanians. They are sometimes referred to as "Black Moors ", in contrast to Beidane , or "White Moors". The Haratin of Mauritania also primarily spoke Hassaniya Arabic . The Haratin of Mauritania, according to anthropologist Joseph Hellweg , who specializes in West African studies, were historically part of

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5332-455: The middle of the 17th century. Our knowledge of the early history of the town relies on the writings of Arabic geographers living in Morocco, Egypt and Andalusia, most of whom never visited the region. These authors referred to the town as Kawkaw or Kuku. The two key 17th century chronicles, the Tarikh al-Sudan and the Tarikh al-fattash , provide information on the town at the time of the Songhai Empire but they contain relatively little on

5418-546: The opportunities offered by long-distance trade. Midden deposits produced large quantities of household debris (animal bones, pottery shards, glass , glass beads, and a variety of copper and iron objects). Collectively, the local character of the ceramic, faunal, and botanical remains suggests that, culturally, Gao-Saney was part of a broader Niger River indigenous cultural complex. Additionally, fragments of North African enamel ware, Andalusian chandelier ware, and fragments of Islamic glass vessels were recovered throughout

5504-431: The people of Mālī. After staying a month in the town, Ibn Battuta left with a caravan for Takedda and from there headed north back across the Sahara to an oasis in Tuat with a large caravan that included 600 slave girls. Ibn Khaldun recorded that in 776 A.H or 1374/1375 AD Mali fought a war over Gao against Berber Tuareg forces from Takedda , devastating the city. It would not reclaim its former importance until

5590-424: The pillars are massive, there are no arcades and there are few mural decorations. Only the minaret stands out among these rather low buildings. In short, this group of mosques is mainly found in northern Mali and Niger and is the prerogative of the Songhay and Tuareg populations. It is characterised by a minaret, a low and projecting conical mihrab tower, the rarity of buttresses and battlements, and massive supports in

5676-416: The population (~1.5 million). In parts of Arab-Berber Maghreb, they are sometimes referred to as a "socially distinct class of workers". The Haratin have been, and still commonly are socially isolated in some Maghrebi countries, living in segregated , Haratin-only ghettos . They are commonly perceived as an endogamous group of former slaves or descendants of slaves. They converted to Islam under

5762-436: The prayer hall, as in the mosques of Sankore and Sidi Yahya in Timbuktu and Tendirma in Mali. Once the centre of the Songhay Empire and a bustling trading centre, Gao boasts a rich historical heritage in its three urban settlements: Gao Saney, Old Gao and Gao. Excavations in Gao Saney, the oldest settlement east of the modern city, revealed a royal cemetery decorated with epitaphs and tombstones dating to 1104. Old Gao, built in

5848-424: The region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad and named Gao its capital. The MNLA lost control to Islamist militias after the Battle of Gao in June 2012, with the city being recaptured by French military forces as part of Opération Serval in early 2013. Gao is located on the eastern bank of the Niger River at the junction with the Tilemsi Valley. The sprawling town is the largest in eastern Mali. It

5934-428: The rise of the Songhai Empire. Sometime in the 14th century, Ali Kulun, the first ruler of the Sunni dynasty , rebelled against the Malian hegemony but the Malians were able to regain control. It was not until the first half of the 15th century that Sunni Sulayman Dama was able to throw off the Malian yoke. His successor, Sunni Ali Ber (1464–1492), greatly expanded the territory under Songhai control and established

6020-417: The site of Gao Ancien, just north of the modern city on the bank of the Niger river and a few kilometers from Gao Saney further inland. The kings of this period were of a lineage known as Qanda. The earliest written mention of Gao is by al-Khwārizmī , who wrote in the first half of the 9th century, when Gao was already an important regional power . Al-Yaqubi wrote in his Tarikh in around 872: There

6106-414: The social and economic history. The chronicles do not, in general, acknowledge their sources. Their accounts for the earlier periods are almost certainly based on oral tradition and for events before the second half of the 15th century they are likely to be less reliable. For these earlier periods, the two chronicles sometimes provide conflicting information. There is clear archaeological evidence that Gao

6192-522: The society varied by valley and oasis, but whether the Haratins were technically 'unfreed, semi-freed, or freed' slaves, they were considered as "inferior" by other strata of the society. The Haratin remain a marginalized population of Morocco, just like other similar groups around the world. According to Human Rights Watch, Morocco alleges that slavery is widespread in the Sahrawi refugee camps run by

6278-453: The south and west by the commune of Gounzoureye . Gao features an arid climate under Köppen's climate classification . Gao's climate is hot and dry, with the only rainfall occurring between June and September. August is normally the wettest month. The average annual rainfall is only 220 mm, but there are large year-to-year variations. May is the hottest month, with an average daily high temperature of 43 °C. December and January are

6364-406: The time of Heinrich Barth 's visit in 1854, Gao had declined to become an impoverished village with 300 huts constructed from matting. In 2009, the urban commune had a population of 86,633. In 2012, Gao was captured from Malian government forces by National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) and Ansar Dine rebels. After additional captures of Kidal and Timbuktu , the MNLA declared

6450-424: The total Songhai population. Klein concludes that roughly 50% of the population of French Soudan at the beginning of the 20th century were in some servile or slave relationship. While post-independence states have sought to outlaw slavery, results have been mixed. Traditional caste relationships have continued in many places, including the institution of slavery. In some areas, the descendants of those slaves known as

6536-613: The town formed part of the Mali Empire. He arrived by boat from Timbuktu on his return journey from visiting the capital of the Empire: Then I travelled to the town of Kawkaw, which is a great town on the Nīl [Niger], one of the finest, biggest, and most fertile cities of the Sūdān. There is much rice there, and milk, and chickens, and fish, and the cucumber, which has no like. Its people conduct their buying and selling with cowries, like

6622-410: The upper strata called the "Shurfa". According to Remco Ensel, Haratin, along with Swasin in Morocco and other northern fringe societies of the Sahara, were a part of a social hierarchy that included the upper strata of nobles, religious specialists, and literati, followed by freemen, nomadic pastoral strata, and slaves. The Haratin were hierarchically higher than the ' Abid (descendant of slaves) at

6708-414: The urban commune was 52,201. By the census in 2009 this had increased to 86,633, a 4.7% annual growth rate. For administrative purposes, the commune is divided into nine quartiers : Gadeye, Farandjiré, Aljanabanbia, Djoulabougou, Saneye, Sosso Koïra, Boulgoundjé, Château, and Djidara. The urban commune is bounded to the north by the commune of Soni Ali Ber , to the east by the commune of Anchawadi and to

6794-469: The very bottom, but lower than Ahrar . This hierarchy, states Ensel, has been variously described as ethnic groups, estates, quasi-castes, castes, or classes. The Haratins historically lived segregated from the main society, in a rural isolation. Their subjugation was sometimes ideologically justified by nobles and some religious scholars, even though others disagreed. The social stratification of Haratin and their inter-relationships with others members of

6880-606: The year. When French colonial governments were established, they passed legislation to abolish slavery, but did not enforce it. Some commentators believe the French interest was directed more at dismantling the traditional Tuareg political economy, which depended on slave labor for herding, than at freeing the slaves. Historian Martin Klein reports that there was a large scale attempt by French West African authorities to liberate slaves and other bonded castes in Tuareg areas following

6966-479: Was "determined to combat and eradicate them whenever they emerge and no matter what shape they take." "We welcome this statement and urge the Polisario to be vigilant in pursuing this objective," said HRW. In the Algerian Sahara, the Haratin, who were marginalized by France during colonization, experienced social and political progress after the country's independence. This integration had started during

7052-509: Was abolished by Presidential decree in 1981, it was not criminalized for the first time in 2007 and again in 2015, abolition in Mauritania is rarely enforced. Amnesty International reported that in 1994, 90,000 Haratine still lived as "property" of their master, with the report indicating that "slavery in Mauritania is most dominant within the traditional upper class of the Moors." According to Mauritanian officials, any master-serf relationship

7138-461: Was firmly rooted in both its local hinterland and interregional economic networks. Pottery recovered from all levels in both mounds is generally quite similar to examples from sites throughout the region, indicating that Gao was part of a regional market sphere, if not a broader cultural substrate. Gao thus represents a form of urbanism driven largely by local urban-rural dynamics, but in a way in which local elites capitalized on and, in fact, co-opted

7224-469: Was signed by a local judge or an official civil servant. Slavery is still engraved in memories due to historical and traditional reasons, and such cases are not as shocking as one might think to the society of the Sahrawi refugee camps. The Human Rights Watch concludes its chapter on slavery as follows, "In sum, credible sources testified to Human Rights Watch about vestiges of slavery that continue to affect

7310-522: Was the deadliest terrorist attack in Malian history. The population of Gao mostly speak Koyraboro Senni but includes many ethnicities, including the Bozo (traditionally nomadic river dwellers), Fulfulde/Fulani cattle keepers, and Tuareg nomads, Arabs as well as Bambara peoples from western Mali. The seventh Festival des arts et cultures songhay was celebrated in February 2007 at Gao, reflecting

7396-474: Was wounded in the battle. The MNLA were soon driven from the city, and from Kidal and Timbuktu shortly after. However, the MNLA stated that it continued to maintain forces and control some rural areas in the region. The following day, Ansar Dine announced that it was in control of all the cities of northern Mali. On 19 January 2013, it was reported that Gao journalist Kader Toure was killed after being suspected of working for foreign news services. In retaliation,

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