On January 9, 2008 the World Health Organization reported the results of the "Iraq Family Health Survey" published in the New England Journal of Medicine . The study surveyed 9,345 households across Iraq and was carried out in 2006 and 2007. It estimated 151,000 deaths due to violence (95% uncertainty range, 104,000 to 223,000) from March 2003 through June 2006.
135-504: The study was done by the "Iraq Family Health Survey Study Group", a collaborative effort of six organizations: the Federal Ministry of Health, Baghdad ; Kurdistan Ministry of Planning, Erbil ; Kurdistan Ministry of Health, Erbil; Central Organization for Statistics and Information Technology, Baghdad; World Health Organization Iraq office, Amman , Jordan; World Health Organization, Geneva . The Iraq Family Health Survey (IFHS)
270-710: A quill pen. The dates on the logo represent the founding of the components of The New England Journal of Medicine : 1812 for the New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery and Collateral Branches of Medical Science , 1823 for the Boston Medical Intelligencer , 1828 for the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal , and 1928 for the New England Journal of Medicine . Notable articles from the course of The New England Journal of Medicine 's history include: On April 25, 1996,
405-512: A November 9, 2006 International Herald Tribune article: "Each day we lost 100 persons, that means per month 3,000, per year it's 36,000, plus or minus 10 percent," al-Shemari said. "So by three years, 120,000, half year 20,000, that means 140,000, plus or minus 10 percent," he said, explaining how he came to the figures. "This includes all Iraqis killed — police, ordinary people, children," he said, adding that people who were kidnapped and later found dead were also included in his estimate. He said
540-587: A Persian compound of bagh ( [REDACTED] ) "god" and dād ( [REDACTED] ) "given". In Old Persian the first element can be traced to boghu and is related to Indo-Iranian bhag and Slavic bog "god." A similar term in Middle Persian is the name Mithradāt ( Mehrdad in New Persian ), known in English by its borrowed Hellenistic form Mithridates , meaning "Given by Mithra " ( dāt
675-659: A Shi'i adhān (call to prayer) was implemented in Baghdad and a khutbah (sermon) was delivered in the name of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph. Despite his Shi'i inclinations, Al-Basasiri received support from Sunnis and Shi'is alike, for whom opposition to the Saljuq power was a common factor. On 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu , a grandson of Chingiz Khan ( Genghis Khan ), during
810-535: A calculation would come out closer to 130,000 in total." The Washington Post reported: "As al-Shemari issued the startling new estimate, the head of the Baghdad central morgue said Thursday he was receiving as many as 60 violent death victims each day at his facility alone. Dr. Abdul-Razzaq al-Obaidi said those deaths did not include victims of violence whose bodies were taken to the city's many hospital morgues or those who were removed from attack scenes by relatives and quickly buried according to Muslim custom." From
945-782: A clan of the Oghuz Turks from Central Asia that converted to the Sunni branch of Islam. In 1040, they destroyed the Ghaznavids , taking over their land and in 1055, Tughril Beg , the leader of the Seljuks, took over Baghdad. The Seljuks expelled the Buyid dynasty of Shiites that had ruled for some time and took over power and control of Baghdad. They ruled as Sultans in the name of the Abbasid caliphs (they saw themselves as being part of
1080-522: A death, so that no one remains to tell the former inhabitants' story. Mortality estimates that are derived from surveying deaths of siblings were also calculated, but this method may also be subject to such underreporting. ... Under the current conditions in Iraq, it is difficult to envision a study that would not have substantial limitations. The circumstances that are required to produce high-quality public health statistics contrast starkly with those under which
1215-429: A dozen occasions at this time of year and has never exceeded 1 mm (0.04 in). Even at night, temperatures in summer are seldom below 24 °C (75 °F). Baghdad's record highest temperature of 51.8 °C (125.2 °F) was reached on 28 July 2020. The humidity is typically under 50% in summer due to Baghdad's distance from the marshy southern Iraq and the coasts of Persian Gulf , and dust storms from
1350-578: A majority of deaths were from violence. The morgue and graveyard data I have seen is more in keeping with our results. John Tirman wrote on (February 14, 2008) in Editor and Publisher : Yet another, a much larger house-to-house survey was conducted by the Iraq Ministry of Health (MoH). This also found a sizable mortality figure—400,000 "excess deaths" (the number above the pre-war death rate), but estimated 151,000 killed by violence. The period covered
1485-437: A new Provincial Council was elected. This system of 127 separate councils may seem overly cumbersome; however, Baghdad Province is home to approximately seven million people. At the lowest level, the neighborhood councils, each council represents an average of 75,000 people. The nine District Advisory Councils (DAC) are as follows: The nine districts are subdivided into 89 smaller neighborhoods which may make up sectors of any of
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#17327974635771620-479: A one-day refresher training session was conducted the day before the start of the survey in each governorate. Following interviewer training, the survey instruments and procedures were pilot tested in all governorates. The survey fieldwork was conducted during August and September 2006 in the 14 South/Centre governorates. In Anbar governorate, the fieldwork was conducted in October and November 2006, while fieldwork for
1755-401: A steady rate of violence from 2003-2006. Baghdad morgue data, Najaf burial data, and our data all show a dramatic increase over 2005 and 2006. ... It is likely that people would be unwilling to admit violent deaths to the study workers who were government employees. ... Finally, their data suggests one-sixth of deaths over the occupation through June 2006 were from violence. Our data suggests
1890-522: A way for the religious to perform ablutions as prescribed by Islam. Moreover, entry fees were usually so low that almost everyone could afford them. In the center of the city lay the mosque , as well as headquarters for guards. The purpose or use of the remaining space in the center is unknown. The circular design of the city was a direct reflection of the traditional Near Eastern urban design . The Sasanian city of Gur in Fars , built 500 years before Baghdad,
2025-504: Is also home to a large number of museums, most notably the National Museum. Being the capital of Iraq, it home to the country's government institutions and generates 44% of Iraq's economic output. The name Baghdad is pre-Islamic, and its origin is disputed. The site where the city of Baghdad developed has been populated for millennia. Archaeological evidence shows that the site of Baghdad was occupied by various peoples long before
2160-466: Is also home to the grave of Abu Hanifa where there is a cell and a mosque above it. The Sultan of Baghdad, Abu Said Bahadur Khan , was a Tatar king who embraced Islam. In its early years, the city was known as a deliberate reminder of an expression in the Qur'an , when it refers to Paradise . It took four years to build (764–768). Mansur assembled engineers, surveyors, and art constructionists from around
2295-424: Is associated with fire and symbolizes productivity, pride, and expansion and Leo's connection symbolically to Mithra. The bricks used to make the city were 18 in (460 mm) on all four sides. Abu Hanifah was the counter of the bricks and he developed a canal, which brought water to the work site for both human consumption and the manufacture of the bricks. Marble was also used to make buildings throughout
2430-404: Is home to numerous historic mosques , as well as a large number of churches, mandis and synagogues , highlighting the historical diversity of the city. Baghdad's urban space is defined by historic streets, avenues, alleyways and squares. The city is holds numerous, such as "City of Palaces", as its home to numerous palaces such as Abbasid Palace , Radwaniyah Palace and Al-Faw Palace . Baghdad
2565-670: Is known as the battle of Saddam City in March 1991. However, as the situations eased, the government began beautifying the city. Saddam built numerous palaces across the country, as well as in Baghdad. He also constructed several monuments in Baghdad. Many of them were built around war-torn period. Most of the palaces were built after the two wars. In 2003, the invasion of Iraq by the United States caused huge damage to Baghdad's transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure. The coalition forces launched massive aerial assaults in
2700-465: Is less complete.... John Tirman , who commissioned and directed the funding for the 2nd Lancet study , stated in a January 21, 2008 AlterNet article: a little digging would have revealed much more: The total deaths attributable to the war, nonviolent as well as violent, was about 400,000 for that period, now 19 months ago. If the same trends continued, that total today would be more than 600,000.... Interviewers identified themselves as employees of
2835-665: Is nearly identical in its general circular design, radiating avenues, and the government buildings and temples at the center of the city. Much earlier, circular cities had existed in the Syro-Mesopotamian heartland, one of the better-known examples being Mari , while Tell Chuera and Tell al-Rawda also provide examples of this type of urban planning existing in bronze age Syria . This style of urban planning contrasted with Ancient Greek and Roman urban planning, in which cities are designed as squares or rectangles with streets intersecting each other at right angles. Baghdad
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#17327974635772970-469: Is pronounced " a-ga-dè " ("Agade") and its resemblance to "Baghdad" is compelling. When the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur founded a completely new city for his capital, he chose the name "City of Peace" (Arabic: مدینة السلام , romanized: Madīnat as-Salām ), which now refers to the Round City of Baghdad proper. This was the official name on coins, weights, and other official usage, although
3105-423: Is run off a highway by a U.S. convoy, is that a "nonviolent" death? Les Roberts said Friday, January 10, 2008: The NEJM article found a doubling of mortality after the invasion, we found a 2.4-fold increase. Thus, we roughly agree on the number of excess deaths. The big difference is that we found almost all the increase from violence, they found one-third of the increase from violence.... They roughly found
3240-619: Is the more archaic form of dād , related to Sanskrit dāt , Latin dat and English donor ), ultimately borrowed from Persian Mehrdad . There are a number of other locations whose names are compounds of the Middle Persian word bagh , including Baghlan and Bagram in Afghanistan, Baghshan in Iran itself, and Baghdati in Georgia , which likely share the same etymological Iranic origins. Other authors have suggested older origins for
3375-577: Is the shrine town of Salman Pak , just to the south of Greater Baghdad which is where Salman the Persian is believed to have been buried. Ctesiphon itself had replaced and absorbed Seleucia , the first capital of the Seleucid Empire , which had earlier replaced the city of Babylon. According to the traveler Ibn Battuta , Baghdad was one of the largest cities, not including the damage it has received. The residents are mostly Hanbalis . Baghdad
3510-518: The Arabian Nights , are set in Baghdad during this period. It would surpass even Constantinople in prosperity and size. Among the notable features of Baghdad during this period were its exceptional libraries. Many of the Abbasid caliphs were patrons of learning and enjoyed collecting both ancient and contemporary literature. Although some of the princes of the previous Umayyad dynasty had begun to gather and translate Greek scientific literature,
3645-526: The Ingelfinger rule , the policy is intended to protect newsworthiness, and to subject research to peer review "before it is touted to the public or the profession". By 1991, four types of exceptions were recognized, including when "prepublication release of research conclusions is warranted because of immediate implications for the public health". The rule was first described in a 1969 editorial , "Definition of Sole Contribution", by Franz Ingelfinger ,
3780-489: The Iraqi health minister was Dr Salih al-Hasnawi . The previous Iraqi health minister, Ali al-Shemari , in early November 2006 estimated between 100,000 and 150,000 people had been killed since the March 2003 U.S.-led invasion. The Taipei Times reported on his methodology: "Al-Shemari said on Thursday [Nov. 9, 2006] that he based his figure on an estimate of 100 bodies per day brought to morgues and hospitals -- though such
3915-489: The Lancet study , is quoted as saying: They roughly found a steady rate of violence from 2003 to 2006. Baghdad morgue data, Najaf burial data, Pentagon attack data, and our data all show a dramatic increase over 2005 and 2006. On February 24, 2009 Morning Edition discussed what a Baghdad central morgue statistics office worker reported to them: the number of deaths the morgue registers never corresponds with numbers from
4050-520: The Ministry of Health or the Ministry of Interior . "They do it on purpose," he says. "I would go home and look at the news. The ministry would say 10 people got killed all over Iraq, while I had received in that day more than 50 dead bodies just in Baghdad. It's always been like that — they would say one thing but the reality was much worse." A July 2008 article in MedPage Today asserts that
4185-582: The Muslim world . This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom , as well as a multi-ethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning". For much of the Abbasid era, during the Islamic Golden Age , Baghdad was the largest city in the world, as the population peaked at more than one million people. The city
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4320-533: The NEJM announced a new web site, which published each week the abstracts for research articles and the full text of editorials, cases, and letters to the editor. After print publishing for 184 years this was the NEJM ' s first use of the Internet for electronic publication. The site was launched several months earlier in 1996, but the editors wanted proof that weekly electronic publication would work. Only then
4455-537: The NEJM published over the course of a year. He found that many arrived at conclusions which were not supported by the evidence presented, or ignored easily available evidence that contradicted their conclusions. In 2022, NEJM set up a new sub-journal, NEJM Evidence . NEJM Evidence is a monthly digital journal featuring original research. It focuses on clinical trials and decision making. The New England Journal of Medicine requires that articles it publishes have not been published or released elsewhere. Referred to as
4590-589: The National Museum of Iraq was looted by Iraqi citizens during the 2003 US-led invasion. Baghdad's historic Jewish Quarter came to decline, as the war increased fear among the Jews. Numerous Assyrian Christians and Iraqi Mandaean families fled the city. Thousands of ancient manuscripts in the National Library were destroyed. The city also hosts various protests and rallies. In December 2015, Baghdad
4725-664: The University of Maryland School of Public Policy in College Park , asserted that the Iraq Family Health Survey authors " acknowledge and attempt to correct for underreporting of deaths from nonviolent causes, but they make no allowance for the more serious underreporting of violence-related deaths to government-affiliated survey takers. " When the Iraq Family Health Survey was published in January 2008
4860-460: The editor-in-chief at that time. A number of medical journals have similar rules in place. In the early 2000s, The New England Journal of Medicine was involved in a controversy around problems with research on the drug Vioxx . A study was published in the journal in November 2000 which noted an increase in myocardial infarction amongst those taking Vioxx. According to Richard Smith ,
4995-435: The siege of Baghdad . Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim , and destroyed large sections of the city. The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed. During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies. The sack of Baghdad put an end to
5130-495: The 21st century, some 1.5 million people migrated to Baghdad. The 2013–2017 war following the Islamic State's invasion in 2014 caused hundreds of thousands of Iraqi internally displaced people to flee to the city. The vast majority of Baghdad's population are Iraqi Arabs . Minority ethnic groups include Feyli Kurds , Turkmen , Assyrian , Chaldean , Syriacs and Armenians. The historic "Assyrian Quarter" of
5265-696: The 35 member Baghdad Regional Council. The first step in the establishment of the system of local government for Baghdad Province was the election of the Baghdad Provincial Council. As before, the representatives to the Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils in numbers proportional to the population of the districts they represent. The 41 member Provincial Council took office in February 2004 and served until national elections held in January 2005, when
5400-515: The 925 violent deaths per day reported by Burnham et al. for June 2005 through June 2006, as many as 87% of violent deaths would have been missed in the IFHS and more than 90% in the Iraq Body Count. This level of underreporting is highly improbable, given the internal and external consistency of the data and the much larger sample size and quality-control measures taken in the implementation of
5535-802: The Abbasid Caliphate. It has been argued that this marked an end to the Islamic Golden Age and served a blow from which Islamic civilization never fully recovered. At this point, Baghdad was ruled by the Ilkhanate , a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, ruling from Iran. In August 1393, Baghdad was occupied by the Central Asian Turkic conqueror Timur ("Tamerlane"), by marching there in only eight days from Shiraz . Sultan Ahmad Jalayir fled to Syria, where
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5670-666: The Abbasid regime). Tughril Beg saw himself as the protector of the Abbasid Caliphs. Baghdad was captured in 1394 , 1534 , 1623 and 1638 . The city has been sieged in 812 , 865 , 946 , 1157 , 1258 and in 1393 and 1401, by Tamerlane . In 1058, Baghdad was captured by the Fatimids under the Turkish general Abu'l-Ḥārith Arslān al-Basasiri, an adherent of the Ismailis along with the 'Uqaylid Quraysh. Not long before
5805-470: The Abbasids were the first to foster Greek learning on a large scale. Many of these libraries were private collections intended only for the use of the owners and their immediate friends, but the libraries of the caliphs and other officials soon took on a public or a semi-public character. Four great libraries were established in Baghdad during this period. The earliest was that of the famous Al-Ma'mun , who
5940-520: The Arab conquest of Mesopotamia in 637 CE, and several ancient empires had capitals located in the surrounding area. Arab authors, realizing the pre-Islamic origins of Baghdad's name, generally looked for its roots in Middle Persian . They suggested various meanings, the most common of which was "bestowed by God". Modern scholars generally tend to favor this etymology, which views the word as
6075-552: The Author Accepted Manuscript that may be deposited in a noncommercial repository after publication. NEJM also has two podcast features, one with interviews of doctors and researchers that are publishing in the journal, and another summarizing the content of each issue. Other offerings include Continuing Medical Education, Videos in Clinical Medicine (showing videos of medical procedures), and
6210-640: The British during World War I . In the Mesopotamian campaign , Baghdad fell in hands of the British forces in 1917. In 1920, Baghdad became the capital of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia , with several architectural and planning projects commissioned to reinforce this administration. After receiving independence in 1932, the city became capital of the Kingdom of Iraq . During this period,
6345-429: The IFHS and more generally of the use of household surveys to estimate mortality in circumstances such as Iraq, saying: The sampling frame was based on a 2004 count, but the population has been changing rapidly and dramatically because of sectarian violence, the flight of refugees, and overall population migration. Another source of bias in household surveys is underreporting due to the dissolution of some households after
6480-558: The IFHS study group worked. Indeed, it must be mentioned that one of the authors of the survey was shot and killed on his way to work. Paul Spiegel, a medical epidemiologist at the United Nations High Commission on Refugees in Geneva, commented, "Overall, this is a very good study," adding that "this does seem more believable to me" than the earlier Lancet survey, which estimated 601,000 deaths from violence over
6615-581: The IFHS survey actually estimated 400,000 excess Iraqi deaths as a result of the invasion, with 151,000 being violence-related deaths (95% uncertainty range, 104,000 to 223,000) and 249,000 from non-violent causes (unknown uncertainty range). However, the Q&;A published on the IFHS by the World Health Organization states that it did not estimate excess deaths: Q: Does this estimate represent "excess" violent deaths -- those attributable to
6750-456: The IFHS." The article also notes that the IFHS and IBC are consistent with each other on both the distribution of violent deaths by province and on the trend in levels of violent deaths over time, while both sources are inconsistent with the results of the Burnham et al. survey on these issues. The IFHS also collected data on health issues beyond mortality. One such notable finding of the survey
6885-461: The Iraq Body Count project and about four times lower than a smaller-scale household survey conducted earlier in 2006," referring to the survey by Burnham et al. reported in the Lancet journal in October 2006. The NEJM article on the survey states that both the IFHS and the IBC "indicate that the 2006 study by Burnham et al. considerably overestimated the number of violent deaths. For example, to reach
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#17327974635777020-489: The Kurdistan region was conducted during February and March 2007. Overall, 407 personnel participated in the implementation of the survey, consisting of 100 central, local and field supervisors, 224 interviewers evenly split between males and females, and 83 central editors and data entry personnel. The survey had an original target sample size of 10,080 households. Interviewers visited 89.4% of 1086 household clusters during
7155-485: The Lancet survey or others associated with that survey. Some of these criticisms relate to an idea that respondents would have a fear of giving information about violence-related deaths to government interviewers who represented "one side of the conflict" and the reliance on Iraq Body Count 's data in dangerous areas (Anbar and Nineveh provinces and parts of Baghdad). In a January 11, 2008 article Les Roberts , co-author of
7290-543: The Mamluk Sultan Barquq protected him and killed Timur's envoys. Timur left the Sarbadar prince Khwaja Mas'ud to govern Baghdad, but he was driven out when Ahmad Jalayir returned. In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked, by Timur. When his forces took Baghdad, he spared almost no one, and ordered that each of his soldiers bring back two severed human heads. Baghdad became a provincial capital controlled by
7425-526: The Ministry of Health, then under the control of Shiite cleric Moktada al Sadr . Those interviewed, therefore, would be wary of saying a brother or son or husband had been killed by violence, fearing retribution. And, indeed, there are nonviolent categories in the survey that suggest just such equivocation: 'Unintentional injuries' would equal about 40 percent of the death-by-violence toll, for example. Road accidents were ten times their pre-war totals-if someone
7560-571: The MoH report showed a flat rate for killing throughout the war when every other account shows sharp increases through 2005 and 2006. The logical explanation for this discrepancy is that people responding to interviewers from the government, and a ministry controlled by Moktada al Sadr , would not want to admit that their loved one died by violence. There were, instead, very large numbers of dead by road accidents and "unintentional injuries." The American press completely missed this. Timothy R. Gulden, Ph.D., of
7695-654: The Mongol Jalayirid (1400–1411), Turkic Kara Koyunlu (1411–1469), Turkic Ak Koyunlu (1469–1508), and the Iranian Safavid (1508–1534) dynasties. In 1534, Baghdad was captured by the Ottoman Empire . Under the Ottomans , Baghdad continued into a period of decline , partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and Iranian Safavids , which did not accept the Sunni control of
7830-420: The U.S. controlled Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) began the process of creating new functions for these. The process initially focused on the election of neighborhood councils in the official neighborhoods, elected by neighborhood caucuses. The CPA convened a series of meetings in each neighborhood to explain local government, to describe the caucus election process and to encourage participants to spread
7965-403: The U.S. government, including NIH, to ensure that authors are able to meet their funders’ requirements for public access to research results. For research articles submitted before February 1, 2024, NEJM makes the full-text Version of Record available at NEJM.org six months after publication. For research articles submitted on or after February 1, 2024, NEJM will provide authors with a PDF file of
8100-672: The Western half known as " Karkh ". The land on which the city is built is almost entirely flat and low-lying, being of quaternary alluvial origin due to the periodic large floods which have occurred on the river. The Diyala River forms a tributary for the Tigris, at the southeast of the city and borders eastern suburbs. Baghdad is 529.8 kilometres (329.2 mi) southeast of Basra , 402.9 kilometres (250.4 mi) north of Mosul , 366.8 kilometres (227.9 mi) north of Erbil and 103.8 kilometres (64.5 mi) south of Karbala . Located to
8235-522: The arrival of the Saljuqs in Baghdad, al-Basasiri petitioned to the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir to support him in conquering Baghdad on the Ismaili Imam's behalf. It has recently come to light that the famed Fatimid da'i , al-Mu'ayyad al-Shirazi, had a direct role in supporting al-Basasiri and helped the general to succeed in taking Mawṣil , Wāsit and Kufa . Soon after, by December 1058,
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#17327974635778370-519: The article published in the Journal on November 23, 2000. It now appears, however, from a memorandum dated July 5, 2000, that was obtained by subpoena in the Vioxx litigation and made available to the Journal, that at least two of the authors knew about the three additional myocardial infarctions at least two weeks before the authors submitted the first of two revisions and 4 1/2 months before publication of
8505-652: The article." During the five-year period between publication and Expression of Concern, it has been estimated that Merck paid NEJM as much as US$ 836,000 for article reprints that Merck used for promotional purposes. The journal was publicly rebuked for its response to the research issues in editorials appearing in publications including the British Medical Journal and the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine . NEJM makes articles that meet
8640-428: The attempt to quell the violence. The Jews experienced further hardships. Between 1950 and 1951, Jews were targeted in series of bombings. According to Avi Shlaim , Israel was behind bombings, which is also believed by the majority of the Iraqis. The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950. A development plan for Greater Baghdad was planned during the reign of King Faisal II. However,
8775-401: The capital of the Islamic Empire under the Abbasids. The Muslim historian al-Tabari reported an ancient prediction by Christian monks that a lord named Miklas would one day build a spectacular city around the area of Baghdad. When al-Mansur heard the story, he became very joyful, for legend has it, he was called Miklas as a child. Mansur loved the site so much he is quoted saying: "This is indeed
8910-403: The central part of the building, there was a green dome that was 39m high. Surrounding the palace was an esplanade , a waterside building, in which only the caliph could come riding on horseback. In addition, the palace was near other mansions and officer's residences. Near the Gate of Syria, a building served as the home for the guards. It was made of brick and marble. The palace governor lived in
9045-427: The city has a small area at just 673 square kilometers (260 sq mi). Baghdad is the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo , and the second-largest city in West Asia after Tehran . Founded in 762 AD, Baghdad was established as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and became its most notable major development project. Within a short time, it evolved into a significant cultural and intellectual center of
9180-519: The city in 1967 and 1973 were delivered by the Polish planning office Miastoprojekt-Kraków, mediated by Polservice. Saddam International Airport was opened in 1982. However, the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money was diverted by Saddam Hussein to the army and thousands of residents were killed. Iran launched a number of missile attacks against Baghdad in retaliation for Iraqi Army's continuous bombardments of Tehran's residential districts. Between 1990 and 1991,
9315-455: The city in the war. After the invasion, the airport was renamed as Baghdad International Airport. Following the fall of Baghdad , the government lost its power. Saddam's statue was toppled at Firdos Square , which marked the overthrow of his regime. Also two minor riots took place in 2003, on 21 July and 2 October, caused some disturbance in the population. Religious and ethnic minorities such as Christians, Mandaeans and Jews began leaving
9450-401: The city is also home to Roma people , also traces their roots from India . The city was also home to a large Jewish community and regularly visited by Sikh pilgrims from India. New England Journal of Medicine The New England Journal of Medicine ( NEJM ) is a weekly medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society . Founded in 1812, the journal is among
9585-424: The city that I am to found, where I am to live, and where my descendants will reign afterward". The city's growth was helped by its excellent location, based on at least two factors: it had control over strategic and trading routes along the Tigris , and it had an abundance of water in a dry climate. Water exists on both the north and south ends of the city, allowing all households to have a plentiful supply, which
9720-470: The city walls, but the final construction added another ring inside the first. Within the city there were many parks, gardens, villas, and promenades. There was a large sanitation department, many fountains and public baths, and unlike contemporary European cities at the time, streets were frequently washed free of debris and trash. In fact, by the time of Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad had a few thousand hammams . These baths increased public hygiene and served as
9855-624: The city was impacted by the Gulf War. The multinational alliance targeted numerous sites in Baghdad, in the Gulf War air campaign . Baghdad was bombed during the Gulf War by the multinational alliance force . Shortly after the end of the war, civil unrest began in the city, during the 1991 uprisings. Sadr City , a Shia populated neighborhood, was sight of clashes between Shia rebels and the Ba'ath Forces Republican Guard led by Qusay Hussein , which
9990-607: The city — Dora , which boasted a population of 150,000 Assyrians in 2003, made up over 3% of the capital's Assyrian population then. The community has been subject to kidnappings , death threats , vandalism, and house burnings by al-Qaeda and other insurgent groups. As of the end of 2014, only 1,500 Assyrians remained in Dora. There is a significant community of Iraqi Turkmen , who live in Baghdad. Most of them live in Adhamiyah and Ragheba Khatun. The surrounding areas of
10125-433: The city's nine district councils. The number of neighborhood representatives on a district council is based upon the neighborhood's population. The next step was to have each of the nine district councils elect representatives from their membership to serve on the 37 member Baghdad City Council. This three tier system of local government connected the people of Baghdad to the central government through their representatives from
10260-543: The city's population was between 1.2 million and 2 million. Baghdad's early meteoric growth eventually slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate , including relocations of the capital to Samarra (during 808–819 and 836–892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks (1055–1135). The Seljuks were
10395-412: The city, and marble steps led down to the river's edge. The basic framework of the city consists of two large semicircles about 19 km (12 mi) in diameter. The inner city connecting them was designed as a circle about 2 km (1.2 mi) in diameter, leading it to be known as the "Round City". The original design shows a single ring of residential and commercial structures along the inside of
10530-553: The city, with fear of getting targeted in the attacks. As they were subjected of kidnapping, death threats and attacks. The Iraqi Film Archive building was also bombed by the coalition forces. The Iraq War took place from 2003 to 2011, but an Islamist insurgency lasted until 2013. It was followed by another war from 2013 to 2017 and a low-level insurgency from 2017, which included suicide bombings in January 2018 and January 2021 . Priceless collection of artifacts in
10665-464: The city. Between 1623 and 1638 , it returned to Iranian rule before falling back into Ottoman hands. Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague and cholera , and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out. The city became part of an eyalet and then a vilayet . For a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the Middle East. The city saw relative revival in
10800-413: The common people continued to use the old name. By the 11th century, Baghdad became almost the exclusive name for the world-renowned metropolis. Christophe Wall-Romana has suggested that al-Mansur's choice to found his "new city" at Baghdad because of its strategic location was the same criteria which influenced Sargon's choice to found the original city of Akkad in the exact same location. After
10935-560: The criteria for global and public health importance freely available to all readers upon publication at NEJM.org. NEJM also partners with Research4Life in their Access to Research in Health (Hinari) program to grant to low-income countries immediate free access to NEJM.org. NEJM does not charge authors any submission or publication fees. NEJM also works with authors whose articles report research supported by funding bodies with open access mandates, including (but not limited to) Plan S funders and
11070-493: The date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and Mashallah , a Jew from Khorasan , Iran . Within a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and commerce . The city flourished into an unrivaled intellectual center of science , medicine , philosophy , and education , especially with the Abbasid translation movement began under the second caliph Al-Mansur and thrived under
11205-414: The deserts to the west are a normal occurrence during the summer. Winter temperatures are typical of hot desert climates . From December through February, Baghdad has maximum temperatures averaging 16 to 19 °C (61 to 66 °F), though highs above 21 °C (70 °F) are not unheard of. Lows below freezing occur a couple of times per year on average. Annual rainfall, almost entirely confined to
11340-472: The directions of these destinations. The distance between these gates was a little less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi). Each gate had double doors that were made of iron; the doors were so heavy it took several men to open and close them. The wall itself was about 44 m thick at the base and about 12 m thick at the top. Also, the wall was 30 m high, which included merlons , a solid part of an embattled parapet usually pierced by embrasures . This wall
11475-410: The districts above. The following is a selection (rather than a complete list) of these neighborhoods: Baghdad's population was estimated at 7.22 million in 2015. The surrounding metropolian region's population is estimated to be 10,500,000. It is second largest city in the Arab world, after Cairo and fourth largest metropolitan area in the Middle East after Cairo and Tehran. At the beginning of
11610-530: The drug from market in September 2004. In December 2005, NEJM published an expression of concern about the original study following discovery that the authors knew more about certain adverse events than they disclosed at the time of publication. From the Expression of Concern: "Until the end of November 2005, we believed that these were late events that were not known to the authors in time to be included in
11745-588: The fall of the Umayyads , the first Muslim dynasty, the victorious Abbasid rulers wanted their own capital from which they could rule. They chose a site north of the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon , and on 30 July 762 the caliph Al-Mansur commissioned the construction of the city. It was built under the guidance of the Iranian Barmakids . Mansur believed that Baghdad was the perfect city to be
11880-416: The figures were compiled by counting bodies brought to "forensic institutes" or hospitals. From the November 11, 2006 Taipei Times article: An official with the ministry also confirmed the figure yesterday [Nov. 10, 2006], but later said that the estimated deaths ranged between 100,000 and 150,000. "The minister was misquoted. He said between 100,000-150,000 people were killed in three-and-a-half years,"
12015-504: The first issue of the New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery and the Collateral Branches of Medical Science was published in January 1812. The journal was published quarterly. In 1823, another publication, the Boston Medical Intelligencer , appeared under the editorship of Jerome V. C. Smith . The editors of the New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery and the Collateral Branches of Medical Science purchased
12150-485: The first significant mainstream visibility for a publication that would achieve enormous attention and prestige in the ensuing decades." The journal usually has the highest impact factor of the journals of internal medicine . According to the Journal Citation Reports , NEJM had a 2017 impact factor of 79.258, ranking it first of 153 journals in the category "General & Internal Medicine". It
12285-534: The formation of Mu'tazili theology, as well as Al-Tabari culminating in the scholarship on the Quranic exegesis . Baghdad is likely to have been the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation until the 930s, when it tied with Córdoba . Several estimates suggest that the city contained over a million inhabitants at its peak. Many of the One Thousand and One Nights tales, widely known as
12420-667: The former editor of the British Medical Journal , concerns about the correctness of that study were raised with the journal's editor, Jeff Drazen , as early as August 2001. That year, both the US Food and Drug Administration and the Journal of the American Medical Association also cast doubt on the validity of the data interpretation that had been published in the NEJM . Merck withdrew
12555-486: The gates would not be open at night for markets. Over time, the markets became diverse and a home to merchants and craftsmen. Officials with the title of “Muhtasib” were hired to look after markets to prevent cheating and check the weighs and measures of stocks. Baghdad eclipsed Ctesiphon, the capital of the Sassanians, which was located some 30 km (19 mi) to the southeast. Today, all that remains of Ctesiphon
12690-504: The governorate is divided into 9 municipalities, which have responsibility for local issues. Regional services, however, are coordinated and carried out by a mayor who oversees the municipalities. The governorate council is responsible for the governorate-wide policy. These official subdivisions of the city served as administrative centers for the delivery of municipal services but until 2003 had no political function. Beginning in April 2003,
12825-491: The growth balance method to derive an adjustment for reporting bias. This adjustment raised the violence-related death rate by roughly 50%, from 1.09 (95% CI, 0.81 to 1.50) to 1.67 (95% uncertainty range 1.24 to 2.30). The number of violent deaths derived from the household survey, plus the adjustments for missing clusters and reporting bias, was estimated to be 151,000 (95% uncertainty range, 104,000 to 223,000) from March 2003 through June 2006. This estimate suggests that violence
12960-406: The invasion to 4.92 deaths per 1000 people per year in the post-invasion period. This was not further addressed in this analysis, which focused on mortality due to violent deaths. Further analysis would be needed to calculate an estimate of the number of such deaths and to assess how large the mortality increase due to non-violent causes is, after taking into account that reporting of deaths longer ago
13095-458: The invasion? A: No. It is an estimate of how many violent deaths occurred between the March 2003 invasion and June 2006. The study did not measure whether or not those deaths would have occurred had there been no invasion. However, the mortality rates for 2002 and early 2003 showed that mortality due to violent causes was low before the invasion. The main NEJM article only briefly discusses its measured increase in non-violent mortality rates from
13230-479: The latter part of the 18th century, under Mamluk government. Direct Ottoman rule was reimposed by Ali Rıza Pasha in 1831. From 1851 to 1852 and from 1861 to 1867, Baghdad was governed, under the Ottoman Empire by Mehmed Namık Pasha . The Nuttall Encyclopedia reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000. Baghdad and southern Iraq remained under Ottoman rule until 1917, when they were captured by
13365-399: The latter part of the building and the commander of the guards in the front. In 813, after the death of caliph Al-Amin , the palace was no longer used as the home for the caliph and his family. The roundness points to the fact that it was based on Arabic script . The two designers who were hired by Al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht , a Zoroastrian who also determined that
13500-498: The missed clusters in Baghdad that are 4.0 times as high as the clusters visited by the survey in Baghdad. The same procedure in Anbar derived rates that are 1.7 times as high as clusters visited in Anbar. The IFHS also argues that underreporting is likely to be common in household surveys, particularly due to household dissolution after the death of a household member. On this basis the authors used several demographic assessments such as
13635-449: The most prestigious peer-reviewed medical journals. Its 2023 impact factor was 96.2, ranking it 2nd out of 168 journals in the category "Medicine, General & Internal". In September 1811, Boston physician John Collins Warren , along with James Jackson, submitted a formal prospectus to establish the New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery and Collateral Branches of Science as a medical and philosophical journal. Subsequently,
13770-575: The name, in particular the name Bagdadu or Hudadu that existed in Old Babylonian (spelled with a sign that can represent both bag and hu ), and the Jewish Babylonian Aramaic name of a place called Baghdatha ( בגדתא ). Some scholars suggested Aramaic derivations. Another view, suggested by Christophe Wall-Romana, is that name of "Baghdad" is derived from " Akkad ", as the cuneiform logogram for Akkad (𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠)
13905-552: The neighborhood, through the district, and up to the city council. The same process was used to provide representative councils for the other communities in Baghdad Province outside of the city itself. There, local councils were elected from 20 neighborhoods ( Nahia ) and these councils elected representatives from their members to serve on six district councils ( Qada ). As within the city, the district councils then elected representatives from among their members to serve on
14040-535: The official said. Baghdad Baghdad is the capital and largest city of Iraq . Situated on the Tigris , it is part of the Baghdad Governorate in the central region of Iraq . With a population variously estimated at 6 or over 7 million, Baghdad forms 22% of Iraq's total population . While its metropolitan area is home to over 10 million people. In comparison to its large population,
14175-485: The period from November through March, averages approximately 150 mm (5.91 in), but has been as high as 338 mm (13.31 in) and as low as 37 mm (1.46 in). On 11 January 2008, light snow fell across Baghdad for the first time in 100 years. Snowfall was again reported on 11 February 2020, with accumulations across the city. Administratively, Baghdad Governorate is divided into districts which are further divided into sub-districts . Municipally,
14310-543: The pre-invasion to post-invasion period: Overall mortality from nonviolent causes was about 60% higher in the post-invasion period than in the pre-invasion period. Although recall bias may contribute to the increase, since deaths before 2003 were less likely to be reported than more recent deaths, this finding warrants further analysis. The Q&A elaborates: Q: What happened to mortality due to causes other than violence? A: The non-violent mortality rate increased by about 60%, from 3.07 deaths per 1000 people per year before
14445-521: The project was ceased, when new the government came to power. On 14 July 1958, members of the Iraqi Army , under Abdul-Karim Qasim , staged a coup to topple the Kingdom of Iraq . King Faisal II , former Prime Minister Nuri al-Said , former Regent Prince Abd al-Ilah , members of the royal family, and others were brutally killed during the coup. Many of the victim's bodies were then dragged through
14580-545: The recognition of Iraq as an independent monarchy in 1932, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arab culture . It prospered during the early years of the Ba'athist regime . The city faced severe infrastructural damage due to the Iraq War , which began with the 2003 invasion of Iraq , resulting in a substantial loss of cultural heritage and historical artifacts . The city suffered by
14715-578: The resulting Anglo-Iraqi War and after Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and his government had fled, the Mayor of Baghdad surrendered to British and Commonwealth forces. On 1–2 June, during the ensuing power vacuum , Jewish residents were attacked following rumors they had aided the British. In what became known as the Farhud , over 180 Jews were killed, 1,000 injured and hundreds of Jewish properties were ransacked. Between 300 and 400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in
14850-546: The same period. Officials in the Iraqi government had differing reactions to the report. The Iraqi Health Minister Saleh al-Hasnawi described the survey as "very sound" and said the survey indicated "a massive death toll since the beginning of the conflict," and "I believe in these numbers". However, a senior official in the Iraq Health Ministry's inspector general's office cast doubt on the findings, saying 151,000
14985-497: The scholarship involved not only Arabs, but also Persians , Syriacs , Nestorians , Jews , Arab Christians , and people from other ethnic and religious groups native to the region. These are considered among the fundamental elements that contributed to the flourishing of scholarship in the Medieval Islamic world. Baghdad was also a significant center of Islamic religious learning, with Al-Jahiz contributing to
15120-420: The seventh caliph Al-Ma'mun . Baytul-Hikmah or the "House of Wisdom" was among the most well known academies, and had the largest selection of books in the world by the middle of the 9th century. Notable scholars based in Baghdad during this time include translator Hunayn ibn Ishaq , mathematician al-Khwarizmi , and philosopher Al-Kindi . Although Arabic was used as the international language of science,
15255-399: The south is Mahmoudiyah , serves as the gateway to Baghdad. Baghdad has a hot desert climate ( Köppen BWh ), featuring extremely hot, prolonged, dry summers and mild to cool, slightly wet, short winters. In the summer, from June through August, the average maximum temperature is as high as 44 °C (111 °F) and accompanied by sunshine. Rainfall has been recorded on fewer than half
15390-403: The streets of Baghdad. Baghdad was also site for opposition and coup attempts against Qasim's rule by Arab nationalists. During the 1970s, Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of petroleum , Iraq's main export. New infrastructure including modern sewerage, water, and highway facilities were built during this period. The masterplans of
15525-428: The study period and the household response rate was 96.2%. 115 clusters (10.6%) were not visited due to security problems. The IFHS argues that past mortality is likely to be higher in these missed clusters. Ratios derived from comparing their surveyed clusters to corresponding data from Iraq Body Count were used to impute elevated mortality rates to these missed clusters. Using this method, the IFHS derives death rates for
15660-457: The subsequent insurgency and renewed war . During this period, it had one of the highest rates of terrorist attacks in the world. However, terrorist attacks have gradually been on the decline since the territorial defeat of the Islamic State militant group in Iraq in 2017, and are very rare now. At present, Baghdad is attempting to rebuild its legacy, which was lost as a result of wars and conflicts. A major center of Islamic history , Baghdad
15795-402: The substantial Jewish community (probably exceeding 100,000 people) comprised between a quarter and a third of the city's population. On 1 April 1941, members of the " Golden Square " and Rashid Ali al-Gaylani staged a coup in Baghdad . Rashid Ali al-Gaylani installed a pro- German and pro- Italian government to replace the pro-British government of Regent Abd al-Ilah . On 31 May, after
15930-519: The weekly Intelligencer for $ 600 in 1828, merging the two publications to form the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal , and shifting from quarterly to weekly publication. In 1921, the Massachusetts Medical Society purchased the Journal for US$ 1 (equivalent to $ 17 in 2023) and, in 1928, renamed it to The New England Journal of Medicine . The journal's logo depicts the snake-wrapped Rod of Asclepius crossed over
16065-426: The word and bring friends, relatives and neighbors to subsequent meetings. Each neighborhood process ultimately ended with a final meeting where candidates for the new neighborhood councils identified themselves and asked their neighbors to vote for them. Once all 88 (later increased to 89) neighborhood councils were in place, each neighborhood council elected representatives from among their members to serve on one of
16200-412: The world to come together and draw up plans for the city. Over 100,000 construction workers came to survey the plans; many were distributed salaries to start the building of the city. July was chosen as the starting time because two astrologers , Naubakht Ahvazi , an Iranian Zoroastrian , and Mashallah , an Iranian Jew , believed that the city should be built under the sign of the lion , Leo . Leo
16335-420: Was a cross-sectional, nationally representative survey of 9345 households that was conducted by relevant federal and regional ministries in Iraq in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO). The sampling frame that was used in the southern and central provinces was derived from the 1997 Iraq census, which had been updated for the 2004 Iraq Living Conditions Survey. The sampling frame used in Kurdistan
16470-559: Was a hectic city during the day and had many attractions at night. There were cabarets and taverns, halls for backgammon and chess, live plays, concerts, and acrobats. On street corners, storytellers engaged crowds with tales such as those later told in Arabian Nights. Storytelling became a profession called " al-Qaskhun " which survived until the modern era. The four surrounding walls of Baghdad were named Kufa , Basra , Khurasan , and Syria ; named because their gates pointed in
16605-643: Was a leading cause of death for Iraqi adults and was the main cause of death in men between the ages of 15 and 59 during the reporting period. The results were also compared to the 2006 survey by Burnham et al. reported in the Lancet , and to the Iraq Body Count project (IBC). Naeema Al Gaseer, the WHO Representative to Iraq noted, "Our survey estimate is three times higher than the death toll detected through careful screening of media reports by
16740-442: Was an announcement approved for publication on the editorial page. In 1997, the website included prepublication releases of certain articles prior to their print publication. In 1998, online publication extended to include the full text of all its articles from 1993 forward. Since its launch, NEJM has added to its site: The George Polk Awards site noted that its 1977 award to The New England Journal of Medicine : "...provided
16875-555: Was based on information provided by the Statistical Offices in the region. Population estimates for Iraq for the survey period were projected by Iraq's Central Organization for Statistics and Information Technology (COSIT). Training of central and local supervisors from all 18 governorates was conducted in Amman, Jordan. Training of interviewers was done separately in each governorate for one week during May and June 2006 and
17010-457: Was caliph from 813 to 833. Another was established by Sabur ibn Ardashir in 991 or 993 for the literary men and scholars who frequented his academy. This second library was plundered and burned by the Seljuks only seventy years after it was established. This was a good example of the sort of library built up out of the needs and interests of a literary society. The last two were examples of madrasa or theological college libraries. The Nezamiyeh
17145-415: Was far too high because the numbers cited by the study were much larger than figures tracked by the ministry. On the other hand, Jalil Hadi al-Shimmari, who oversees the western Baghdad health department, said the 151,000 total seems roughly accurate but is probably a "modest" one and that "the real number might be bigger than this." Many criticisms leveled at the IFHS estimate have originated from authors of
17280-532: Was founded by the Persian Nizam al-Mulk , who was vizier of two early Seljuk sultans. It continued to operate even after the coming of the Mongols in 1258. The Mustansiriyah madrasa , which owned an exceedingly rich library, was founded by Al-Mustansir , the second last Abbasid caliph, who died in 1242. This would prove to be the last great library built by the caliphs of Baghdad. By the 10th century,
17415-530: Was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires, including the Ottoman Empire , which controlled Baghdad as the capital of the Baghdad Province . After the end of World War I, the city became the capital of the former British Mandate of Mesopotamia . With
17550-597: Was quite uncommon during this time. The city of Baghdad quickly became so large that it had to be divided into three judicial districts: Madinat al-Mansur (the Round City), al-Sharqiyya ( al-Karkh ) and Askar al-Mahdi (on the West Bank). Al-Mansur also planned out al-Karkh district so that he could separate the markets from the Round City in order to keep the turbulent populace away from the Round City to ensure that
17685-406: Was selected by UNESCO as the first Arab city of the center of literary creativity. The city attracted global media attention on 3 January 2020, when Iranian general Qasem Soleimani was assassinated in a U.S. drone strike near Baghdad Airport. The city is located on a vast plain bisected by the Tigris river. The Tigris splits Baghdad in half, with the eastern half being called " Risafa " and
17820-407: Was surrounded by another wall with a thickness of 50 m. The second wall had towers and rounded merlons, which surrounded the towers. This outer wall was protected by a solid glacis , which is made out of bricks and quicklime . Beyond the outer wall was a water-filled moat. The Golden Gate Palace, the residence of the caliph and his family, was in the heart of Baghdad, in the central square. In
17955-691: Was that a worryingly low 57% of the women surveyed said they had heard of AIDS, as compared with 84% of women in Turkey and Egypt, 91% in Morocco and 97% in Jordan. An accompanying commentary appeared in the editorial 'Perspectives' section of the New England Journal of Medicine issue that contained the study. The authors commend the IFHS study group for its attempt to capture the highest-quality results, but also discuss "substantial limitations" of
18090-541: Was the only journal in the category with an impact factor of more than 70. By comparison, the second and third ranked journals in the category ( The Lancet and JAMA ) had impact factors of 53.254 and 47.661 respectively. Theodore Dalrymple feels that this influence is unwarranted. In False Positive: A Year of Error, Omission, and Political Correctness in the New England Journal of Medicine , he examines various articles on medical and social issues that
18225-596: Was the same as the survey published in The Lancet , but was not released until January 2008. The ORB results were almost totally ignored in the American press, and the MoH numbers, which did get one-day play, were covered incompletely. Virtually no newspaper report dug into the data tables of the Iraqi MoH report, published in the New England Journal of Medicine, for that total excess mortality figure, or to ask why
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