80-554: (Redirected from Iraqi Civil War ) Iraqi civil war may refer to: Iraqi–Kurdish conflict (1918–2003), wars and rebellions by Iraqi Kurds against the government First Iraqi–Kurdish War (1961–70) Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–75) 1991 Iraqi uprisings , rebellions in Iraq during a ceasefire in the Gulf War Iraqi Kurdish Civil War (1994–97),
160-458: A neutral country , but Britain insisted that German engineers and technicians in Iran were spies with missions to sabotage British oil facilities in southwestern Iran. Britain demanded that Iran expel all German citizens, but Rezā Shāh refused, claiming this would adversely affect his development projects. Iran claimed to be a neutral country during the opening years of World War II. In April 1941,
240-624: A parliamentary constitutional monarchy where the Shah served as the head of state and the prime minister as its head of government. The National Consultative Assembly was the nation's unicameral parliament, from 1949 it became the lower house when the Senate was established as its upper house of the parliament. Under the Qajar dynasty the Persian character of Iran was not very explicit. Although
320-658: A conflict between rival Kurdish factions in Iraqi Kurdistan Iraqi conflict (2003–present) . See also: Iraq War (2003–11), a war that began with the U.S. invasion of Iraq Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011) Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011) Iraqi civil war (2006–2008), a civil war between Sunni and Shia militias including the Iraqi government and Al-Qaeda in Iraq (now known as ISIL) Islamic Army–Al-Qaeda conflict Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013) , an escalation of insurgent and sectarian violence after
400-650: A federal region in the Republic of Iraq, relations between Kurdistan Region and the Iraqi central government grew strained between 2011 and 2012 due to power-sharing issues and the export of oil. Following the failed Kurdish independence referendum in 2017, as well as the subsequent defeat of the Peshmerga at the hands of the Iraqi armed forces in the 2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict , Iraq has taken steps to weaken Kurdistan Region and expand its own authorities in order to shift
480-692: A guest of Anwar Sadat . On his death, his son Reza Pahlavi , who was formally invested as Crown Prince on 26 October 1967, succeeded him as head of the Pahlavi dynasty. Reza Pahlavi and his wife live in the United States in Potomac, Maryland , with three daughters. As of 2013, Reza Pahlavi established the National Council of Iran in Paris, which serves as a government in exile to reclaim
560-701: A military clash between the Iraqi forces and the Peshmerga resulted in one person killed. CNN reported that 2 people were killed (one of them an Iraqi soldier) and 10 wounded in clashes at the Tuz Khurmato town. On the night of November 19, it was reported that clashes between security forces of the central Iraqi government and the KRG forces in Tigrit left 12 Iraqi soldiers and one civilian dead, according to Doğan news agency. The clash erupted when Iraqi soldiers attempted to enter northern Iraq; Peshmergas tried to prevent
640-525: A result, the Barzanis retreated with much of their forces into Iranian Kurdistan , joining the local Kurdish elements in establishing the Republic of Mahabad . After the military coup by Abdul Karim Qasim in 1958, Mustafa Barzani was invited by new Iraqi President Qasim to return from exile, and was greeted with a "hero's welcome", as a former dissident to the now abolished Iraqi monarchy. As part of
720-547: A secession from Baghdad by September 2012. In September 2012, the Iraqi government ordered the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) to transfer its powers over Peshmerga to the central government and the relations strained further by the formation of a new command center (Tigris Operation Command) for Iraqi forces to operate in a disputed area over which both Baghdad and the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) claim jurisdiction. On 16 November 2012,
800-579: A series of wars, rebellions and disputes between the Kurds and the central authority of Iraq starting in the 20th century shortly after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I . Some put the marking point of the conflict beginning to the attempt by Mahmud Barzanji to establish an independent Kingdom of Kurdistan , while others relate to the conflict as only the post-1961 insurrection by
880-680: A vote of 79–12, who shortly after nationalized the British-owned oil industry (see Abadan Crisis ). Mossadegh was opposed by the Shah who feared a resulting oil embargo imposed by the West would leave Iran in economic ruin. The Shah fled Iran but returned when the United Kingdom and the United States staged a coup against Mossadegh in August 1953 (see 1953 Iranian coup d'état ). Mossadegh was then arrested by pro-Shah army forces. Following
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#1732765623570960-611: A week of fighting. The invasion's strategic purpose was to secure a supply line to the USSR (later named the Persian Corridor ), secure the oil fields and Abadan Refinery (of the UK-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company ), and limit German influence in Iran. Following the invasion, on 16 September 1941 Reza Shah abdicated and was replaced by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , his 21-year-old son. During
1040-587: A “federal region” with its own government and parliament within the Federal Republic of Iraq. The military occupation of Iraq ended in 2011. Following the withdrawal of occupational forces from Iraq, tensions between Iraqi Kurdistan and the central Iraqi government mounted through 2011–2012 on the issues of power sharing, oil and gas, and territorial control. In April 2012, the president of Iraq's semi-autonomous northern Kurdish region demanded that officials agree to their demands or face consequences of
1120-604: The 1979 Kurdish rebellion in Iran . Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq were forced displacement and cultural Arabization of minorities (Kurds, Yezidis, Assyrians , Shabaks, Armenians , Turkmen, Mandeans), in line with settler colonialist policies, led by the Ba'athist government of Iraq from 1960s to early 2000s, in order to shift the demographics of North Iraq towards Arab domination. The Baath party under Saddam Hussein engaged into active expulsion of minorities from
1200-673: The Allies reassured the Iranians that all foreign troops would leave by 2 March 1946. At the time, the Tudeh Party of Iran , a communist party that was already influential and had parliamentary representation, was becoming increasingly militant, especially in the North. This promoted actions from the side of the government, including attempts of the Iranian armed forces to restore order in
1280-709: The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran . After Reza Shah was deposed, he was succeeded by his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , who became the last Shah of Iran . By 1953, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's rule became more autocratic and firmly aligned with the Western Bloc during the Cold War in the aftermath of the 1953 Iranian coup d'état , which was engineered by the United Kingdom and the United States . In correspondence with this reorientation of Iran's foreign policy,
1360-592: The Imperial State of Persia until 1935, and commonly referred to as Pahlavi Iran , was the Iranian state under the rule of the Pahlavi dynasty . The Pahlavi dynasty was created in 1925 and lasted until 1979, when it was ousted as part of the Islamic Revolution , which ended Iran's continuous monarchy and established the current Islamic Republic of Iran . The Pahlavis came to power in 1925 with
1440-643: The Iran–Iraq War (see Gulf War ). Within 24 hours, the Emir of Kuwait had fled. However, subsequently, an international coalition force consisting of American , British , Saudi and other troops liberated the country in 1991 and Iraqi troops were forced out of Kuwait (see Operation Desert Storm ). Subsequently, one month after the Gulf War in February 1991, United States President George H. W. Bush called on
1520-620: The Iran–Iraq War , with the two Kurdish parties collaborating against Saddam Hussein , while receiving military support from the Islamic Republic of Iran. By 1986, the Iraqi government conducted a genocidal campaign known as Al-Anfal , to oust the Kurdish fighters and take revenge on the Kurdish population—an act often described as the Kurdish genocide , with an estimated 50,000–200,000 casualties. The Iran-Iraq war ended in 1988. In
1600-779: The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union , Iran's northern neighbor. The Soviets quickly allied themselves with the Allied countries and in July and August 1941 the British demanded that the Iranian government expel all Germans from Iran. Reza Shah refused to expel the Germans and on 25 August 1941, the British and Soviets launched a surprise invasion and Reza Shah's government quickly surrendered after less than
1680-565: The Patriotic Union of Kurdistan . The Peshmerga were trained into hardened guerrillas, who managed to infiltrate the Jash, a Saddam-orientated Kurdish militia (see Jash (term) and National Defense Battalions (Iraq) ). The rebels soon managed to capture the town of Ranya , Sulaimaniya and ultimately the oil center of Kirkuk . Saddam retaliated swiftly, battering Kirkuk with artillery and targeting hospitals in particular. Geographically
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#17327656235701760-645: The Supreme Court of Iraq , Kurdish authorities in Iraq expressed dissatisfaction at what they described as an evident shift of the political system in Iraq back towards centralism . The first chapter of the Iraqi–Kurdish dispute followed the end of World War I and the arrival of British forces. Mahmud Barzanji began secession attempts in 1919 and in 1922 proclaimed the short-lived Kingdom of Kurdistan . Though Mahmud's insurrections were defeated, another Kurdish sheikh, Ahmed Barzani , began to actively oppose
1840-708: The U.S.-led invasion . Beginning on 21 March 2003, U.S. forces launched Tomahawk missiles at selected Ansar al-Islam positions throughout the Sargat Valley. In preparation for the ground assault, nicknamed Operation Viking Hammer , American Lt. Col. Tovo divided his forces into six mixed peshmerga-Special Forces units. The peshmerga in two of these teams refused to contribute to the assault for various reasons including having lost too many personnel in previous fighting. The Peshmerga who did fight were once again armed with AK-47s, rocket-propelled grenades, and other assorted weapons. Despite their well-armed adversaries, during
1920-559: The disputed territories of northern Iraq and the right to export oil and gas, leading to occasional disputes and armed clashes. In September 2023, following a series of punitive measures by the central government in Iraq against KRI, Masrour Barzani sent a letter to the President of the United States expressing concerns about a possible collapse of Kurdistan Region, and calling for the United States to intervene. In March 2024, after several court rulings issued against Kurdistan Region by
2000-529: The " White Revolution ". But his socioeconomic advances increasingly irritated the clergy. Islamic leaders, particularly the exiled cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini , were able to focus this discontent with an ideology tied to Islamic principles that called for the overthrow of the Shah and the return to Islamic traditions, called the Islamic revolution . The Pahlavi regime collapsed following widespread uprisings in 1978 and 1979. The Islamic Revolution dissolved
2080-568: The 1974 war was an attempt for symmetric warfare against the Iraqi Army, which eventually led to the quick collapse of the Kurds, lacking advanced and heavy weaponry. The war ended with the exile of the Iraqi KDP and between 7,000 and 20,000 deaths on both sides. The PUK insurgency was a low-level militant campaign by the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) against the state of Iraq , after
2160-536: The Barzanis. Since the US-led invasion of Iraq and the subsequent adoption of federalism in 2005 and the recognition of the Kurdistan Region (KRI) as a federal region in the new Iraqi constitution , the number and scope of armed clashes between the central government of Iraq and the Kurds have decreased. In spite of that, however, there are still outstanding issues that continue to cause strife such as
2240-439: The Iraqi Army with British support, forcing the leaders of Barzan to go underground. Ahmed Barzani was later forced to flee to Turkey , where he was held in detention and then sent to exile in the south of Iraq . Although initially a tribal dispute, the involvement of the Iraqi government inadvertently led to the growth of Shaykh Ahmad and Mulla Mustafa Barzani as prominent Kurdish leaders. The 1943–1945 Kurdish revolt in Iraq
2320-645: The Iraqi people to stage an uprising against Saddam Hussein. This was followed by a series of rebellions in many parts of the country, such as the south by Shi'ite groups such as SCIRI and the Islamic Da'awa Party in what is known as the Sha’ban revolution . Meanwhile, the Kurds in the north staged their own uprising for autonomy, under the leadership of Massoud Barzani , leader of the Kurdistan Democratic Party , and Jalal Talabani , leader of
2400-478: The Iraqi soldiers from entering the area upon Barzani's instructions. There was no confirmation of the event. On November 25, it was reported that Iraqi Kurdistan sent reinforcements to a disputed area, where its troops are "involved in a standoff with the Iraqi army", despite calls on both sides for dialogue to calm the situation. Pahlavi Iran The Imperial State of Iran , officially known in English as
2480-697: The Northern provinces. While the Tudeh headquarters in Tehran were occupied and the Isfahan branch crushed, the Soviet troops present in the Northern parts of the country prevented the Iranian forces from entering. Thus, by November 1945 Azerbaijan had become an autonomous state helped by the Tudeh party. This pro-Soviet nominal-government fell by November 1946, after support from the United States for Iran to reclaim
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2560-762: The SAVAK and replaced it with the SAVAMA . It was run after the revolution, according to U.S. sources and Iranian exile sources in the US and in Paris, by Gen. Hossein Fardoust , who was deputy chief of SAVAK under Mohammad Reza's reign, and a friend from boyhood of the deposed monarch. Mohammad Reza fled the country, seeking medical treatment in Egypt , Mexico, the United States, and Panama, and finally resettled with his family in Egypt as
2640-495: The Shah faced growing public discontent that culminated into a full-fledged popular revolutionary movement led by religious cleric Ruhollah Khomeini . Mohammed Reza Pahlavi went into exile with his family in January 1979, sparking a series of events that quickly led to the end of monarchy, and the establishment of the Islamic Republic on 31 March 1979. Following Mohammed Reza Pahlavi's death in 1980, his son, Reza Pahlavi , now leads
2720-472: The U.S. withdrew War in Iraq (2013–2017) , a war between ISIL and the Iraqi government and allies 2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict , a short conflict between the Iraqi government and the autonomous Kurdish regional government See also [ edit ] Iraq War (disambiguation) Military history of Iraq List of wars involving Iraq Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
2800-922: The UK and the Soviet Union . Though many of his development projects required foreign technical expertise, he avoided awarding contracts to British and Soviet companies because of dissatisfaction during the Qajar Dynasty between Persia, the UK, and the Soviets. Although the UK, through its ownership of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company , controlled all of Iran's oil resources, Rezā Shāh preferred to obtain technical assistance from Germany, France, Italy and other European countries. This created problems for Iran after 1939, when Germany and Britain became enemies in World War II . Reza Shah proclaimed Iran as
2880-465: The aftermath of the Gulf War , in 1991, a series of uprisings happened in the north and south of the country. This, combined with the enforcing of the northern-southern no-fly zones by the United States, United Kingdom and France, and the subsequent withdrawal of the Iraqi armed forces from parts of northern Iraq, allowed the Kurds to regain control in the north by filling the vacuum. In the mid-1990s
2960-571: The ascension to the throne of Reza Shah , a former brigadier-general of the Persian Cossack Brigade , and the overthrow of Ahmad Shah Qajar , the last Iranian ruler under the Qajar dynasty . Iran's Majlis , convening as a constituent assembly on 12 December 1925, deposed the young Ahmad Shah Qajar and declared Reza Shah as the new shah of the Imperial State of Persia. In 1935, Reza Shah asked foreign delegates to use
3040-594: The attack, which was considered to be a part of the Al-Anfal Campaign , directed against Kurds by the government under the command of Ali Hassan al-Majid , head of the Northern Bureau of the Ba'ath Party . On 2 August 1990, Saddam launched a military invasion onto neighboring Kuwait , reportedly due to its vast oil reserves, which would have helped him pay off the debts he owed to other countries during
3120-457: The attempts to resolve the conflict by providing Kurds with recognized autonomy in northern Iraq, the negotiations failed in 1974, leading to resumed hostilities known as the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War , which resulted in the collapse of the Kurdish militias and the reconquest of northern Iraq by Iraqi government forces. As a result, Mustafa and most of the KDP leadership fled to Iran, while the nascent PUK , led by Jalal Talabani gained power in
3200-437: The central rule of the Mandatory Iraq during the 1920s. The first of the major Barzani revolts took place in 1931, after Barzani, one of the most prominent Kurdish tribal leaders, succeeded in defeating a number of other Kurdish tribes. He ultimately failed and took refuge in Turkey. The next serious Kurdish secession attempt was made by his younger brother Mustafa Barzani in 1943, but that revolt failed as well, resulting in
3280-512: The clergy, who opposed his reforms, but the middle and upper-middle class of Iran liked what Rezā Shāh did. In 1935, Rezā Shāh issued a decree asking foreign delegates to use the term Iran in formal correspondence, in accordance with the fact that " Persia " was a term used by Western people for the country called "Iran" in Persian. His successor, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, announced in 1959 that both Persia and Iran were acceptable and could be used interchangeably. Reza Shah tried to avoid involvement with
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3360-437: The conflict intensified as the Iran–Iraq War commenced. One of the groups targeted in particular by Iraqi authorities were the Feyli Kurds , a community of Shi'ite Kurds settled in the southern area of the Zagros Mountains near Iraq's border with Iran. Saddam Hussein considered the group as 'Iranians' and began a campaign to drive the settlers out of the area as a part of his ' Arabization ' policy in 1980., Saddam Hussein
3440-422: The conflict refers to the permanent separation of Kurdish-populated areas from Iraq, as opposed to retaining Iraqi unity within a federal state. It would change the long-term status which has existed in the country following the formation of the Kurdish autonomy in Northern Iraq in 1991 facilitated by the enforcement of the no-fly zones. Another solution that has been proposed is the "three-state solution", dividing
3520-460: The conflict. A Kurdish Autonomy agreement was reached in March 1970 by the Iraqi government and the Kurds , in the aftermath of the First Iraqi–Kurdish War , for the creation of an Autonomous Region, consisting of the three Kurdish governorates and other adjacent districts that have been determined by census to have a Kurdish majority. The plan also gave Kurds representation in government bodies, to be implemented in four years. For its time it
3600-432: The country became an ally of the United States in order to act as a bulwark against Soviet ideological expansionism , and this gave the Shah the political capital to enact a hitherto unprecedented socio-economic program that would transform all aspects of Iranian life through the White Revolution . Consequently, Iran experienced prodigious success in all indicators, including literacy, health, and standard of living. By 1978,
3680-472: The country into three independent states for its three major components: the Shia Arabs, the Sunni Arabs and the Kurds. The Iraqi Kurdish Civil War was a military conflict, which took place between rival Kurdish factions in the mid-1990s; that is, between the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Democratic Party. Over the course of the conflict, Kurdish factions from Iran and Turkey , as well as Iranian, Iraqi and Turkish forces were drawn into
3760-435: The country was referred to as Persia by westerners, and the dominant language in court and administration was Persian , the dichotomy between pure Persian and Turkic elements had remained obvious until 1925. The Pahlavi rule was instrumental in Iran's nationalisation in line with Persian culture and language which, among other ways, was achieved through the official ban on the use of minority languages such as Azerbaijani and
3840-416: The deal arranged between Qasim and Barzani, Qasim promised to give the Kurds regional autonomy in return for Barzani's support for his policies. Meanwhile, during 1959–60, Barzani became the head of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), which was granted legal status in 1960. First Iraqi–Kurdish War or Barzani Rebellion was a major event of the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict, lasting from 1961 to 1970. The struggle
3920-453: The defeat of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) in the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War , which forced the KDP organization to declare a ceasefire and move into exile. Due to lack of foreign support, however, the guerrillas were only able to operate in the highest regions of northern Iraq's mountains. The PUK also faced the KDP, the KDPI, led by Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou , and Iran supporting the Iraqis at various occasions. The insurgency dimmed with
4000-404: The endonym Iran instead of the exonym Persia when addressing the country in formal correspondence. Reza Shah, who proved unable to stop encroachments on Iranian sovereignty by the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union , the Allies of World War II , had his position extremely weakened by a military coup, and was formally removed from power in 1941 by parliament while he was in France following
4080-457: The exiled family throne. In 1925, Reza Khan, a former Brigadier-General of the Persian Cossack Brigade , deposed the Qajar dynasty and declared himself king ( shah ), adopting the dynastic name of Pahlavi , which recalls the Middle Persian language of the Sasanian Empire . He had chosen the last name Pahlavi for himself in November 1919. By the mid-1930s, Reza Shah's strong secular rule caused dissatisfaction among some groups, particularly
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#17327656235704160-489: The exiling of Mustafa to Iran, where he participated in an attempt to form the Kurdish Republic of Mahabad . In 1958, the younger Barzani and his fighters returned to Iraq from exile, and an attempt was made to negotiate Kurdish autonomy in the north with the new Iraqi administration of Gen. Abdul Karim Qassim . The negotiations ultimately failed and the First Iraqi–Kurdish War erupted on 11 September 1961, lasting until 1970 and resulting in 75,000–105,000 casualties. Despite
4240-409: The fighting, with additional involvement from the American forces. Between 3,000 and 5,000 fighters and civilians were killed throughout more than 3 years of warfare. Arriving in July 2002 to Iraqi Kurdistan, the CIA seldom worked with the Peshmerga, despite their claim to be on a counterterrorism mission against Ansar al-Islam. To the disappointment of PUK Peshmerga intent on destroying Ansar al-Islam,
4320-406: The former throne after a potential overthrow of the current Islamic Republic government. However, in February 2019, Pahlavi launched an initiative called the Phoenix Project of Iran. According to the National Interest, this is "designed to bring the various strains of the opposition closer to a common vision for a post-clerical Iran." The political system of the Imperial State of Iran took place in
4400-409: The founding of the Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great . The Shah's government suppressed its opponents with the help of Iran's security and intelligence secret police, SAVAK . Such opponents included leftists and Islamists. By the mid-1970s, relying on increased oil revenues, Mohammad Reza began a series of even more ambitious and bolder plans for the progress of his country and the march toward
4480-471: The independent Kingdom of Iraq in 1932, over his return from the underground. Shaykh Mahmud revolts are considered the first chapter of the modern Iraqi–Kurdish conflict. Ahmed Barzani revolt refers to the first of the major Barzani revolts, taking place in 1931 after Ahmed Barzani , one of the most prominent Kurdish leaders in Southern Kurdistan , succeeded in unifying a number of other Kurdish tribes. The Barzan forces were eventually overpowered by
4560-452: The internal conflict between the KDP and PUK erupted once again, resulting in a bloody civil war , with Iraq and Iran supporting both KDP and PUK respectively. The conflict ended in 1997, with the signing of the Washington Agreement. Another critical event was the invasion of Iraq in 2003, which resulted in the toppling of the Ba'athist regime and the adoption of federalism . Despite the constitutional recognition of Kurdistan Region as
4640-409: The latter’s loss in the Gulf War , one in the north and one in the south. This gave the Kurds de-facto autonomy in the north for the first time, and the Shias in the south a sense of security after they had taken part in their own uprising against Saddam, which is referred to as the Sha'ban revolution . The no-fly zones effectively ended with the start of the Iraq war . The "two-state solution" for
4720-406: The mid-1970s onwards. The campaigns took place during the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict, being largely motivated by the Kurdish-Arab ethnic and political conflict. The policies are sometimes referred as "internal colonialism", described by Francis Kofi Abiew as a "Colonial 'Arabization'" program, including large-scale Kurdish deportations and forced Arab settlement in the region. Between 1980 and 1988,
4800-402: The new Iraqi government following general elections. In 2004, UN Resolution 1546 stipulated the installation of an interim Iraqi government which succeeded the CPA. In 2005 following months of deliberation and discussions represented by different components of the Iraqi population, the new constitution was issued and voted into effect. The new Iraqi constitution recognized the Kurdistan Region as
4880-430: The oil concessions were later revoked. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi replaced his father on the throne on 16 September 1941. He wanted to continue the reform policies of his father, but a contest for control of the government soon erupted between him and an older professional politician, the nationalistic Mohammad Mosaddegh . In 1951, the Majlis (the Parliament of Iran ) named Mohammad Mossadegh as new prime minister by
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#17327656235704960-419: The operation only 24 Peshmerga were killed in the fighting, compared the opposite body count of over 300. The invasion of Iraq in 2003 saw a full military occupation of the country and the toppling of the Ba'athist regime and the installation of a temporary Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) tasked with administering the country until the issuance of the new constitution as well as the establishment of
5040-441: The overthrow of Mossadegh, Iran became steadfastly geopolitically aligned with the United States. During the presidential term of John F. Kennedy , the United States saw Iran as an important ally in the region due to perceiving it as a rare source of stability in the Middle East. On 12–16 October 1971, an elaborate set of celebrations and festivities for the 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire occurred in commemoration of
5120-402: The planned simultaneous attack from north and south. Special Operations forces from the CIA and US Army managed to build and lead the Kurdish Peshmerga into an effective force and assault for the North. On March 20, 2003, at approximately 02:30 UTC or about 90 minutes after the lapse of the 48-hour deadline, at 05:33 local time, explosions were heard in Baghdad, signaling the beginning of
5200-433: The political dynamics of the country back towards a centralised political system , the one it had before the invasion. Mahmud Barzanji revolts were a series of armed uprisings against the British forces in the newly conquered Mesopotamia and later the British Mandate in Iraq . Following his first insurrection in May 1919, Sheykh Mahmud was imprisoned and eventually exiled to India for a one-year period. When he returned he
5280-493: The regions that declared themselves autonomous. At the end of the war, Soviet troops remained in Iran and established two puppet states in north-western Iran, namely the People's Government of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Mahabad . This led to the Iran crisis of 1946 , one of the first confrontations of the Cold War , which ended after oil concessions were promised to the USSR and Soviet forces withdrew from Iran proper in May 1946. The two puppet states were soon overthrown and
5360-457: The rest of World War II, Iran became a major conduit for British and American aid to the Soviet Union and an avenue through which over 120,000 Polish refugees and Polish Armed Forces fled the Axis advance. At the 1943 Tehran Conference , the Allied "Big Three"— Joseph Stalin , Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Winston Churchill —issued the Tehran Declaration to guarantee the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. On 13 September 1943
5440-555: The southern deserts of Iraq, where they were tortured. Subsequently, the remains of 512 Barzani men were discovered in a mass grave. On March 16, 1988, Iraqi troops began shelling the Kurdish town of Halabja , in retaliation for an attack on Iraqi positions carried out by Iranian Revolutionary Guards and the aligned Peshmerga fighters. Subsequently, the town was attacked with a mix of chemical substances such as VX (nerve agent) , sarin and mustard gas (see Halabja chemical attack ). Over 5,000 people are believed to have been killed in
5520-499: The successful suppression of separatist movements. Reza Shah is credited for the reunification of Iran under a powerful central government. The use of minority languages in schools and newspapers was not tolerated. The succeeding regime – the Islamic Republic of Iran – has adopted a more inclusive approach in relation to the use of ethnic minorities and their language, however the issues as to Azeris , Iran's largest ethnic minority, remain and pose considerable challenges for
5600-2971: The title Iraq civil war . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iraq_civil_war&oldid=1228767499 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Civil wars in Iraq Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish conflict [REDACTED] Kingdom of Kurdistan (1922–1924) [REDACTED] KDP [REDACTED] PUK [REDACTED] ICP [REDACTED] INC [REDACTED] Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq Supported by: [REDACTED] Israel (1961–1970) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Iran (before 1988) [REDACTED] Syria (1980–1988) [REDACTED] Iraqi Kurdistan Enforcing No-Fly Zone per UNSC Resolution 688 : [REDACTED] Mandatory Iraq Supported by: [REDACTED] United Kingdom (1922–1924) [REDACTED] Kingdom of Iraq [REDACTED] Iraqi Republic [REDACTED] Ba'athist Iraq [REDACTED] Mahmud Barzanji Ahmed Barzani [REDACTED] Mustafa Barzani [REDACTED] Idris Barzani [REDACTED] Masoud Barzani [REDACTED] Babakir Zebari [REDACTED] Mahmoud Ezidi † [REDACTED] Jalal Talabani [REDACTED] Ibrahim Ahmad [REDACTED] Ali Askari † [REDACTED] Nawshirwan Mustafa [REDACTED] Kosrat Rasul Ali [REDACTED] Mama Risha † Uthman Abd-Asis Ahmed Chalabi [REDACTED] Aziz Muhammad [REDACTED] Mohsen Rezaee [REDACTED] Ali Sayad Shirazi [REDACTED] Abdul Aziz al-Hakim [REDACTED] Faisal I of Iraq [REDACTED] Faisal II of Iraq [REDACTED] Abd al-Karim Qasim [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Abdul Salam Arif [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Abdul Rahman Arif [REDACTED] Tahir Yahya [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr † [REDACTED] Saddam Hussein [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Ali Hassan al-Majid [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Taha Yassin Ramadan [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri [REDACTED] Tariq Aziz [REDACTED] Saddam Kamel [REDACTED] Qusay Hussein † KDP : 15,000–20,000 (1962) 6,000 (1970) 50,000-60,000 (1974) KDP & PUK : 5,000 (1980) 100,000 (1991) [REDACTED] Iraqi Armed Forces 48,000 (1969) 90,000 (1974) 180,000 (1978) 300,000 (1980) 1,000,000 (1988) 382,500 (1992) Main phase Later phase The Iraqi–Kurdish conflict consists of
5680-478: The towns captured by the Kurdish rebels were difficult to defend as they sat on plains below mountains. The rebels were forced to retreat in the mountains, where reportedly the Iraqi helicopters threw flour on them (which was believed to be a grim legacy of the reputed powdery chemical weapons which were used by the Iraqi administration during the Al-Anfal Campaign ). In August 1991, the United States, United Kingdom and France enforced two no-fly zones in Iraq after
5760-563: The true mission of the CIA was to acquire intelligence about the Iraqi government and military. CIA-Peshmerga operations eventually went beyond the scope of intelligence gathering however, as PUK Peshmerga were used to destroy key rail lines and buildings prior to the U.S. attack in March 2003. Following Turkey 's decision to deny any official use of its territory, the Coalition was forced to modify
5840-563: The unity and territorial integrity of Iran . The rulers of the Imperial State of Iran – Reza Shah Pahlavi and his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi – employed secret police, torture, and executions to stifle political dissent. The Pahlavi dynasty has sometimes been described as an "Imperial dictatorship" or "one-man rule". . Additionally, the country enjoyed a brief interlude of democracy from 1941 to 1953. Manouchehr Ganji led an anti-corruption study group which submitted at least 30 reports in 13 years detailing corruption of high-ranking officials and
5920-413: The vacuum, and lead an insurgency campaign against the central Iraqi government, which eventually also failed. During the period between 1976 and 1977, intra-Kurdish conflict climaxed with KDP and PUK both dealing blows against each other in a string of tit for that raids. The most notable Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq happened in the late 1970s. The conflict re-emerged as part of
6000-496: The war reached Iran's borders when Rashid Ali , with assistance from Germany and Italy , launched the 1941 Iraqi coup d'état , sparking the Anglo-Iraqi War of May 1941. Germany and Italy quickly sent the pro-Axis forces in Iraq military aid from Syria but during the period from May to July the British and their allies defeated the pro-Axis forces in Iraq and later Syria and Lebanon . In June 1941, Nazi Germany broke
6080-513: Was a Kurdish nationalistic insurrection in the Kingdom of Iraq, during World War II. The revolt was led by Mustafa Barzani and later joined by his older brother Ahmed Barzani, the leader of the previous Kurdish revolt in the Kingdom of Iraq . The revolt, initiating in 1943, was eventually put down by Iraqi military assault in late 1945, combined with the defection of a number of Kurdish tribes. As
6160-403: Was led by Mustafa Barzani in an attempt to establish an independent Kurdish state in northern Iraq. Throughout the 1960s the uprising escalated into a long war, which failed to resolve despite internal power changes in Iraq. The war ended with a stalemate by 1970, resulting in between 75,000 to 105,000 casualties. A series of Iraqi–Kurdish negotiations followed the war in an attempt to resolve
6240-437: Was once again appointed a governor, but shortly afterwards revolted again and declared himself the ruler of the Kingdom of Kurdistan . The Kingdom of Kurdistan lasted from September 1922 – 1924. With British forces greatly exceeding his in ammunition and training, Barzanji was finally subdued and the region reverted to central British Iraqi rule in 1924. Sheykh Mahmud retreated into the mountains, and eventually reached terms with
6320-553: Was severely critical of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) as they aligned forces with Iran in the conflict. In 1983, to avenge this liaison, he ordered the Army to abduct as many as 8,000 men and boys from Erbil province, where the clan of Barzani Kurds was based. Massoud Barzani , the leader of the clan and the KDP, himself lost 37 members of his family to the Iraqi troops. They were reported to having been sent to Nugra Salman prison in
6400-475: Was the most serious attempt to resolve the long-running conflict. Second Iraqi–Kurdish War was an offensive, led by Iraqi forces against rebel KDP troops of Mustafa Barzani during 1974–75. The war came in the aftermath of the First Iraqi–Kurdish War (1961–70), as the 1970 peace plan for Kurdish autonomy had failed to be implemented by 1974. Unlike the previous guerilla campaign, waged by Barzani,
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