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86-514: During the first half of the 19th century, many Egyptian ancient artifacts were discovered in Egypt by either scholars or merchants who tried to make a quick profit. The Ipuwer Papyrus was discovered by such unprofessional traders, who sold it to Giovanni Anastasi , who served as Consul in Egypt for Sweden and Norway . In 1828, Anastasi sold the papyrus to the Dutch government. In the poem, Ipuwer –

172-484: A Norwegian insurrection. The king was informed of these plans in a secret letter of December 1813 and probably went along with them. But on the face of it, he adhered to the conditions of the Kiel Treaty by ordering Christian Frederik to surrender the border fortresses and return to Denmark. But Christian Frederik kept the contents of the letter to himself, ordering his troops to hold the fortresses. He decided to claim

258-542: A Swedish union, and also that his government's position be printed in all Norwegian newspapers. On 10 June, the Norwegian army was mobilized and arms and ammunitions distributed. On 16 June, Carsten Anker wrote to Christian Frederik about his recent discussions with a high-ranking Prussian diplomat. He learned that Prussia and Austria were waning in their support of Sweden's claims to Norway, that Tsar Alexander I of Russia (a distant cousin of Christian Frederik) favored

344-715: A Swedish-Norwegian union but without Bernadotte as king, and that the United Kingdom was looking for a solution that would keep Norway out of Russia's sphere of influence. On 26 June, emissaries from Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the United Kingdom arrived in Vänersborg in Sweden to persuade Christian Frederik to comply with the provisions of the Treaty of Kiel. There they conferred with von Essen, who told them that 65,000 Swedish troops were ready to invade Norway. On 30 June

430-580: A cabinet and five government departments, though he retained all decision-making authority himself. Count Wedel-Jarlsberg , the most prominent member of the Norwegian nobility, had been in Denmark to organize food supplies for the starving population while Prince Christian Frederik staged his insurrection. On his return trip he took time off to see Count Hans Henrik von Essen , newly appointed Swedish governor-general of Norway. When he arrived in March, he warned

516-581: A former revolutionary turned heir to the Swedish throne was far from secure. Secret correspondence from the British government in the preceding days had put pressure on the negotiating parties to reach an agreement in order to avoid a full-scale invasion of Denmark. Bernadotte sent a letter to the governments of Prussia, Austria , and the United Kingdom , thanking them for their support, acknowledging

602-511: A full hour, and the city's citizens convened to swear fealty to Christian Frederik. Carsten Anker was sent to London to negotiate recognition by the British government, with this instruction from the regent: "Our foremost need is peace with England. If, God forbid, our hope of English support is thwarted, you must make it clear to the minister what will be the consequences of leaving an undeserving people to misery. Our first obligation will then be

688-761: A large number of objects at the auction of the collection in London. The third collection was auctioned in Paris in 1857; the Louvre, the British Museum, as well as private collectors acquired pieces. In 1830 Anastasi was appointed corresponding member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was an associate member of the Egyptian Society (Cairo, founded 1836) and an honorary member of

774-564: A lively debate. The Independence party won the day with a majority of 78–33 to establish Norway as an independent monarchy. In the following days, mutual suspicion and distrust came to the surface within the convention. The delegates disagreed on whether to consider the sentiments of the European powers; some facts may have been withheld from them. By 20 April, the principle of the people's right to self-determination articulated by Christian Magnus Falsen and Gunder Adler had been established as

860-471: A name typical of the period 1850–1450 BCE – complains that the world has been turned upside-down: a woman who had not a single box now owns furniture, a girl who used to look at her face in the water now has a mirror, while the once-rich man is now in rags. He demands that the Lord of All (a title which could refer to either the king or the creator sun-god) destroy his enemies and remember his religious duties. This

946-625: A process lasting several years, for sale to large-scale buyers in Western Europe. It is uncertain whether he himself organised excavations (as Henry Salt , Giovanni Belzoni , Bernardino Drovetti and others did); he did cooperate with or instructed Giovanni Piccinini (an Italian, in Thebes and Abydos ), French-American Francis Barthow, and Austrian consul Giuseppe di Nizzoli (in Saqqara ). In 1826 Anastasi's first collection of antiquities

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1032-565: A retreat to the Glomma river. The Swedish Army, in trying to intercept the retreat, was stopped at the battle of Langnes , an important tactical victory for the Norwegians. The Swedish assaults from the east were effectively resisted near Kongsvinger . On 3 August Christian Frederik announced his political will in a cabinet meeting in Moss . On 7 August, a delegation from Bernadotte arrived at

1118-674: A supplier of the French army in Egypt , then lost it when the French were defeated and forced to leave the country. During Muhammad Ali 's early rule Anastasi established his merchant house in Alexandria and rebuilt the family business. He acquired the monopoly on trading grain produced in Muhammad Ali's dominion; Sweden, trading for iron, was a major buyer. Sweden and Norway appointed Anastasi their Consul General in Egypt, and Knight in

1204-616: A union voluntarily instead of being annexed as a conquered territory, Bernadotte offered favorable peace terms. He promised to recognize the Norwegian Constitution, with only those amendments that were necessary to enable a union of the two countries. Christian Frederik agreed to call an extraordinary session of the Storting in September or October. He would then have to transfer his powers to the elected representatives of

1290-532: A union with Norway, to compensate for the loss of Finland. He was also held in high esteem because he had refrained from pursuing the retreating army of Sweden while that country was hard pressed by Russia in the Finnish War . Christian August was elected Crown Prince of Sweden on 29 December 1809 and left Norway on 7 January 1810. After his sudden death in May 1810, Sweden chose as his successor another enemy general,

1376-516: Is considered Constitution Day in Norway. The election was unanimous, but several of the delegates had asked that it be postponed until the political situation had stabilized. On 22 May, the newly elected king made a triumphant entrance into Christiania. The guns of Akershus Fortress sounded the royal salute, and a celebratory service was held in the Cathedral . There was continuing concern about

1462-481: Is followed by a vivid description of the disorders: there is no longer any respect for the law and even the king's burial inside the pyramid has been desecrated. The story continues with the recalling of better days until it abruptly ends due to the missing final part of the papyrus. It is likely that the poem concluded with a reply of the Lord of All, or prophesying the coming of a powerful king who would restore order. The Ipuwer Papyrus has been dated no earlier than

1548-593: The Place des Consuls . He reportedly spent great sums of money helping to finance the Greek War of Independence and liberating Greek prisoners of war. In Alexandria he co-financed the establishment of a Greek Orthodox hospital, school, and church building. An influential diplomat and merchant in Egypt, Anastasi ran a lucrative side business in Egyptian antiquities. He put together collections of high-quality objects,

1634-633: The Admonitions to be a reliable account of early Egyptian history, because of the long time interval between its original composition and the writing of the Leiden Papyrus. Ipuwer has often been put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the biblical account of the Exodus , most notably because of its statement that " the river is blood " and its frequent references to servants running away. This assertion has not gained acceptance among

1720-466: The Convention of Moss was concluded: a general ceasefire based effectively on terms of peace. Christian Frederik succeeded in excluding from the text any indication that Norway had recognized the Treaty of Kiel, and Sweden accepted that it was not to be considered a premise of a future union between the two states. Understanding the advantage of avoiding a costly war, and of letting Norway enter into

1806-694: The House of Lords on 10 May. His arguments were also voiced in the House of Commons – after having fought for freedom in Europe for 22 years, the United Kingdom could not go on to support Sweden in her forced subjugation of a free people then under a foreign yoke. But the Treaty between Britain and Sweden could not be ignored: Sweden had helped the allies during the war, and promises had to be kept. Anker stayed on in London until fall, doggedly maintaining his efforts to awaken sympathy and support for Norwegian interests. By early March, Christian Frederik had also organized

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1892-526: The Institut Égyptien (Alexandria, founded 1859). Membership of these scientific societies was usually reserved for West-European members. Anastasi had friendly relations with Egyptologists, among whom Jean-François Champollion and Karl Lepsius , offering them practical support and acting as a host during their expeditions in Egypt. As far as known, Anastasi remained unmarried and did not father any offspring. He adopted two girls who were left orphaned by

1978-518: The Missolonghi bloodbath in 1826. One daughter, named Marie or Mariethe, married Vincent Benedetti , Consul General of France; the other daughter married a French engineer or a Greek banker who later settled in Vienna. He also provided dowries for other female family members, enabling them to marry diplomats or merchants in his network. When Anastasi's brother in law Nikolaos Papafis died, he took

2064-601: The Nineteenth Dynasty , around 1250 BCE but the text itself is much older, and dated back no earlier than the late Twelfth Dynasty of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom . The Admonitions is considered the world's earliest known treatise on political ethics , suggesting that a good king is one who controls unjust officials, thus carrying out the will of the gods. It is a textual lamentation , close to Sumerian City Laments and to Egyptian laments for

2150-529: The Order of Vasa , in 1828. Anastasi's merchant house had branches (staffed by family members or representatives) in important Mediterranean ports, among which Alexandria, Livorno , Smyrna , Thessaloniki, and Malta . In Alexandria Anastasi was among the select Greek merchant families that dominated international trade as well as the Egyptian economy, the others being Casulli, Tossizza (or Tositsas ) and Zizinia . Anastasi acquired great riches and prestige, and

2236-655: The Treaty of Stockholm of 3 March 1813. Some weeks later, Russia gave her guarantee to the same effect, and in April Prussia also promised Norway as his prize for joining the battle against Napoleon. In the meantime, Sweden obliged its allies by joining the Sixth Coalition and declaring war against France and Denmark-Norway on 24 March 1813. During his campaigns on the Continent, Charles John successfully led

2322-639: The United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway , and known as the United Kingdoms , was a personal union of the separate kingdoms of Sweden and Norway under a common monarch and common foreign policy that lasted from 1814 until its peaceful dissolution in 1905 . The two states kept separate constitutions, laws, legislatures, administrations, state churches, armed forces, and currencies; the kings mostly resided in Stockholm , where foreign diplomatic representations were located. The Norwegian government

2408-620: The Allied Army of the North in its defense of Berlin , defeating two separate French attempts to take the city, and at the decisive Battle of Leipzig . He then marched against Denmark to force the Danish King to surrender Norway. On 7 January, on the verge of being overrun by Swedish, Russian, and German troops under the command of the elected crown prince of Sweden, King Frederick VI of Denmark (and of Norway) agreed to cede Norway to

2494-491: The Austrian emissary August Ernst Steigentesch made the famous comment: "The people? What do they have to say against the will of their rulers? That would be to put the world on its head." In the course of the negotiations Christian Frederik offered to relinquish the throne and return to Denmark, provided the Norwegians had a say in their future through an extraordinary session of the Storting. However he refused to surrender

2580-572: The Catholic-born Bernadotte from being king) and that Jews and Jesuits would be barred from entering the kingdom. But the Independence party lost another battle when the assembly voted 98 to 11 to allow the monarch to reign over another country with the assent of two-thirds of the legislative assembly. Although the final edict of the constitution was signed on 18 May, the unanimous election of Christian Frederik on 17 May

2666-513: The Crown Prince was mentioned. Christian Frederik rejected the overture, invoking Norway's right to self-determination as well as the possibility of reuniting Norway and Denmark in the future. A few days later, Christian Frederik warned off a meeting with the Danish foreign minister, pointing out that it would fuel speculation that the prince was motivated by Danish designs on Norway. Although

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2752-403: The European powers refused to acknowledge the Norwegian independence movement, there were signs by early April that they were not inclined to side with Sweden in an all-out confrontation. As the constitutional convention drew closer, the independence movement gained in strength. On 10 April, the delegates convened at Eidsvoll. Seated on uncomfortable benches, the convention elected its officers in

2838-652: The French marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte , who was also seen as a gallant adversary and had proved his ability as an army commander. The chief objective of Bernadotte's foreign policy as Crown Prince Charles John of Sweden was the acquisition of Norway, and he pursued that goal by definitively renouncing Sweden's claims in Finland and joining the enemies of Napoleon. In 1812, he signed the secret Treaty of Saint Petersburg with Russia against France and Denmark-Norway. His foreign policy provoked some criticism among Swedish politicians, who found it immoral to indemnify Sweden at

2924-670: The King of Sweden in order to stave off an occupation of Jutland . These terms were formalized and signed on 14 January at the Treaty of Kiel , in which Denmark negotiated to maintain sovereignty over the Norwegian possessions of the Faroe Islands , Iceland and Greenland . Article IV of the treaty stated that Norway was ceded to "the King of Sweden", and not to the Kingdom of Sweden – a provision favorable to his former Norwegian subjects as well as to their future king, whose position as

3010-637: The Napoleonic wars, and succeeded for a long time, in spite of many invitations to join the belligerent alliances. Both countries joined Russia and Prussia in a League of Armed Neutrality in 1800. Denmark-Norway was forced to withdraw from the League after the British victory at the First Battle of Copenhagen in April 1801, but still stuck to a policy of neutrality. However, the league collapsed after

3096-428: The Norwegian border forts to Swedish troops. The four-power delegation rejected Christian Frederik's proposal that Norway's constitution form the basis for negotiations about a union with Sweden but promised to put the proposal to the Swedish king for consideration. On 20 July, Bernadotte sent a letter to his "cousin" Christian Frederik, accusing him of court intrigues and foolhardy adventurism. Two days later he met with

3182-459: The Norwegian independence movement. Niels Rosenkrantz , the Danish foreign minister, responded to the Swedish demands by asserting that the Danish government in no way supported Norwegian independence, but that they could not vacate border posts they did not hold. The demand to disinherit Christian Frederik was not addressed. Swedish troops massed along the border, and there were daily rumors of an invasion. In several letters to von Essen, commander of

3268-588: The Norwegian military headquarters in Spydeberg with a ceasefire offer based on the promise of a union with respect for the Norwegian constitution. The following day, Christian Frederik expressed himself in favor of the terms, allowing Swedish troops to remain in positions east of Glomma. Hostilities broke out at Glomma, resulting in casualties, but the Norwegian forces were ordered to retreat. Peace negotiations with Swedish envoys began in Moss on 10 August. On 14 August,

3354-404: The Norwegian public received the news that their country had been ceded to the King of Sweden. It caused a general indignation among most people, who disliked the idea of being subjected to Swedish rule, and enthusiastically endorsed the idea of national independence. The Swedish Crown Prince Bernadotte responded by threatening to send an army to occupy Norway, and to uphold the grain embargo, unless

3440-499: The Swedish forces at Norway's borders, Bernadotte referred to Christian Frederik as a rebel and ordered that all Danish officials who did not return home were to be treated as outlaws. But the regent countered by confiscating all navy vessels stationed in Norway and arresting officers who were planning to sail them to Denmark. On 1 April, King Frederick VI of Denmark sent a letter to Christian Frederik, asking him to give up his efforts and return to Denmark. The possibility of disinheriting

3526-420: The Swedish ultimatum, saying that surrender would constitute treason against the people. On 29 July, Swedish forces invaded Norway. Swedish forces met little resistance as they advanced northward into Norway, bypassing the fortress of Fredriksten . The first hostilities were short and ended with decisive victories for Sweden. By 4 August, the fortified city of Fredrikstad surrendered. Christian Frederik ordered

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3612-487: The assassination of Tsar Paul I in 1801. Denmark-Norway was compelled into an alliance with France after the second British attack on the Danish navy at the Second Battle of Copenhagen . The Danish were forced to surrender the navy after heavy bombardment, because the army was at the southern border to defend it against a possible French attack. As Sweden in the meantime had sided with the British, Denmark-Norway

3698-483: The basis of the constitution. The first draft of the constitution was signed by the drafting committee on 1 May. Key precepts of the constitution included the assurance of individual freedom, the right to property , and equality. Following a contentious debate on 4 May, the assembly decided that Norway would adhere to the Lutheran faith, that its monarch must always have professed himself to this faith (thereby prevent

3784-461: The battleground defeats. In late September, a dispute arose between Swedish authorities and the Norwegian council of state over the distribution of grain among the poor in Christiania. The grain was intended as a gift from the "Norwegian" king to his new subjects, but it became a matter of principle for the Norwegian council to avoid the appearance that Norway had a new king until the transition

3870-482: The cause of Norwegian independence and to elect delegates to a constitutional assembly to convene at Eidsvoll on 10 April. The Swedish government immediately sent a mission to Christian Frederik, warning him that the insurrection was a violation of the Treaty of Kiel and put Norway at war with the allied powers. The consequences would be famine and bankruptcy. Christian Frederik sent letters through his personal network to governments throughout Europe, assuring them that he

3956-471: The chief market. Saw-mill owners and timber merchants in the Christiania region, backed by great fortunes and economic influence, formed an elite group that began to see the central government in Copenhagen as a hindrance to Norwegian aspirations. Their increasing self-assertiveness led them to question the policies that favored Danish interests over that of Norway's while rejecting key Norwegian demands for

4042-400: The country away from the union with Denmark and either annex it or form a union. The repeated wars and invasions led to popular resentment against Sweden among Norwegians. During the eighteenth century, Norway enjoyed a period of great prosperity and became an increasingly important part of the union. The industry with the largest growth was that of the export of planks, with Great Britain as

4128-420: The country voluntarily complied with the provisions of the Kiel Treaty. In that case, he would call a constitutional convention. But for the time being, he was occupied with the concluding battles on the Continent, giving the Norwegians time to develop their plans. On 10 February, Christian Frederik invited prominent Norwegians to a meeting to be held at his friend Carsten Anker 's estate at Eidsvoll to discuss

4214-448: The creation of important national institutions, such as a bank and a university. Some members of the "timber aristocracy" thus saw Sweden as a more natural partner, and cultivated commercial and political contacts with Sweden. Around 1800, many prominent Norwegians secretly favored a split with Denmark, without actively taking steps to promote independence. Their undeclared leader was Count Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg . The Swedish policy during

4300-631: The dead, using the past (the destruction of Memphis at the end of the Old Kingdom ) as a gloomy backdrop to an ideal future. It was previously thought that the Admonitions of Ipuwer presents an objective portrait of Egypt in the First Intermediate Period . In more recent times, it was found that the Admonitions , along with the Complaints of Khakheperraseneb , are most likely works of royal propaganda , both inspired by

4386-461: The delegation that had been in Norway. They encouraged him to consider Christian Frederik's proposed terms for a union with Sweden, but the Crown Prince was outraged. He reiterated his ultimatum that Christian Frederik either relinquish all rights to the throne and abandon the border posts or face war. On 27 July, a Swedish fleet took over the islands of Hvaler , effectively putting Sweden at war with Norway. The following day, Christian Frederik rejected

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4472-438: The earlier Prophecy of Neferti : the three compositions have in common the theme of a nation that has been plunged into chaos and disarray and the need for an intransigent king who would defeat chaos and restore maat . Toby Wilkinson suggested that the Admonitions and Khakheperresenb may thus have been composed during the reign of Senusret III , a pharaoh well known for his use of propaganda. Ian Shaw does not consider

4558-460: The emissaries arrived in Christiania, where they turned down Christian Frederik's hospitality. Meeting with the Norwegian council of state the following day, the Russian emissary Orlov put the choice to those present: Norway could subject itself to the Swedish crown or face war with the rest of Europe. When Christian Frederik argued that the Norwegian people had a right to determine their own destiny,

4644-413: The expense of a weaker friendly neighbor. Moreover, the United Kingdom and Russia insisted that Charles John's first duty was to the anti-Napoleonic coalition. Britain vigorously objected to the expenditure of her subsidies on the Norwegian adventure before the common enemy had been crushed. Only after Charles gave his word did the United Kingdom also promise to countenance the union of Norway and Sweden by

4730-661: The first half of the 16th century and was replaced by Danish. Written Danish was still used during the union with Sweden, but was slightly norwegianized through the creation of Nynorsk in the latter half of the 19th century. In 1885, the Storting accepted Landsmål as an official written language on par with Danish. c. ^ 1820: 2,585,000 in Sweden, and 970,000 in Norway. 1905: 5,260,000 in Sweden, and 2,300,000 in Norway. Chronological history Sweden and Norway or Sweden–Norway ( Swedish : Svensk-norska unionen ; Norwegian : Den svensk-norske union(en) ), officially

4816-586: The international climate, and the government decided to send two of the delegates from the constitutional assembly to join Carsten Anker in England to plead Norway's case. The first council of state convened, and established the nation's supreme court. On 5 June, the British emissary John Philip Morier arrived in Christiania on what appeared to be an unofficial visit. He accepted the hospitality of one of Christian Frederik's ministers and agreed to meet with

4902-449: The king himself informally, stressing that nothing he did should be construed as a recognition of Norwegian independence. It was rumored that Morier wanted Bernadotte deposed and exiled to the Danish island of Bornholm . The king asked the United Kingdom to mediate between Norway and Sweden, but Morier never deviated from the official British government position of rejecting an independent Norway. He stated that Norway should subject itself to

4988-491: The latter's son Ioannis Papafis under his wing. Anastasi was buried in the first Greek-Orthodox cemetery of Alexandria; his tomb is in the shape of a square kiosk , inscribed "D'Anastasy", supported by four Doric columns , over an urn on a truncated column. The Okelle Anastasi in Alexandria was destroyed in the Bombardment of Alexandria in 1882. The variants of Anastasi's name given by different writers are due to

5074-740: The majority of scholars. There are disparities between Ipuwer and the narrative in the Book of Exodus, such as that the papyrus describes the Asiatics as arriving in Egypt rather than leaving. The papyrus' statement that the "river is blood" phrase may refer to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or simply be a poetic image of turmoil. Giovanni Anastasi (merchant) Giovanni d'Anastasi ( Thessaloniki , ca. 1780 – Alexandria , 1860), also known as Giovanni Anastasi , Jean d'Anastasy , Ιωάννης or Γιάννης Αναστασίου (and variants),

5160-756: The middle of the 17th century rose to the status of a major regional power after the intervention of Gustavus II Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War . The ambitious wars waged by King Charles XII , however, led to the loss of that status after the Great Northern War , 1700–1721. Following the dissolution of the Kalmar Union, Sweden and Denmark-Norway remained rival powers and fought many wars, during which both Denmark and Norway had to cede important provinces to Sweden in 1645 and 1658. Sweden also invaded Norway in 1567, 1644, 1658, and 1716 to wrest

5246-592: The most bloody revenge upon Sweden and her friends; but you must never lose the hope that England will realize the unjustice that is being done to us, and voice it until the last moment – as well as our constant wish for peace." Anker's plea for support was firmly rejected by prime minister Lord Liverpool , but he persisted in his mission to convince his contacts among British aristocrats and politicians of Norway's cause. He succeeded in introducing that cause in Parliament, where Earl Grey spoke for almost three hours in

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5332-443: The people, who would negotiate the terms of the union with Sweden, and finally he would relinquish all claims to the Norwegian throne and leave the country. The news hit the Norwegian public hard, and reactions included anger at the "cowardice" and "treason" of the military commanders, despair over the prospects of Norwegian independence, and confusion about the country's options. Christian Frederik confirmed his willingness to abdicate

5418-522: The presence of Christian Frederik on 11 April, before the debates began the next day. Two parties were soon formed, the "Independence party", variously known as the "Danish party" or "the Prince's party", and on the other hand, the "Union party", also known as the "Swedish party". All delegates agreed that independence would be the ideal solution, but they disagreed on what was feasible. The constitutional committee presented its proposals on 16 April, provoking

5504-463: The provisional government made him very popular in Norway. Moreover, his Swedish adversaries noticed his merits and his popularity, and in 1809 chose him as successor to the Swedish throne after King Gustav IV Adolf was overthrown. One factor contributing to the poor performance of the Swedish invasion force in Norway was that Russia at the same time invaded Finland on 21 February 1808. The two-front war proved disastrous for Sweden, and all of Finland

5590-470: The realm as compensation for the loss of Finland in 1809 and as a reward for joining the alliance against Napoleon. By the 1814 Treaty of Kiel , the King of Denmark-Norway was forced to cede Norway to the King of Sweden, but Norway refused to submit to the treaty provisions, declared independence , and convoked a constituent assembly at Eidsvoll in early 1814. After the adoption of the new Constitution of Norway on 17 May 1814, Prince Christian Frederick

5676-474: The regent that he was playing a dangerous game, but was himself accused of colluding with Sweden. Public opinion was increasingly critical of the policy of the regent, who was suspected of maneuvering to bring Norway back under Danish sovereignty. On 9 March, the Swedish mission to Copenhagen demanded that Christian Frederik be disinherited from succession to the Danish throne and that European powers should go to war with Denmark unless he disassociated himself from

5762-463: The role of Russia in negotiating the peace, and envisaging greater stability in the Nordic region. On 18 January, the Danish king issued a letter to the Norwegian people, releasing them from their fealty to him. Already in Norway, the viceroy of Norway, Hereditary Prince Christian Frederik resolved to preserve the integrity of the country, and if possible the union with Denmark, by taking the lead in

5848-618: The same period was to cultivate contacts in Norway and encourage all signs of separatism. King Gustav III (1746–1792) actively approached any circle in Norway that might favor a union with Sweden instead of with Denmark. Such endeavors on both sides of the border toward a "rapprochement" were far from realistic before the Napoleonic Wars created conditions that caused great political upheavals in Scandinavia. Sweden and Denmark-Norway strenuously attempted to remain neutral during

5934-508: The situation. He informed them of his intent to resist Swedish hegemony and claim the Norwegian crown as his inheritance. But at the emotional Eidsvoll session, his advisors convinced him that Norway's claim to independence should rather be based on the principle of self-determination, and that he should act as a regent for the time being. Back in Christiania on 19 February, Christian Frederik proclaimed himself regent of Norway. He ordered all congregations to meet on 25 February to swear loyalty to

6020-445: The status of a mere province ruled by Danish kings from their capital, Copenhagen . After the establishment of absolutism in 1660, a more centralized form of government was established, but Norway kept some separate institutions, including its own laws, army, and coinage. The united kingdoms are referred to as Denmark-Norway by later historians. Sweden broke out of the Kalmar Union permanently in 1523 under King Gustav Vasa , and in

6106-422: The throne for "reasons of health", leaving his authority with the state council as agreed in a secret protocol at Moss. In a letter dated 28 August he ordered the council to accept orders from the "highest authority", implicitly referring to the Swedish king. Two days later, the Swedish king proclaimed himself the ruler of both Sweden and Norway. On 3 September the British announced that the naval blockade of Norway

6192-453: The throne of Norway as rightful heir, and to set up an independent government with himself at the head. On 30 January, he consulted several prominent Norwegian advisors, arguing that King Frederick had no legal right to relinquish his inheritance, asserting that he was the rightful king of Norway, and that Norway had a right to self-determination. His impromptu council agreed with him, setting the stage for an independence movement. On 2 February

6278-603: The throne on 18 November and took the regnal name of Haakon VII. Sweden and Norway had been united under the same crown on two previous occasions: from 1319 to 1343 under Magnus Eriksson and again briefly from 1449 to 1450 under Karl Knutsson in opposition to Christian of Oldenburg who was elected king of the Kalmar Union by the Danes . During the following centuries, Norway remained united with Denmark in close union, nominally as one kingdom, but in reality reduced to

6364-406: The union. Continuing differences between the two realms led to a failed attempt to create a separate Norwegian consular service and then, on 7 June 1905, to a unilateral declaration of independence by the Storting. Sweden accepted the union's dissolution on 26 October. After a plebiscite confirming the election of Prince Carl of Denmark as the new king of Norway, he accepted the Storting's offer of

6450-631: The various languages spoken in his network at the time. His first name (in Greek: fully Ιωάννης, abbreviated Γιάννης) can be given as Giannis (Italian-Greek), Giovanni or Gianni (Italian), Jean (French); the English equivalent is John. His family name Αναστασίου or Ανάσταση is given as (d')Anastasi or (d')Anastasy; the prefix de can also be interpreted as honorific ( comte d'Anastasy because of his knighthood). Union between Sweden and Norway b. ^ The written Norwegian language ceased to exist in

6536-611: Was a Greek merchant based in Alexandria (Egypt), active in the Mediterranean and beyond. From 1828 through 1857 he served as Consul General of the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway in Egypt . He is mainly known for the collections of Egyptian antiquities he sold to national museums of the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom. Anastasi was the son of a Greek merchant from Damascus . His father made his fortune as

6622-450: Was ceded to Russia at the Peace of Fredrikshamn on 17 September 1809. In the meantime, discontent with the conduct of the war led to the deposition of King Gustav IV on 13 May 1809. Prince Christian August, the enemy commander who had been promoted to viceroy of Norway in 1809, was chosen because the Swedish insurgents saw that his great popularity among the Norwegians might open the way for

6708-587: Was elected king. The ensuing Swedish–Norwegian War (1814) and the Convention of Moss compelled Christian Frederick to abdicate after calling an extraordinary session of the Norwegian Parliament, the Storting , to revise the Constitution in order to allow for a personal union with Sweden. On 4 November the Storting elected Sweden's king, Charles XIII , as the King of Norway , thereby confirming

6794-411: Was forced by Napoleon to declare war on Sweden on 29 February 1808. Because the British naval blockade severed communications between Denmark and Norway, a provisional Norwegian government was set up in Christiania, led by army general Prince Christian August of Augustenborg . This first national government after several centuries of Danish rule demonstrated that home rule was possible in Norway, and

6880-413: Was formalized. Björnstjerna sent several missives threatening to resume hostilities. In early October, Norwegians again refused to accept a shipment of corn from Bernadotte, and Norwegian merchants instead took up loans to purchase food and other necessities from Denmark. However, by early October, it was generally accepted that the union with Sweden was inevitable. On 7 October, an extraordinary session of

6966-422: Was known as a benefactor. His duties as Swedish consul included serving the interests of Swedish nationals in Egypt, but according to his contemporaries he was generous in offering lodgings and practical support to travellers of all nationalities. Closely involved with Muhammad Ali's urban modernisations in Alexandria, he built an okelle (semi-public building serving as city mansion, warehouse, and guest house) on

7052-425: Was later seen as a test of the viability of independence. Christian August's greatest challenge was to secure the food supply during the blockade. When Sweden invaded Norway in the spring of 1808, he commanded the army of Southern Norway and compelled the numerically superior Swedish forces to withdraw behind the border after the battles of Toverud and Prestebakke . His success as a military commander and as leader of

7138-404: Was lifted. Postal service between Norway and Sweden was resumed. The Swedish general in the occupied border regions of Norway, Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand Björnstjerna , threatened to resume hostilities if the Norwegians would not abide by the armistice agreement and willingly accept the union with Sweden. Christian Frederik was reputed to have fallen into a deep depression and was variously blamed for

7224-581: Was not leading a Danish conspiracy to reverse the terms of the treaty of Kiel, and that his efforts reflected the Norwegian will for self-determination. He also sought a secret accommodation with Napoleon . The Swedish delegation arrived in Christiania on 24 February. Christian Frederik refused to accept a proclamation from the Swedish king but insisted instead on reading his letter to the Norwegian people, proclaiming himself regent. The Swedes characterized his decisions as reckless and illegal, and returned to Sweden. The next day, church bells in Christiania rang for

7310-484: Was presided over by viceroys : Swedes until 1829, Norwegians until 1856. That office was later vacant and then abolished in 1873. Foreign policy was conducted through the Swedish foreign ministry until the dissolution of the union in 1905. Norway had been in a closer union with Denmark , but Denmark–Norway 's alliance with Napoleonic France caused the United Kingdom and Russia to consent to Sweden's annexation of

7396-629: Was shipped to Livorno and stored in the warehouse of his agent Costantino Tossizza, where the objects could be viewed by prospective buyers or their representatives. Jean Emile Humbert , in Livorno on the orders of Caspar Reuvens , acquired the collection for the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden, the Netherlands, in 1827. Anastasi's second collection of antiquities was shipped in 1838, first to Livorno, then to London. The British Museum acquired

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