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92-734: Early pioneers in Islamic archaeology included Eduard Glaser and Alois Musil . Khaled al-Asaad was principal custodian of the Palmyra site from 1963, overseeing its elevation to a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Some of the earliest areas investigated in Saudi Arabia include Al Faw Village and Madain Saleh . Jodi Magness has covered the archaeology of early Islamic settlement in Palestine . The Museum of Islamic Archaeology and Art of Iran

184-423: A German princess, Margaret of Babenberg , and became duke of Austria . He thereby acquired Upper Austria , Lower Austria , and part of Styria . He conquered the rest of Styria, most of Carinthia , and parts of Carniola . He was called "the king of iron and gold" (iron because of his conquests, gold because of his wealth). He campaigned as far as Prussia , where he defeated the pagan natives and in 1256, founded

276-528: A Muslim with the assumed name of Faqih Hussein bin Abdallah el Biraki Essajah , meaning, "the scholar Hussein bin Abdallah from Prague." Eduard Glaser was born in the Bohemian village of Deutsch Rust on 15 March 1855, into a Jewish merchant family. He moved to Prague at the age of sixteen. In order to earn his livelihood, he began working as a private tutor in the home of an aristocratic family while, at

368-799: A city he named Královec in Czech, which later became Königsberg (now Kaliningrad ). In 1260, Ottokar defeated Béla IV , king of Hungary in the Battle of Kressenbrunn near the Morava river, where more than 200,000 men clashed. He ruled an area from Austria to the Adriatic Sea . From 1273, however, Habsburg king Rudolf began to reassert imperial authority, checking Ottokar's power. He also had problems with rebellious nobility in Bohemia. All of Ottokar's German possessions were lost in 1276, and in 1278 he

460-709: A dam at Marib with the aim of increasing the number of inhabitants in the east, as also the intent of strengthening the Sublime Porte 's presence in Yemen. Both sides benefited from his closeness to the military and administrative power in the Ottoman controlled regions. Disguised as a Turkish official, Glaser accompanied the governor Yazeed Pasha in his battles in the districts of Hashid and Arhab . Yazeed Pasha supported Glaser, both in his procurement of supplies and equipment, as well as with financial aid. Their relationship

552-566: A few decades, especially in agriculture and crafts. In Silesia it had doubled (16% of the total area) by the beginning of the 11th century, 30% in the 16th century and the highest increase rates in the 14th century, the total area of arable land increased seven – to twentyfold in many Silesian regions during the Ostsiedlung . They settled mostly the hills and mountains and started the mine works and high qualities industry such as metal works, weapon industry and beer making. Forest glass production

644-651: A gift, Glaser was compelled to shorten his stay in Yemen. From 1895, until his death, Glaser lived in Munich. He dedicated most of his time preparing his scientific material for publications. The Turkish government was interested in Glaser's comments on Arabia, even many years after he had left the region, while in 1907 Glaser was asked by the museum in Constantinople to help in cataloguing their collection of Sabaean inscriptions. After his death Müller made sure that

736-569: A great portion of Glaser's scientific legacy would be purchased by the Academy of Sciences in Vienna ( Akademie der Wissenschaften ). The collection is known by the name of Der Corpus Glaserianum or Sammlung Eduard Glaser (SEG), 1944–1961. A small portion of Eduard Glaser's manuscript collection was purchased by Dropsie College in Philadelphia in 1923 (later becoming part of the archives of

828-628: A major role in the industrial development of the Czech Kingdom. In the late 12th and in the 13th century the Přemyslid rulers promoted the colonisation of certain areas of their lands by German settlers from the adjacent lands of Bavaria, Franconia, Upper Saxony and Austria during the Ostsiedlung migration. The new settlers not only brought their customs and language with them, but also new technical skills and equipment that were adapted within

920-515: A more radical sect, soon formed, taking their name from the town of Tábor , their stronghold in southern Bohemia. They rejected church doctrine and upheld the Bible as the sole authority in all matters of belief. Soon after Hus assumed office, German professors of theology demanded the condemnation of Wycliffe's writings. Hus protested, receiving the support of the Czech element at the university. Having only one vote in policy decisions against three for

1012-648: A new strategy. He proposed to give to the museums and archives certain items from his collections of manuscripts, diaries and imprints of the Sabaean inscriptions, including his ethnographic material, in order to "pay back" the investment and expenditures of his last trip, as also to generate funds for his future journey to Yemen. Glaser's collections enriched European archives and museums in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna. The compensation, however, did not amount to much. Although it had covered his expenses, what money remained

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1104-491: A permit enabling him to travel in Yemen, the French doubted whether he would ever deliver the promised inscriptions, and, so, eventually, they cut off their financial support to him in 1883. During this most troubling time, he wrote to Kaiser Franz Josef I , describing the importance of his mission and mentioning his financial hardships. The Kaiser allotted him out of his own personal fund the humble sum of 800 dollars. Despite such

1196-559: A result of that isolation, and was forced to find support by his brothers, sisters-in-law and friends. At the present time only about half of Glaser's inscriptions have been published, and only a small portion of his diaries (now at the National Library in Vienna) and his scientific findings have been studied. Presumably, one of the reasons for this delay is that they were written in short-hand. An account of Glaser's trip to Marib

1288-484: Is buried in that city’s Old Jewish Cemetery (Alter Jüdischer Friedhof). his eulogists at his funeral were the professors, Fritz Hommel and Siegfried Lichtenstädter  [ de ] . Hommel's eulogy was: "Oh scientists, your knight has fallen! The one who regarded science as a sacred goal has fallen! He was the noble, the hero amongst scholars! In the science book of Munich, his name would be markedly missing!" Prof. Lichtenstädter's eulogy over Glaser's grave contained

1380-474: The Ostsiedlung , often encouraged by the Přemyslid kings. The Germans populated towns and mining districts on the Bohemian periphery and in some cases formed German colonies in the interior of the Czech lands. Stříbro, Kutná Hora , Německý Brod (present-day Havlíčkův Brod ), and Jihlava were important German settlements. The Germans brought their own code of law – the ius teutonicum – which formed

1472-573: The Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres in Paris enabled him to travel to Yemen in 1882. The condition of his French sponsors was that they would receive the results of his findings, especially the inscriptions that he had been so fortunate to have copied down. On 11 October 1882, he arrived at the port of Hodeida (Yemen). Since Glaser had to wait for many months in Sana'a before he could receive

1564-785: The Al-Qasimi Professor of African and Islamic Archaeology at the University of Exeter , Timothy Insoll , has directed the Centre for Islamic Archaeology. Insoll is on the editorial board of the Journal of Islamic Archaeology . The oldest extant Islamic monument is The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem which contains some of the earliest extant qurānic text, dated to 692CE. They vary from today's standard text (mainly changes from

1656-651: The Babri Masjid mosque. Eduard Glaser Eduard Glaser (15 March 1855 – 7 May 1908) was an Austrian Arabist and archaeologist. He was one of the first Europeans to explore South Arabia . He collected thousands of inscriptions in Yemen that are today held by the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna , Austria. Of the travellers to the Orient in the 19th century, Eduard Glaser is considered

1748-697: The Crown of Bohemia ( Koruna česká ), together with the incorporated provinces: at times were incorporated into the Kingdom of Bohemia these provinces: The modern Czech Republic (Czechia) is the legal successor of the Crown of Bohemia, as stated in the preamble to its Constitution. Prior to 1833, Bohemia was divided into seven to sixteen district units, known in Czech as Kraje ( sg. Kraj ) and in German as Kreise ( sg. Kreis ). These included

1840-641: The Czechoslovak Republic . The current Czech Republic consisting of Bohemia, Moravia and Czech Silesia still uses most of the symbols of the Kingdom of Bohemia: a two-tailed lion in its coat-of-arms, red-white stripes in the state flag and the royal castle as the president's office. Bohemia was among the first countries in Europe to become industrialized. Mining of tin and silver began in Ore mountains in early 12th century. The German hospes had

1932-483: The Herbert D. Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies at the University of Pennsylvania ). The legacy left by Glaser from Yemen alone amounts to some 990 copies and imprints (" squeeze " copying method, in which a paper-mâché impression is used in making copies of bas-relief) of Sabaean inscriptions, 17 volumes of diaries and 24 manuscripts. The Sabaean inscriptions were deciphered by Hayyim Habshush for Glaser, which

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2024-521: The Turks . States would have one vote each, with a leading role for France. George did not see a specific role for Papal authority. Czech Catholic nobles joined in the League of Zelená Hora in 1465, challenging the authority of George of Poděbrady; the next year, Pope Paul II excommunicated George. The Bohemian War (1468-1478) pitted Bohemia against Matthias Corvinus and Frederick III of Habsburg , and

2116-727: The Winter King , and the Thirty Years' War . Their defeat at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 put an end to the Bohemian autonomy movement. In 1740 the Prussian Army conquered Bohemian Silesia in the Silesian Wars and forced Maria Theresa in 1742 to cede the majority of Silesia, except the southernmost area with the duchies of Cieszyn, Krnov and Opava, to Prussia . In 1756 Prussian King Frederick II faced an enemy coalition led by Austria, when Maria Theresa

2208-512: The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Bohemian kingdom was incorporated into the now two years old Austrian Empire and the royal title retained alongside the title of Austrian Emperor . In the course of the 1867 Austro-Hungarian Compromise the provinces of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia became k. k. crown lands of Cisleithania . The Bohemian Kingdom officially ceased to exist in 1918 by transformation into

2300-521: The ʿĀd who built monuments and strongholds at every high point and their fate evident from the remains of their dwellings. A political dispute in the Uttar Pradesh city of Ayodhya , as noted by academic, K. K. Muhammed , has revolved around archaeological Issues: whether an archaeological plot , believed the temple birthplace of the Hindu deity Rama , was demolished or modified to create

2392-557: The Arabian peninsula and are considered taboo in Mecca ( The Noble ) and Medina ( The Enlightened City ). There is no architecture from the time of Mohammed in either city and the battlefields of the Quran have not been unearthed. Known settlements from the time, such as Khaybar , remain uninvestigated. Archaeologial evidence for Quranic narratives yet to be uncovered include that for

2484-641: The Bohemian Crown ) was frequently subjected to raids by the Ottoman Empire and its vassals (especially the Tatars and Transylvania ). Overall, hundreds of thousands were enslaved whilst tens of thousands were killed. The incorporation of Bohemia into the Habsburg monarchy against the resistance of the local Protestant nobility sparked the 1618 Defenestration of Prague , the brief reign of

2576-688: The Bohemian and the Hungarian kingdom were held in personal union . Not considered an Imperial State , the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were not part of the Imperial Circles established by the 1500 Imperial Reform . In 1526 Vladislav's son, King Louis , was decisively defeated by the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Mohács and subsequently died. As a result, the Turks conquered part of

2668-658: The Bohemian crown went to his son, Wenceslas IV . He had also been elected King of the Romans in 1376, in the first election since his father's Golden Bull. He was deposed from the Imperial throne in 1400, however, having never been crowned Emperor. His half-brother, Sigismund , was eventually crowned Emperor in Rome in 1433, ruling until 1437, and he was the last male member of the House of Luxemburg. The Hussite movement (1402–85)

2760-524: The Bohemian estates elected Albert of Austria as his successor. Albert died and his son, Ladislaus the Posthumous – so called because he was born after his father's death – was acknowledged as king. During Ladislaus' minority, Bohemia was ruled by a regency composed of moderate reform nobles who were Utraquists. Internal dissension among the Czechs provided the primary challenge to the regency. A part of

2852-633: The Catholic Church. He advocated the Wycliffe doctrine of clerical purity and poverty, and insisted on the laity receiving communion under both kinds, bread and wine. (The Catholic Church in practice reserved the cup, or wine, for the clergy.) The more moderate followers of Hus, the Utraquists , took their name from the Latin sub utraque specie , meaning "under each kind". The Taborites ,

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2944-623: The Czech nobility remained Catholic and loyal to the pope. A Utraquist delegation to the Council of Basel in 1433 had negotiated a seeming reconciliation with the Catholic Church. The Compacts of Basel accepted the basic tenets of Hussitism expressed in the Four Articles of Prague: communion under both kinds; free preaching of the Gospels; expropriation of church land; and exposure and punishment of public sinners. The pope, however, rejected

3036-426: The Czechs would have three votes; the others, a single vote. In consequence, German faculty and students left Charles University en masse in the thousands, and many ended up founding the University of Leipzig . Hus' victory was short-lived. He preached against the sale of indulgences , which lost him the support of the king, who had received a percentage of such sales. In 1412 Hus and his followers were suspended from

3128-622: The German-Czech scholar Adolf Grohmann published a comprehensive work entitled Südarabien als Wirtschaftsgebiet (South Arabia as an economic area), in which he draws principally from the comments left by Eduard Glaser during his tours in South Arabia. In addition to his knowledge of Latin, Greek and most of the major European languages, Glaser showed himself proficient in both classical and colloquial Arabic, and knew also many of its dialects. His natural inquisitiveness led him to analyse

3220-486: The Germans, the Czechs were outvoted, and the orthodox position was maintained. In subsequent years, the Czechs demanded a revision of the university charter, granting more adequate representation to the native Czech faculty. The university controversy was intensified by the vacillating position of the Bohemian king Wenceslas. His favoring of Germans in appointments to councillor and other administrative positions had aroused

3312-480: The Holy Roman Empire except for participation in the imperial councils. The imperial prerogative to ratify each Bohemian ruler and to appoint the bishop of Prague was revoked. The king's successor was his son Wenceslaus I , from his second marriage. Wenceslaus I's sister Agnes , later canonized, refused to marry the Holy Roman Emperor and instead devoted her life to spiritual works. Corresponding with

3404-553: The Holy Roman Empire. It was precipitated by a controversy at Charles University in Prague . In 1403 Jan Hus became rector of the university. A reformist preacher, Hus espoused the anti-papal and anti-hierarchical teachings of John Wycliffe of England, often referred to as the "Morning Star of the Reformation". Hus' teaching was distinguished by its rejection of what he saw as the wealth, corruption, and hierarchical tendencies of

3496-737: The Hungarian forces occupied most of Moravia. George of Poděbrady died in 1471. Upon the death of the Hussite king, the Bohemian estates elected the Polish prince Ladislaus Jagiellon as king, who negotiated the Peace of Olomouc in 1479. In 1490, after the death of Matthias Corvinus, he was also elected by the strongest Hungarian baron league as king of Hungary, and the Polish Jagellonian line ruled both Bohemia and Hungary [but separate line

3588-595: The Hussites as religious fanatics; they fought in part for a nationalist purpose: to protect their land from a King and a Pope who did not recognize the right of the Hussites to exist. Žižka led armies to storm castles, monasteries, churches, and villages, expelling the Catholic clergy, expropriating ecclesiastical lands, or accepting conversions. During the struggle against Sigismund, Taborite armies penetrated into areas of modern-day Slovakia as well. Czech refugees from

3680-423: The Kingdom of Hungary, and the rest (mainly present-day Slovakia territory) came under Habsburg rule under the terms of King Louis' marriage contract. The Bohemian estates in 1526 elected Austrian Archduke Ferdinand , younger brother of Emperor Charles V , to succeed Louis as king of Bohemia. Thus began almost four centuries of Habsburg rule for both Bohemia and Hungary . From 1599 to 1711, Moravia (a Land of

3772-415: The Pope, she established the Knights of the Cross with the Red Star in 1233, the first military order in the Kingdom of Bohemia. Four other military orders were present in Bohemia: the Order of St. John of Jerusalem from c.  1160 ; the Order of Saint Lazarus from the late 12th century; the Teutonic Order from c. 1200–1421; and the Knights Templar from 1232 to 1312. The 13th century

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3864-399: The archbishop was given the right to crown Bohemian kings. Charles curbed the Bohemian, Moravian, and Silesian nobility, and rationalized the provincial administration of Bohemia and Moravia. He created the Crown of Bohemia , incorporating Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia . In 1355 Charles was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. The next year he issued the Golden Bull of 1356 , defining and codifying

3956-405: The basis of the later commercial law of Bohemia and Moravia . Marriages between Czech nobles and Germans soon became commonplace. The 14th century – particularly the reign of Charles IV (1342–78) – is considered the Golden Age of Czech history. In 1306, the Přemyslid line died out and, after a series of dynastic wars, John, Count of Luxembourg , was elected Bohemian king. He married Elisabeth ,

4048-422: The capital city of Prague); these acted merely as administrative units of the Kraje / Kreise rather than taking on powers of their own. Prague remained a statutory city, as well acting as the administrative centre of the Prager Kreis / Pražský kraj . The city of Reichenberg was a Stadtbezirk (city district) subordinate to the Bunzlauer Kreis , as well as the seat of Landbezirk Reichenberg ;

4140-457: The compact, thus preventing the reconciliation of Czech Catholics with the Utraquists. George of Poděbrady , later to become the "national" king of Bohemia, emerged as leader of the Utraquist regency. George installed another Utraquist, John of Rokycany , as archbishop of Prague and succeeded in uniting the more radical Taborites with the Czech Reformed Church. The Catholic party was driven out of Prague. After Ladislaus died of leukemia in 1457,

4232-422: The connexions between Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia) and Yemen in ancient times. Glaser's profound interest in the political and commercial ties of peoples stretching from Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean gave him a sense of identifying with past civilisations; a feeling of shared affinity. Glaser's tenure in Yemen was marked by Ottoman occupation, a period plagued also by wars between the invading Turkish army and

4324-434: The crusades were Germans, although many were also Hungarians and Catholic Czechs, the Hussite movement is seen as a Czech national movement. In modern times it acquired anti-imperial and anti-German associations and has sometimes been identified as a manifestation of a long-term ethnic Czech–German conflict. Hussitism began during the long reign of Wenceslaus IV (1378–1419), a period of papal schism and concomitant anarchy in

4416-409: The daughter of Wenceslaus II. He was succeeded as king in 1346 by his son, Charles IV, the second king from the House of Luxembourg . Charles was raised at the French court and was cosmopolitan in attitude. Charles IV strengthened the power and prestige of the Bohemian kingdom. In 1344 he elevated the bishopric of Prague , making it an archbishopric and freeing it from the jurisdiction of Mainz , and

4508-431: The end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th centuries. Shortly before the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the kingdom became part of the newly proclaimed Habsburg Austrian Empire , and subsequently the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1867. Bohemia retained its name and formal status as a separate Kingdom of Bohemia until 1918, known as a crown land within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and its capital Prague

4600-419: The first to the third person) and are mixed with pious inscriptions absent from the Quran. During a six-week period in 1833, Frederick Catherwood produced the first known detailed survey. Pre-Islamic In-situ archaeology includes south Arabian 4th CE rock inscriptions that evidence fewer pagan expressions and the start in use of the monotheistic " rahmān ". Fewer archaeological surveys have taken place in

4692-459: The following in different time periods: According to Johann Gottfried Sommer Bohemia was divided into 16 district units between 1833 and 1849: In 1849 the number of Kreise / Kraje was reduced to seven. They were then subdivided into political districts (German: politischer Bezirk or Bezirkshauptmannschaft ('district captaincy '), pl. politische Bezirke/Bezirkshauptmannschaften ; Czech: Okres ), which took over most of

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4784-566: The following year the Bohemian estates elected George of Poděbrady as king. Although George was noble-born, he was not a successor of royal dynasty; his election to the monarchy was not recognised by the Pope, or any other European monarchs. George sought to establish a "Charter of a Universal Peace Union ." He believed that all monarchs should work for a sustainable peace on the principle of national sovereignty of states, principles of non-interference, and solving problems and disputes before an International Tribunal. Also, Europe should unite to fight

4876-413: The forces of Imam al-Mansur Muhammad b. Yahya Hamid a-Din (died in 1894) and his son, Yahya Hamid a-Din (assassinated 1948). Glaser was personally acquainted with five Turkish governors of Yemen. He advised the Turks to encourage research into the Marib area (ancient Sheba), to show thereby that the Sultan was interested in contributing to the scientific research of Yemen. He proposed to reconstruct

4968-422: The former had transliterated in the Hebrew-Assyrian script for easy comprehension. Emperor Wilhelm I purchased Glaser's manuscripts for the Prussian library in Berlin. The stones with the Sabaean inscriptions and the sculptures were a donation by the publisher Rudolph Mosse . Glaser's collections contributed much in preserving Vienna's reputation as fore-runner in the study of South Arabia. In 1922 in Vienna,

5060-421: The great treasure-trove of inscriptions that he brought to Europe, including the manuscripts and the ethnographic material that he amassed, as also the data on the field-research he conducted in Yemen, a suitable academic position was denied him and he remained an outsider in the academic circles of Austria, Germany and France. It was not surprising, therefore, that he was brought to deprivation of all basic needs as

5152-485: The historical processes and relevant cultural influences, eventually giving him the tools needed to investigate Yemen – a land that he saw as the ideal place for finding basic similarities between the rites of the indigenous peoples and those of the ancient Israelites . He also hoped to identify the geographical names mentioned in the Bible. Glaser was an expert in the Sabaean scripts. Furthermore, his knowledge of Abyssinian history and its language propelled him to examine

5244-470: The inscriptions that he copied down. The University of Greifswald awarded Glaser in 1890 with the title of honorary doctor, and his name was included in the lexicon of German scientists. Glaser was also honoured as a member of the Academy of Geographical Sciences in Munich. He was also honoured with a Royal Turkish ( mejidi ) medal. Glaser suffered from heart ailments and respiratory problems, until he died in Munich on 7 May 1908 of an asthma attack; he

5336-541: The lessening of restrictions formerly placed upon the Jews, he expressed more than once in his diary a certain criticism of the Turkish army and their arrogance in dealing with the Yemenite population. Unlike Joseph Halévy , who concentrated only on the country's glorious past, Glaser observed and documented everything he saw in Yemen. He carried out research on the topography, the geology and geography, prepared cartographic maps, took astronomical notes and collected data on meteorology, climate and economic trade, as well as on

5428-453: The local governor, Hussein of Marib, helped him to make the research in the area of Marib. Glaser was the first to teach Yemenite natives the Sabaean script. While touring the area with the sons of the local governor, he discovered nearly one hundred Qatabanian inscriptions. His topographic-geographic description of the route to Marib is regarded unto this day as his most important contribution. During his second journey to Yemen, he developed

5520-425: The most important scholar to have studied Yemen . He contributed to the advancement of historical and cultural research, revealed its ancient history and documented its written and oral traditions. Yemen fascinated him, incited his imagination, beginning with his first visit to the country (1882-1884). He returned there on three other occasions (1885-1886, 1887-1888, and 1892-1894). In Yemen, Glaser disguised himself as

5612-427: The nation's crafts. He collected information on Yemen's current social and political structure, analysed the origin of power of the tribal leadership, the relationship between certain tribes and the Turkish government or between the tribes and the Imam. Moreover, he studied and analysed the different judicial methods practised by the tribes, the Imam and that of the Ottomans in Yemen. Glaser's friendly relationship with

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5704-415: The nationalist sentiments of the Czech nobility and rallied them to Hus' defense. The German faculties had the support of Zbyněk Zajíc , Archbishop of Prague , and the German clergy. For political reasons, Wenceslas switched his support from the Germans to Hus and allied with the reformers. On 18 January 1409, Wenceslas issued the Decree of Kutná Hora : (as was the case at other major universities in Europe)

5796-442: The newly formed Czechoslovak Republic . Although some former rulers of Bohemia had enjoyed a non-hereditary royal title during the 11th and 12th centuries ( Vratislaus II , Vladislaus II ), the kingdom was formally established in 1198 by Přemysl Ottokar I , who had his status acknowledged by Philip of Swabia , elected King of the Romans , in return for his support against the rival Emperor Otto IV . In 1204 Ottokar's royal status

5888-399: The observatory in Vienna for a period of three years. An important turning point in his academic education came in 1880, when Glaser enrolled in David Heinrich Müller 's class for the study of Sabaean grammar , the founder of South Arabian studies in Austria. Müller suggested to him that he travel to Yemen, offering him a stipend that was to be provided by the Academy of Sciences of Vienna for

5980-445: The old city. The royal castle, Hradčany , was rebuilt. Of particular significance was the founding of Charles University in Prague in 1348. Charles intended to make Prague into an international center of learning, and the university was divided into Czech, Polish, Saxon, and Bavarian "nations", each with one controlling vote. Charles University, however, would become the nucleus of intense Czech particularism. Charles died in 1378, and

6072-490: The political functions of the Kreise / Kraje . Prague became a statutory city, administered directly by the kingdom. A total of 79 districts existed during this period. In 1854 the political districts were abolished and the previous more centralised administrative structure largely restored. However, 13 new Kraje / Kreise were established in place of the old ones. These Kraje / Kreise were subdivided into between twelve and 20 Bezirke (207 in total, plus

6164-538: The pro-papal king of Hungary and successor to the Bohemian throne after the death of Wenceslas in 1419, failed repeatedly to gain control of the kingdom despite aid by Hungarian and German armies. Riots broke out in Prague. Led by a Czech yeoman, Jan Žižka , the Taborites streamed into the capital. Religious strife pervaded the entire kingdom and was particularly intense in the German-dominated towns. Hussite Czechs and Catholic Germans turned on each other; many were massacred, and many German survivors fled or were exiled to

6256-409: The process of election to the Imperial throne , with the Bohemian king among the seven electors. Issuance of the Golden Bull together with the ensuing acquisition of the Brandenburg Electorate gave the Luxemburgs two votes in the electoral college . Charles also made Prague into an Imperial capital. Extensive building projects undertaken by the king included the founding of the New Town southeast of

6348-480: The purpose of copying down Sabaean inscriptions . Even though his position in the observatory gave him a sense of financial security, he preferred to resign from that post in 1880 – wishing instead to dedicate the remainder of his life to the study of South Arabia's ancient history (Dostal 1990, p. 17). When it became clear to him that his mission would be delayed on account of technical and personal problems, he resorted to his "French connections." A scholarship from

6440-412: The religious wars in Bohemia settled there, and from 1438 to 1453 a Czech noble, John Jiskra of Brandýs , controlled most of southern Slovakia from the centers of Zólyom (today Zvolen ) and Kassa (today Košice ). Thus Hussite doctrines and the Czech Bible were disseminated among the Slovaks, providing the basis for a future link between the Czechs and their Slovak neighbors. When Sigismund died in 1437,

6532-432: The rest of the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Sigismund led or instigated various crusades against Bohemia with the support of Hungarians and Bohemian Catholics. The Hussite Wars followed a pattern. When a crusade was launched against Bohemia, moderate and radical Hussites would unite and defeat it. Once the threat was over, the Hussite armies would focus on raiding the land of Catholic sympathizers. Many historians have painted

6624-670: The same reason Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff had made a similar proposal twenty years earlier to acquire Socotra . Already during his lifetime, Glaser was recognised as a great explorer of South Arabia, and, especially, as a collector and decoder of Sabaean inscriptions. In 1887 he sold a number of South Arabian inscriptions to the British Museum , and the Musée du Louvre also has some of his acquisitions. Yet, in spite of his skills in Arabic, his vast knowledge of Sabaean script and

6716-707: The same time, he studied mathematics at the Polytechnic in Prague , along with physics, astronomy, geology, geography, geodesy and Arabic which he accomplished in 1875. Certain publications concerning the journeys of Livingstone in Africa in the last quarter of the 19th century inspired within him a similar drive and ambition to set out on a journey in quest of ancient cultures. In Vienna, Glaser successfully concluded his studies in Arabic and enrolled thereafter in an astronomy class. From 1877 Glaser, served as an assistant in

6808-574: The script. In the 1960s, Glaser's astronomical notes were published by Andre Gingrich (University of Vienna). Höfner and Dostal, who promoted the publication of Glaser's works and findings, contributed to a renewed interest in the study of South Arabia and Sabaean language studies at European universities. From 1961 to 1981, the Austrian Academy of Science published 14 volumes from Glaser's collection. Unto this very day, many scholars are still busy working on Glaser's collection, and deciphering

6900-587: The two were counted together as a single Bezirk . 11 of the Kraje / Kreise had a single district court ( Kreisgericht ). These were located in the administrative centre of the Kraj / Kreis , except for the Čáslavský kraj / Časlauer Kreis , whose district court was located at Kutná Hora /Kuttenberg. The Bunzlauer and Leitmeritzer Kreise ( Boleslavský and Litoměřický kraje ) each had two district courts: Jung-Bunzlau and Reichenberg for

6992-496: The university and expelled from Prague. For two years the reformers served as itinerant preachers throughout Bohemia. In 1414 Hus was summoned to the Council of Constance to defend his views. Imprisoned when he arrived, he was never given a chance to defend his ideas. The council condemned him as a heretic and burned him at the stake in 1415. Hus's death sparked the Hussite Wars , decades of religious warfare. Sigismund ,

7084-673: The words: "The greatest and the best [man] of all has left us". His tombstone was inscribed in Musnad with the name "Husayn bin Abd Allah", which is the name he used when he was in Yemen. Glaser's collections Kingdom of Bohemia The Kingdom of Bohemia ( Czech : České království ), sometimes referenced in English literature as the Czech Kingdom , was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Central Europe. It

7176-484: Was a common industry for German Bohemians. Bohemia proper ( Čechy ) with the County of Kladsko ( Hrabství kladské ) was the main area of the Kingdom of Bohemia. The Egerland ( Chebsko ) was ultimately obtained by King Wenceslaus II between 1291 and 1305; given in pawn to Bohemia by King Louis IV of Germany in 1322 and subsequently joined in personal union with Bohemia proper. In 1348 Charles IV created

7268-578: Was a give-and-take relationship. With the assistance of the Turkish army, he could realize his scientific plans and endeavours. He was able to travel throughout many inaccessible areas which were restricted unto foreigners and, thereby, he was able to copy down hundreds of inscriptions, both, in Sabaic and in Arabic. Although Glaser viewed positively the reforms that were initiated by the Turks, touching upon almost every aspect of daily life in Yemen, including

7360-600: Was abandoned by part of the Czech nobility and died in the Battle on the Marchfeld against Rudolf. Ottokar was succeeded by his son King Wenceslaus II , who was crowned King of Poland in 1300. Wenceslaus II's son Wenceslaus III was crowned King of Hungary a year later. At this time, the Kings of Bohemia ruled from Hungary to the Baltic Sea . The 13th century was also a period of large-scale German immigration, during

7452-551: Was accepted by Otto IV as well as by Pope Innocent III . It was officially recognized in 1212 by the Golden Bull of Sicily issued by Emperor Frederick II , elevating the Duchy of Bohemia to Kingdom status and proclaiming its independence which was also later bolstered by future king of Bohemia and emperor Charles IV, with his golden bull in 1356. Under these terms, the Czech king was to be exempt from all future obligations to

7544-518: Was also widely used as the language of administration in many towns after the Germans immigrated and populated some areas of the country in the 13th century. The royal court used the Czech, Latin, and German languages, depending on the ruler and period. Following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I , both the Kingdom and Empire were dissolved. Bohemia became the core part of

7636-567: Was established by the Přemyslid dynasty in the 12th century by the Duchy of Bohemia , later ruled by the House of Luxembourg , the Jagiellonian dynasty , and from 1526 the House of Habsburg and its successor, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine . Numerous kings of Bohemia were also elected Holy Roman Emperors , and the capital, Prague , was the imperial seat in the late 14th century, and again at

7728-721: Was in Poland after Casimir]. The Jagellonians governed Bohemia as absentee monarchs because the Hungarian nobility insisted on them putting their capital into Hungary; their influence in the kingdom was minimal, and effective government fell to the regional nobility. Czech Catholics accepted the Compact of Basel in 1485 and were reconciled with the Utraquists. The Bohemian estrangement from the Empire continued after Vladislav [as II] had succeeded Matthias Corvinus of Hungary in 1490 and both

7820-541: Was not sufficient to finance his future travels. Despite these difficulties, he regarded his research a sacred mission that had to be continued. Upon his return from his third trip to Yemen in 1889, Glaser suggested to the Foreign Ministry of Austria to either occupy or buy from the Ottoman Turks a place which he identified as being the biblical site of Ophir , in order to make it an Austrian colony (for

7912-642: Was one of the empire's leading cities. The Czech language (called the Bohemian language in English usage until the 19th century) was the main language of the Diet and the nobility until 1627 (after the Bohemian Revolt was suppressed). German was then formally made equal with Czech and eventually prevailed as the language of the Diet until the Czech National Revival in the 19th century. German

8004-615: Was opened in 1972. It houses tools dating back 30,000 to 35,000 years and crafted by Mousterian Neanderthals in Yafteh . Among the oldest human artifacts are 9,000-year-old and animal figurines from the Sarab mound in Kermanshah Province . The Gaza Museum of Archaeology was opened in 2008. Objects protected from display include Aphrodite in revealing gown, images of ancient deities and oil lamps featuring menorahs . Since 2016

8096-527: Was preparing for war with Prussia to reclaim Silesia. The Prussian army conquered Saxony and in 1757 invaded Bohemia. In the Battle of Prague (1757) they defeated the Habsburgs and subsequently occupied Prague. More than one quarter of Prague was destroyed and the St. Vitus Cathedral suffered heavy damage. In the Battle of Kolín , however, Frederick lost and had to vacate Prague and retreat from Bohemia. With

8188-426: Was primarily a religious, as well as national, manifestation. As a religious reform movement (the so-called Bohemian Reformation ), it represented a challenge to papal authority and an assertion of national autonomy in ecclesiastical affairs. The Hussites defeated four crusades from the Holy Roman Empire, and the movement is viewed by many as a part of the (worldwide) Protestant Reformation . Because many of warriors of

8280-411: Was published by D.H. Müller and Rodokanakis. Maria Höfner (Graz and Tübingen), began to study and publish Glaser's inscriptions in 1944. W. Dostal (University of Vienna) studied and published Glaser's ethnographic data taken from his diaries. Dostal also published sections on Glaser's trip to Hashid and Arhab. Glaser's journey to Marib was published a second time by Dostal, after Adolph Grohmann decoded

8372-514: Was the predecessor state of the modern Czech Republic . The Kingdom of Bohemia was an Imperial State in the Holy Roman Empire . The Bohemian king was a prince-elector of the empire. The kings of Bohemia, besides the region of Bohemia itself, also ruled other lands belonging to the Bohemian Crown , which at various times included Moravia , Silesia , Lusatia , and parts of Saxony , Brandenburg , and Bavaria . The kingdom

8464-605: Was the most dynamic period of the Přemyslid reign over Bohemia . German Emperor Frederick II 's preoccupation with Mediterranean affairs and the dynastic struggles known as the Great Interregnum (1254–73) weakened imperial authority in Central Europe, thus providing opportunities for Přemyslid assertiveness. At the same time, the Mongol invasions (1220–42) absorbed the attention of Bohemia's eastern neighbors, Hungary and Poland . Přemysl Ottokar II (1253–78) married

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