144-839: The 1st Army ( Italian : 1ª Armata ) was a Royal Italian Army field army , in World War I , facing Austro-Hungarian and German forces, and in World War II , fighting on the North African front . During World War I, the 1st Army bore the responsibility of a long front from Stelvio Pass on the Swiss-Austrian Italian tri-border to the Asiago plateau. It successfully resisted the Austro-Hungarian Strafexpedition . Its sector
288-625: A cavalry patrol disarmed and interned at Herța . Having no intention to force the hand of the Romanian government, the Russians quickly left Romanian territory. Lechitsky kept the XXIII and XLI Corps moving westward, while the XII and XI Corps advanced south to capture Czernowitz , and III Cavalry Corps threatened Kolomea . By 12 June his Russian troops were attacking Austro-Hungarian positions along
432-679: A defensive strategy and opposed Brusilov's proposed offensive. Tsar Nicholas II had taken personal command of the Imperial Russian Army in September 1915. Evert was a strong supporter of Nicholas and the Romanovs , but the emperor approved Brusilov's plan. The offensive aimed to capture the cities of Kovel and Lviv (in present-day western Ukraine); the Central Powers had recovered both these cities in 1915. Although
576-609: A force of 700,000 men, compared to an opposition force of 421,000. Brusilov planned to advance towards Kovel on 20 July. Before then, on 16 July, the Siberian Corps forced Gruppe Marwitz to retreat back to the River Lipa. In an attempt to strengthen Marwitz, Puhallo's 1st Army was disbanded, and redistributed to Marwitz and Böhm-Ermolli's 2nd Army. On 23 July, Sakharov's 11th Army attacked towards Brody , capturing it on 28 July, forcing Böhm-Ermolli's 2nd Army 7 km to
720-565: A huge number of civil servants and soldiers recruited from all over the country introduced many more words and idioms from their home languages— ciao is derived from the Venetian word s-cia[v]o ("slave", that is "your servant"), panettone comes from the Lombard word panetton , etc. Only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak the Italian standardized language properly when
864-471: A little over one million people in the United States speak Italian at home. Nevertheless, an Italian language media market does exist in the country. In Canada, Italian is the second most spoken non-official language when varieties of Chinese are not grouped together, with 375,645 claiming Italian as their mother tongue in 2016. Italian immigrants to South America have also brought a presence of
1008-657: A local vernacular. These dialects, as they are commonly referred to, evolved from Vulgar Latin over the course of centuries, unaffected by formal standards and teachings. They are not in any sense "dialects" of standard Italian, which itself started off as one of these local tongues, but sister languages of Italian. Mutual intelligibility with Italian varies widely, as it does with Romance languages in general. The Romance languages of Italy can differ greatly from Italian at all levels ( phonology , morphology , syntax , lexicon , pragmatics ) and are classified typologically as distinct languages. The standard Italian language has
1152-841: A massive offensive by his Southwestern Front against the Austro-Hungarian forces in Galicia . Brusilov's plan aimed to take some of the pressure off French and British armies in France and the Royal Italian Army along the Isonzo Front and, if possible, to knock Austria-Hungary out of the war. General Alexei Evert , commander of the Russian Western Army Group based in Smolensk, favored
1296-658: A poetic and literary origin in the works of Tuscan writers of the 12th century, and, although the grammar and core lexicon are basically unchanged from those used in Florence in the 13th century, the modern standard of the language was largely shaped by relatively recent events. However, Romance vernacular as language spoken in the Italian Peninsula has a longer history. In fact, the earliest surviving texts that can definitely be called vernacular (as distinct from its predecessor Vulgar Latin) are legal formulae known as
1440-417: A renewed interest in linguistics in the 16th century, sparked a debate that raged throughout Italy concerning the criteria that should govern the establishment of a modern Italian literary and spoken language. This discussion, known as questione della lingua (i.e., the problem of the language ), ran through the Italian culture until the end of the 19th century, often linked to the political debate on achieving
1584-575: A result. Starting in late medieval times in much of Europe and the Mediterranean, Latin was replaced as the primary commercial language by languages of Italy, especially Tuscan and Venetian. These varieties were consolidated during the Renaissance with the strength of Italy and the rise of humanism and the arts . Italy came to enjoy increasing artistic prestige within Europe. A mark of
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#17327810795381728-790: A seven-vowel system, consisting of /a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/ , as well as 23 consonants. Compared with most other Romance languages, Italian phonology is conservative, preserving many words nearly unchanged from Vulgar Latin . Some examples: Brusilov Offensive [REDACTED] Russian Empire : Only from May to July 13: 440,000 dead or wounded 60,000 prisoners 497,000–500,000 [REDACTED] Austria-Hungary: 200,000 dead or wounded 420,000–470,000 prisoners 670,000 estimated casualties [REDACTED] Germany: 184,000 –500,000 all casualties [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire: 12,000 all casualties The Brusilov offensive ( Russian : Брусиловский прорыв Brusilovskiĭ proryv , literally: "Brusilov's breakthrough"), also known as
1872-479: A single language is that they have evolved so that they are no longer mutually intelligible ; this diagnostic is effective if mutual intelligibility is minimal or absent (e.g. in Romance, Romanian and Portuguese), but it fails in cases such as Spanish-Portuguese or Spanish-Italian, as educated native speakers of either pairing can understand each other well if they choose to do so; however, the level of intelligibility
2016-491: A strategically defensive posture, not only during the period of the war build-up, but also through the time in which the (adjacent) 4th Army under General Luigi Nava would operate from Cadore to attempt to open a route towards the Tyrol. The 1st Army, however, was to carry out limited offensives to ensure the security of the Italian border, and occupy any enemy territory, wherever this was possible and convenient. In Cadorna's plan,
2160-513: A united Italian state. Renaissance scholars divided into three main factions: A fourth faction claimed that the best Italian was the one that the papal court adopted, which was a mixture of the Tuscan and Roman dialects. Eventually, Bembo's ideas prevailed, and the foundation of the Accademia della Crusca in Florence (1582–1583), the official legislative body of the Italian language, led to
2304-610: A victory in 1916. The irony was that other Russian commanders did not realize the potential of the tactics that Brusilov had devised. Similar tactics were proposed separately by French, Germans and British on the Western Front and employed at the Battle of Verdun earlier in the year. The tactics would henceforth be used to an even greater degree by the Germans, who used stormtroopers and infiltration tactics to great effect in
2448-488: A wide front (see: Battle of Kostiuchnówka ). Within four days of the offensive, the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army saw its strength fall by nearly 70 per cent, from 117,800 men to just 35,000. The southern sector was held by the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army, which by 8 June lost 76,200 of its 194,200 soldiers. Archduke Joseph Ferdinand was replaced by Karl Tersztyánszky von Nádas as 4th Army commander, and Hugo Martiny
2592-427: Is 89% with French, 87% with Catalan , 85% with Sardinian , 82% with Spanish, 80% with Portuguese , 78% with Ladin , 77% with Romanian . Estimates may differ according to sources. One study, analyzing the degree of differentiation of Romance languages in comparison to Latin (comparing phonology , inflection , discourse , syntax , vocabulary , and intonation ), estimated that distance between Italian and Latin
2736-691: Is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire . Italian is the least divergent language from Latin , together with Sardinian (meaning that Italian and Sardinian are the most conservative Romance languages). Spoken by about 85 million people, including 67 million native speakers (2024), Italian is an official language in Italy , San Marino , Switzerland ( Ticino and
2880-759: Is also spoken by a minority in Monaco and France, especially in the southeastern part of the country. Italian was the official language in Savoy and in Nice until 1860, when they were both annexed by France under the Treaty of Turin , a development that triggered the " Niçard exodus ", or the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy, and the Niçard Vespers . Giuseppe Garibaldi complained about
3024-534: Is higher than that between Sardinian and Latin. In particular, its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian . As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive. Italian is the official language of Italy and San Marino and is spoken fluently by the majority of the countries' populations. Italian is the third most spoken language in Switzerland (after German and French; see Swiss Italian ), although its use there has moderately declined since
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#17327810795383168-460: Is markedly lower between Italian-Spanish, and considerably higher between the Iberian sister languages of Portuguese-Spanish. Speakers of this latter pair can communicate with one another with remarkable ease, each speaking to the other in his own native language without slang/jargon. Nevertheless, on the basis of accumulated differences in morphology, syntax, phonology, and to some extent lexicon, it
3312-504: Is neither a co-official nor a protected language in these countries. Some speakers of Italian are native bilinguals of both Italian (either in its standard form or regional varieties ) and a local language of Italy , most frequently the language spoken at home in their place of origin. Italian is a major language in Europe, being one of the official languages of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and one of
3456-462: Is not difficult to identify that for the Romance varieties of Italy, the first extant written evidence of languages that can no longer be considered Latin comes from the ninth and tenth centuries C.E. These written sources demonstrate certain vernacular characteristics and sometimes explicitly mention the use of the vernacular in Italy. Full literary manifestations of the vernacular began to surface around
3600-648: Is the main working language of the Holy See , serving as the lingua franca (common language) in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta . Italian has a significant use in musical terminology and opera with numerous Italian words referring to music that have become international terms taken into various languages worldwide. Almost all native Italian words end with vowels , and
3744-549: Is used, and the town of Chipilo near Puebla, Mexico; each continues to use a derived form of Venetian dating back to the 19th century. Other examples are Cocoliche , an Italian–Spanish pidgin once spoken in Argentina and especially in Buenos Aires , and Lunfardo . The Rioplatense Spanish dialect of Argentina and Uruguay today has thus been heavily influenced by both standard Italian and Italian regional languages as
3888-509: The Il Globo (Australia) and the La gazzetta del Sud Africa (South Africa). Italian is widely taught in many schools around the world, but rarely as the first foreign language. In the 21st century, technology also allows for the continual spread of the Italian language, as people have new ways to learn how to speak, read, and write languages at their own pace and at any given time. For example,
4032-991: The La Voce del Popolo ( Croatia ), the Corriere d'Italia (Germany), the L'italoeuropeo (United Kingdom), the Passaparola ( Luxembourg ), the America Oggi (United States), the Corriere Canadese and the Corriere Italiano (Canada), the Il punto d'incontro (Mexico), the L'Italia del Popolo ( Argentina ), the Fanfulla (Brazil), the Gente d'Italia ( Uruguay ), the La Voce d'Italia ( Venezuela ),
4176-595: The Eastern Front , in the hope of obtaining munitions from Britain and France. In March 1916 the Russians initiated the disastrous Lake Naroch offensive in the Vilnius area, during which the Germans suffered only one-fifth as many casualties as the Russians. This offensive took place at French request – General Joseph Joffre had hoped that the Imperial German Army would transfer more units to
4320-702: The Gallo-Italic linguistic panorama of Northern Italy , the Italo-Dalmatian , Neapolitan and its related dialects were largely unaffected by the Franco- Occitan influences introduced to Italy mainly by bards from France during the Middle Ages, but after the Norman conquest of southern Italy , Sicily became the first Italian land to adopt Occitan lyric moods (and words) in poetry. Even in
4464-852: The Grisons ), Corsica , and Vatican City . It has official minority status in Croatia , Slovenian Istria , and the municipalities of Santa Tereza and Encantado in Brazil . Italian is also spoken by large immigrant and expatriate communities in the Americas and Australia . Italian is included under the languages covered by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Romania , although Italian
1st Army (Italy) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4608-527: The Italian invasion of France . At this time, the 1st Army was commanded by General Pietro Pintor and included three army corps: the 2nd Corps commanded by General Francesco Bertini , the 3rd Corps - General Mario Arisio , and the 15th Corps commanded by General Gastone Gambara . By 1942, after the defeat of Panzer Army Africa ( Panzerarmee Afrika ) at the Second Battle of El Alamein and after
4752-646: The June advance , or Battle of Galicia-Volhynia , of June to September 1916 was the Russian Empire 's greatest feat of arms during World War I , and among the most lethal offensives in world history . The historian Graydon Tunstall called the Brusilov offensive the worst crisis of World War I for Austria-Hungary and the Triple Entente 's greatest victory, but it came at a tremendous loss of life. It
4896-674: The Kingdom of Italy in the Dodecanese ). Italian is widely spoken in Malta , where nearly two-thirds of the population can speak it fluently (see Maltese Italian ). Italian served as Malta's official language until 1934, when it was abolished by the British colonial administration amid strong local opposition. Italian language in Slovenia is an officially recognized minority language in
5040-773: The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia ), although the masses kept speaking primarily their local vernaculars. Italian was also one of the many recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire . Italy has always had a distinctive dialect for each city because the cities, until recently, were thought of as city-states . Those dialects now have considerable variety . As Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian . The most characteristic differences, for instance, between Roman Italian and Milanese Italian are syntactic gemination of initial consonants in some contexts and
5184-802: The Operation Torch landings, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was forced to make one of the longest retreats in history. He withdrew from the "Western Desert" of Egypt and Libya and established a defence on the French-built Mareth Line in southern Tunisia . After occupying the Mareth Line, Rommel took command of the newly created Army Group Africa and turned over the "German-Italian Panzer Army" (formerly "Panzer Army Africa") to Italian General Giovanni Messe . As part of Army Group Africa commanded by General Rommel ,
5328-423: The Placiti Cassinesi from the province of Benevento that date from 960 to 963, although the Veronese Riddle , probably from the 8th or early 9th century, contains a late form of Vulgar Latin that can be seen as a very early sample of a vernacular dialect of Italy. The Commodilla catacomb inscription is also a similar case. The Italian language has progressed through a long and slow process, which started after
5472-433: The Pruth , and crossing that river by 14 June. By then, the Austro-Hungarian losses amounted to 205,000, of which 150,000 were prisoners. On 17 June, the Russians captured Czernowitz, and Alexeyev transferred the 3rd Army from Evert's West Front to Brusilov's Southwest Front. Meanwhile, Bothmer's South Army prepared to attack southwards, hoping Pflanzer-Baltin's Seventh Army could hold its ground. On 18 June, Lechitsky
5616-406: The Western Roman Empire's fall in the 5th century. The language that came to be thought of as Italian developed in central Tuscany and was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri , written in his native Florentine . Dante's epic poems, known collectively as the Commedia , to which another Tuscan poet Giovanni Boccaccio later affixed
5760-432: The truppe altipiani command was subsequently placed within this Army. The 1st Army during the conflict participated in conquests, various setbacks and reconquests (primarily the so-called White War) until the final battle of Vittorio Veneto. As the 1st World War extended to Italy, this Army was placed under the command of Lieutenant General Roberto Brusati and consisted of the III Army Corps (Corpo d'Armata) of Milan under
5904-406: The 111 Italian lecturer sections belonging to foreign schools where Italian is taught as a language of culture. As of 2022, Australia had the highest number of students learning Italian in the world. This occurred because of support by the Italian community in Australia and the Italian Government and also because of successful educational reform efforts led by local governments in Australia. From
1st Army (Italy) - Misplaced Pages Continue
6048-409: The 11th Army towards Brody , while the 7th and 9th Armies continued their advance. Brusilov met the German attacks on the Lutsk salient flanks by attacking in turn the German flanks. However, the Germans achieved only moderate success, pushing back the Russian XLV Corps 5 km. From 27 June to 3 July 1916, Brusilov carried out, on his own initiative, the deportation of 13,000 German civilians from
6192-458: The 13th century in the form of various religious texts and poetry. Although these are the first written records of Italian varieties separate from Latin, the spoken language had probably diverged long before the first written records appeared since those who were literate generally wrote in Latin even if they spoke other Romance varieties in person. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the use of Standard Italian became increasingly widespread and
6336-516: The 1918 Spring Offensive . With the benefit of hindsight, it has been stated that Russia was not able to take advantage of its success nor cement it. In Russian society, pessimism regarding Russia's prospects in the war and distrust in the competence of its military and political leadership would continue to grow in 1916. Russian casualties were considerable, numbering between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Austria-Hungary and Germany lost from 616,000, and from 148,000 to 350,000, respectively. The total
6480-438: The 1970s. It is official both on the national level and on regional level in two cantons : Ticino and Grisons . In the latter canton, however, it is only spoken by a small minority, in the Italian Grisons . Ticino, which includes Lugano , the largest Italian-speaking city outside Italy, is the only canton where Italian is predominant. Italian is also used in administration and official documents in Vatican City . Italian
6624-403: The 1st Army Command became the Trento area Command, one of the new designated army commands of the Royal Army. At the beginning of World War II, the Italian 1st Army was one of three armies that made up Army Group West commanded by Prince General Umberto di Savoia . Together with the Italian Fourth Army and the Italian Seventh Army (kept in reserve), the 1st Army attacked French forces during
6768-701: The 1st Army attacked Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery 's Eighth Army at Operation Capri (the Battle of Medenine , just east of the Mareth Line . The 1st Army suffered a crushing defeat and the attempt by Rommel and Arnim to break through in Tunisia failed. Order of Battle at 10 June 1940 Commanded by General Francesco Bertini Corps Reserves: Commanded by General Mario Arisio Corps Reserves: Commanded by General Gastone Gambara Corps Reserves: Order of Battle, as of April 1943. Italian language Italian ( italiano , pronounced [itaˈljaːno] , or lingua italiana , pronounced [ˈliŋɡwa itaˈljaːna] )
6912-441: The 1st Army with Cardorna's consent, had planned "Action K" (Code Name) a small counteroffensive targeting Monte Ortigara using General Mambretti's Truppe Altipiani as well as the XVIII Corps. This action had to be cancelled due to heavy snows. The Italian Command would later reprise and augment the plan for June 1917 . On 1 December 1916 Mambretti was now placed in charge of a new Sixth Army (Italy) taking his XX Corps as well as
7056-515: The 1st Army would defend against any Austrian offensive from Trentino thus protecting (along with the 4th Army) the rear of the bulk of the Italian army which was engaged on the Isonzo Front. With the task of having to stay on the defensive, Brusati was frustrated by (in his opinion) Cadorna's inability to understand that the Austro-Hungarians had retreated on a defensive line well beyond the official border. Thus, Brusati's 1st Army carried out offensive operations enthusiastically. Already on 25 May 1915,
7200-428: The 32nd Division in Vallagarina began in the early afternoon; a unit of Arditi, under the command of Major Gastone Gambara, and three Alpine battalions advanced into the valley and occupied Rovereto. The advance of the Italian army now became general. On the left bank of the Adige, the Piceno and Liguria brigades marched in Vallarsa and on the Pasubio, in Val Posina. In the Adige valley the disintegration and collapse of
7344-405: The Asiago Plateau during the Battle of Caporetto which helped the retreating Italian troops to set up a strong defensive line at the Piave River in November. However, the White War continued in 1917 for the 1st Army through a series of small actions (between June and October) in the high isolated valleys of the Trentino mountains. The following minor actions were reported): Although the 1st Army
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#17327810795387488-519: The Austro-Hungarian defenses, coordinated in advance with the infantry commanders. Winogradsky wrote, this was followed by a "creeping barrage in front of the assault infantry...while the 152mm howitzers and 122mm guns attacked hard points." This was followed by attacks by infantry in Kaledin's 8th Army, Vladimir Viktorovich Sakharov 's 11th Army, Dmitry Shcherbachev 's 7th Army, and Lechitsky's 9th Army. On 5 June, according to Prit Buttar, "...the Russian gunners resumed their careful demolition work of
7632-482: The Austro-Hungarians became catastrophic; materials and vehicles were abandoned, the trains heading north were stormed by the soldiers, as panic and lack of discipline spread. On the afternoon of 3 November, the troops of the 1st Army reached Trento: the 1st units to enter the city were the cavalry regiment "Alessandria", the XXIVth Arditi, the Alpini of the IVth group; the infantry of the Pistoia brigade arrived later. The final advance had not met with any real opposition:
7776-468: The Bug to the north. By the end of 6 June, The X and UU Corps, plus Sándor Szurmay 's Corps, of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, had been pushed back to the Styr and beyond, while Kaledin's XL and II Corps pushed onward to Lutsk. By the end of 7 June, the 4th Army retreat was unstoppable, with many elements of the X Corps surrendering when caught against the river, or casualties in attempts to cross. 4th Army supplies abandoned in Lutsk went up in flames as
7920-410: The Eastern Front. According to Prit Buttar , "To make matters worse, many of the experienced divisions on the Eastern Front were withdrawn and sent to the Alps, and replaced by formations largely composed of new inexperienced recruits." At a war council held with senior commanders and the tsar in April 1916, General Aleksei Brusilov presented a plan to the Stavka (the Russian high command), proposing
8064-417: The Italian dialects has declined in the modern era , as Italy unified under Standard Italian and continues to do so aided by mass media from newspapers to radio to television, diglossia is still frequently encountered in Italy and triglossia is not uncommon in emigrant communities among older speakers. Both situations normally involve some degree of code-switching and code-mixing . Notes: Italian has
8208-439: The Italian language into a lingua franca used not only among clerks, nobility, and functionaries in the Italian courts but also by the bourgeoisie . Italian literature's first modern novel, I promessi sposi ( The Betrothed ) by Alessandro Manzoni , further defined the standard by "rinsing" his Milanese "in the waters of the Arno " ( Florence 's river), as he states in the preface to his 1840 edition. After unification,
8352-496: The Italian soldiers received an enthusiastic welcome from the population. That evening a unit of the "Padua" cavalry regiment of the 4th Army of General Giardino also arrived in Trento; and on the following afternoon Giraldi himself, commander of the 1st Army, entered Trento, when the Armistice took effect. After the Armistice, the 1st Army became responsible for the occupation to all of Trentino, South Tyrol (both of which became part of Italy) and Austrian Tyrol. On 20 September 1919
8496-497: The Mediterranean. The increasing political and cultural relevance of Florence during the periods of the rise of the Medici Bank , humanism , and the Renaissance made its dialect, or rather a refined version of it, a standard in the arts. The Renaissance era, known as il Rinascimento in Italian, was seen as a time of rebirth, which is the literal meaning of both renaissance (from French) and rinascimento (Italian). During this time, long-existing beliefs stemming from
8640-482: The Piave), the 1st Army (and the 7th Army) was responsible for the defense at the Trentino Front. There were no major offensives or Italian counteroffensives launched in this zone, although the Austro-Hungarians applied some offensive pressure in support of its Operation Radetzky. On 15 June, the Italian Division 6 consisting of the Czechoslovakian Legion in Italy was assigned to the 1st Army. However, after this battle, operations began to pick up beginning in August with
8784-478: The Russian Brusilov Offensive in Galacia which required von Hötzendorf to move troops away from the Italian offensive and to the Eastern Front. In August 1916, the 1st Army was reorganized and growing, along with the Regio Esercito overall as more draftees reached the war zone. The 1st Army now had six Corps, covering the same frontlines in the Trentino. The III Corps (5th, 6th and 37th Divisions) remained under Gen. Camerana. The V Corps (44th, 47th and 32 Divisions)
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#17327810795388928-574: The Russian army ten days later. Brusilov chose Alexey Kaledin 's Eighth Army to spearhead the capture of Lutsk and Kovel. Kaledin's attacking force included the XXXII Corps in the south, the VIII and XL Corps in the center, and XXXIX Corps in the north. The Russians fielded 148 infantry battalions against the 53 battalions in Archduke Joseph Ferdinand 's Fourth Army. Further south on the Austro-Hungarian front were Paul Puhallo von Brlog 's 1st Army , Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli 's 2nd Army , and Karl von Pflanzer-Baltin 's 7th Army . Mounting pressure from
9072-422: The Russians occupied the town. Further south, Pflanzer-Baltin's 7th Army was pushed back to the Strypa , as Shcherbachev's Seventh Army captured Jazłowiek . The first major attack was against the 117,800 strong Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, in the northernmost sector of the front. The initial attack was successful, and the Austro-Hungarian lines were broken, enabling three of Brusilov's four armies to advance on
9216-400: The Stavka had approved Brusilov's plan, his request for supporting offensives by the neighboring fronts (the Western under Evert and Northern under Aleksey Kuropatkin ) was denied. On 26 May, the tsar issued orders for accelerating the start of the Russian summer offensive, in response to pleas from the Italians facing Conrad's offensive. Brusilov would attack on 4 June, and the rest of
9360-473: The Stelvio-Garda Sector. Furthermore the Truppe Altipiani were dispersed to other Italian Armies, including the newly re-constituted 6th Army (which also included the British and French Expeditionary Forces which came to Italy after Caporetto) which took over responsibility for the defenses at Asiago and the re-organized 4th Army which also took over responsibility for the mountain defenses at Mt. Grappa in their western zone. The 1st Army saw limited action in
9504-480: The Volhynian areas that had been conquered during the offensive. On 2 July, Evert's West Front finally started its offensive, with Alexander Ragoza 's Fourth army attacking north of Baranovichi . Yet, according to Buttar, "it was in almost every respect a replay of the disastrous attacks of March...an imprecise artillery bombardment, mass infantry attacks that struggled to make progress and lacked sufficient support to sustain early gains...". On 9 July, Evert suspended
9648-443: The Vézzena Plateau) that guarded the head of the Val d'Astico (east of the previous successes), General Cadorna directed the 1st Army Command back to the defensive mode. Nevertheless, Brusati did not give up on further operations aimed at consolidating the front, sometimes deploying his troops in an offensive stance. This alignment led to neglecting the defensive preparations with the bulk of the forces available remaining concentrated on
9792-781: The XVIII Corps. Added to these troops were two newly constituted Corps, the XXII and XXVI. As part of a re-organization (after Caporetto) several new Corps were created and assigned (1916-1917) to the 1st Army including the XXIX, V, XXVI, and XXII Corps. At this time the Trentino Front was defended by the III Corps (5th and 6th Divisions and the Brigata Valtellina) from Stevio to Garda; the XXIX Corps (37th and 27th Divisions), V Corps (55th and 69 Divisions), X Corps (32nd and 9th Divisions), three Corps of Truppe Altipiani (XXVI – 12th and 11th Divisions, XXII – 57th and 2nd Divisions and XX – 29th and 52 Divisions) from Garda to Sugana. The 1st Army did not take part in any major defensive or counteroffensive battles in 1917. The 1st Army did, however, defend
9936-441: The advanced positions, rather than on the rear positions, more suitable for defensive operations. In March 1916, the information services of the Army had the 1st news of a concentration of Austrian forces in the Trentino sector. These were to be the preparations for the so-called Strafexpedition , planned by the Chief of Staff of the Imperial Royal Austro-Hungarian Army, Field Marshal Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf . This offensive had
10080-444: The case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are careful not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages. The economic might and relatively advanced development of Tuscany at the time ( Late Middle Ages ) gave its language weight, although Venetian remained widespread in medieval Italian commercial life, and Ligurian (or Genoese) remained in use in maritime trade alongside
10224-463: The casualties of the combined Austrian and German armies were at least one million, with the Russians taking 417,000 prisoners alone. The Brusilov offensive is considered one of the most lethal offensives in world history . However, the figure of 500,000 Russian casualties refers only to the period from May 28 to July 13, 1916, that is, the first stage of the offensive of the Russian Southwestern Front. A calculation from Russian military archives gives
10368-653: The colonial period. In the early 19th century, Eritrea was the country with the highest number of Italians abroad, and the Italian Eritreans grew from 4,000 during World War I to nearly 100,000 at the beginning of World War II. In Asmara there are two Italian schools, the Italian School of Asmara (Italian primary school with a Montessori department) and the Liceo Sperimentale "G. Marconi" (Italian international senior high school). Italian
10512-546: The command of Lieutenant General Vittorio Camerana and the V Army Corps of Verona under the command of Lieutenant General Florenzo Aliprandi. Each Army Corps consisted of three infantry divisions, including field artillery and sapper units. In addition, there was a corps troop consisting of bersaglieri, alpini, cavalry, artillery and other specialists and an army troop consisting of infantry, cavalry, artillery and specialists. The 1st Army, which now had its headquarters in Verona,
10656-573: The country (some 0.42% of the total population). Their numbers dropped dramatically after World War II following the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus , which caused the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians. Italian was the official language of the Republic of Ragusa from 1492 to 1807. It formerly had official status in Albania due to the annexation of
10800-518: The country to the Kingdom of Italy (1939–1943). Albania has a large population of non-native speakers, with over half of the population having some knowledge of the Italian language. The Albanian government has pushed to make Italian a compulsory second language in schools. The Italian language is well-known and studied in Albania, due to its historical ties and geographical proximity to Italy and to
10944-446: The country. A few hundred Italian settlers returned to Libya in the 2000s. Italian was the official language of Eritrea during Italian colonisation . Italian is today used in commerce, and it is still spoken especially among elders; besides that, Italian words are incorporated as loan words in the main language spoken in the country (Tigrinya). The capital city of Eritrea, Asmara , still has several Italian schools, established during
11088-525: The country. The official census, carried out in 2002, reported 2,258 ethnic Italians ( Istrian Italians ) in Slovenia (0.11% of the total population). Italian language in Croatia is an official minority language in the country, with many schools and public announcements published in both languages. The 2001 census in Croatia reported 19,636 ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians ) in
11232-475: The day after Italy entered the war, these Italian troops, taking advantage of the fact that the Austro-Hungarian troops were deployed far from the border, conquered terrain of considerable strategic value, such as Monte Altissimo, Coni Zunga and parts of the Val d'Adige and Vallarsa, near Lake Garda. However, starting from August, after the failure of new attacks against the Austro-Hungarian permanent fortifications (on
11376-436: The defences of Joseph Ferdinand's 4th Army ... After two days of careful artillery fire and infantry attacks, Kaledin was confident their success was close. His troops had overrun both the first and second lines of enemy defences, and had inflicted heavy losses on the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army." Ferdinand was almost out of artillery ammunition, had used all of his reserves, and was forced to seek help from Linsingen 's Army of
11520-464: The design and fashion industries, in some sports such as football and especially in culinary terms. In Italy, almost all the other languages spoken as the vernacular —other than standard Italian and some languages spoken among immigrant communities—are often called " Italian dialects ", a label that can be very misleading if it is understood to mean "dialects of Italian". The Romance dialects of Italy are local evolutions of spoken Latin that pre-date
11664-534: The diffusion of Italian television in the country. Due to heavy Italian influence during the Italian colonial period , Italian is still understood by some in former colonies such as Libya. Although it was the primary language in Libya since colonial rule , Italian greatly declined under the rule of Muammar Gaddafi , who expelled the Italian Libyan population and made Arabic the sole official language of
11808-595: The east after the Battle of Verdun began in February 1916. Besides the complacency felt by the Germans and Austro-Hungarians after their successful defense of Russian attacks that winter and March, the Austro-Hungarians were in the midst of implementing their plans to knock Italy out of the war. Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf had transferred Kövess ' troops from the Balkans as well as four divisions from
11952-478: The educated gentlemen was to make the Grand Tour , visiting Italy to see its great historical monuments and works of art. It was expected that the visitor would learn at least some Italian, understood as language based on Florentine. In England, while the classical languages Latin and Greek were the first to be learned, Italian became the second most common modern language after French, a position it held until
12096-552: The entanglements to remain intact during the Russian attack. By these methods Brusilov hoped to lessen the exposure, and increase the surprise, of his attacking troops. Instead of massed formations, each of Brusilov's armies would attack along a 15 km wide sector of their choice, attacking in waves with two reinforced infantry corps. On 4 June, the Russians opened the offensive with heavy artillery fire. Alexander Winogradsky's artillery brigade used 76mm guns to open 24 breaches in
12240-462: The establishment of Italian, and as such are sister languages to the Tuscan that was the historical source of Italian. They can be quite different from Italian and from each other, with some belonging to different linguistic branches of Romance. The only exceptions to this are twelve groups considered " historical language minorities ", which are officially recognized as distinct minority languages by
12384-433: The fact that it was linguistically an intermediate between the northern and the southern Italian dialects. Thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the official language of Italy. Italian was progressively made an official language of most of the Italian states predating unification, slowly replacing Latin, even when ruled by foreign powers (such as Spain in the Kingdom of Naples , or Austria in
12528-481: The following small battles: As the final battle (Vittorio Veneto) began at the end of October, the 1st Army (along with the 7th) was to maintain a strictly defensive position. However, as the battle progressed and the Austro-Hungarian Army at 1st retreated, then collapsed into a disorganized retreat, the 1st Army began an offensive thrust towards Rovereto and the city of Trento. On 2 November, while
12672-476: The free website and application Duolingo has 4.94 million English speakers learning the Italian language. According to the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , every year there are more than 200,000 foreign students who study the Italian language; they are distributed among the 90 Institutes of Italian Culture that are located around the world, in the 179 Italian schools located abroad, or in
12816-470: The front line. He used them to dig entrenchments about 300 m × 90 m (328 yd × 98 yd) along the front line. These provided shelter for the troops and hindered observation by the Austrians. Brusilov extended his army's trenches forward as far as possible, in some cases to within 100m of the Austro-Hungarian positions. Tunnels were also dug below the Russian barbed wire, allowing
12960-414: The intent to defeat the Italian army, unleashing an offensive through the lines of the 1st Army to take the entire Italian Isonzo deployment from the rear. In view of a probable enemy offensive, at his request, Cadorna granted Brusati five further divisions. However, Cadorna remained persuaded that nothing would happen in that sector. Still Brusati's troops were strung-out after their offensive advances and
13104-489: The island of Corsica (but not in the neighbouring Sardinia , which on the contrary underwent Italianization well into the late 18th century, under Savoyard sway: the island's linguistic composition, roofed by the prestige of Spanish among the Sardinians , would therein make for a rather slow process of assimilation to the Italian cultural sphere ). The rediscovery of Dante's De vulgari eloquentia , as well as
13248-577: The language has a 7-vowel sound system ('e' and 'o' have mid-low and mid-high sounds). Italian has contrast between short and long consonants and gemination (doubling) of consonants. During the Middle Ages , the established written language in Europe was Latin, although the great majority of people were illiterate, and only few were well versed in the language. In the Italian Peninsula , as in most of Europe, most would instead speak
13392-640: The language to that continent. According to some sources, Italian is the second most spoken language in Argentina after the official language of Spanish, although its number of speakers, mainly of the older generation, is decreasing. Italian bilingual speakers can be found scattered across the Southeast of Brazil as well as in the South. In Venezuela , Italian is the most spoken language after Spanish and Portuguese, with around 200,000 speakers. In Uruguay , people who speak Italian as their home language are 1.1% of
13536-498: The late 18th century when it tended to be replaced by German. John Milton , for instance, wrote some of his early poetry in Italian. Within the Catholic Church , Italian is known by a large part of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and is used in substitution for Latin in some official documents. Italian loanwords continue to be used in most languages in matters of art and music (especially classical music including opera), in
13680-534: The late 19th to the mid-20th century, millions of Italians settled in Argentina, Uruguay, Southern Brazil and Venezuela, as well as in Canada and the United States, where they formed a physical and cultural presence. In some cases, colonies were established where variants of regional languages of Italy were used, and some continue to use this regional language. Examples are Rio Grande do Sul , Brazil, where Talian
13824-567: The law. On the other hand, Corsican (a language spoken on the French island of Corsica ) is closely related to medieval Tuscan , from which Standard Italian derives and evolved. The differences in the evolution of Latin in the different regions of Italy can be attributed to the natural changes that all languages in regular use are subject to, and to some extent to the presence of three other types of languages: substrata, superstrata, and adstrata . The most prevalent were substrata (the language of
13968-450: The lines of the 1st Army and on that occasion he even refused to meet Brusati because, according to some, he already had plans to dismiss him. On 8 May Brusati was relieved from command by Cadorna and replaced by General Guglielmo Pecori Giraldi, eight days before the Austro-Hungarian counter-offensive began. Ultimately the 1st Army along with elements of the newly created Fifth Army prevailed in this major Austro-Hungarian action, helped by
14112-455: The losses, the Russian armies were still being reinforced with new forces, the number of weapons increased, and new railways were being built. The result of the battle will fully restore Russia's prestige among the allies, which forced them to make serious territorial concessions, such as Anatolia and Constantinople, the French government confirmed the possibility of the Russians themselves to choose which territories to tear away from Germany after
14256-692: The mountains between January and May. There were continuous patrols which occasionally led to small firefights and artillery shelling (including aerial bombardments). This Army saw minor action in Mt. Cornone (Altopiano di Asiago), Tre Monti and the Val Lagarina subsector (Conca dei Laghi and Castello Mori), and the Vallarsa ( Mt. Corno ). During the Austrian Offensive in June 1918 (Second Battle of
14400-412: The nation was unified in 1861. Italian is a Romance language , a descendant of Vulgar Latin (colloquial spoken Latin). Standard Italian is based on Tuscan , especially its Florentine dialect , and is, therefore, an Italo-Dalmatian language , a classification that includes most other central and southern Italian languages and the extinct Dalmatian . According to Ethnologue , lexical similarity
14544-408: The number of printing presses in Italy grew rapidly and by the year 1500 reached a total of 56, the biggest number of printing presses in all of Europe. This enabled the production of more pieces of literature at a lower cost and Italian, as the dominant language, spread. Italian became the language used in the courts of every state in the Italian Peninsula , as well as the prestige variety used on
14688-648: The onset of the Russian Revolution the following year. It was the largest battle in World War I according to the total losses and forces of the parties. Under the terms of the Chantilly Agreement of December 1915, Russia, France , Britain and Italy committed to simultaneous attacks against the Central Powers in the summer of 1916. Russia felt reluctantly obliged to lend troops to fight in France and Salonika , and to attack on
14832-630: The openness of vowels, the length of the consonants, and influence of the local language (for example, in informal situations andà , annà and nare replace the standard Italian andare in the area of Tuscany, Rome and Venice respectively for the infinitive "to go"). There is no definitive date when the various Italian variants of Latin—including varieties that contributed to modern Standard Italian—began to be distinct enough from Latin to be considered separate languages. One criterion for determining that two language variants are to be considered separate languages rather than variants of
14976-474: The operation, with the 4th Army losing 80,000, having advanced only 5 km. Likewise, Kuropatkin 's Northern Front offensive in mid-July failed to appreciably change the front line. On 4 July, attacks by Lesh's 3rd Army and Kaledin's 8th Army forced Linsingen to withdraw westwards to the Stochod river on 6 July. On 5 July Archduke Karl took command of the new 12th Army , while on 9 July, Kövesz 3rd Army
15120-584: The original inhabitants), as the Italian dialects were most probably simply Latin as spoken by native cultural groups. Superstrata and adstrata were both less important. Foreign conquerors of Italy that dominated different regions at different times left behind little to no influence on the dialects. Foreign cultures with which Italy engaged in peaceful relations with, such as trade, had no significant influence either. Throughout Italy, regional varieties of Standard Italian, called Regional Italian , are spoken. Regional differences can be recognized by various factors:
15264-458: The other hand, almost everyone still speaks the Corsican idiom , which, due to its linguistic proximity to the Italian standard language, appears both linguistically as an Italian dialect and therefore as a carrier of Italian culture, despite the French government's decades-long efforts to cut Corsica off from the Italian motherland. Italian was the official language in Monaco until 1860, when it
15408-419: The overall campaign, for which Brusilov's part was only supposed to be a distraction, because of Evert's failures, became tremendously costly for the imperial army, and after the offensive, it was no longer able to launch another on the same scale. Many historians contend that the casualties that the Russian army suffered in this campaign contributed significantly to its collapse the following year. The operation
15552-406: The population of Italy could speak Standard Italian. He reports that in 1951 that percentage had risen to 87%. The ability to speak Italian did not necessarily mean it was in everyday use, and most people (63.5%) still usually spoke their native dialects. In addition, other factors such as mass emigration, industrialization, and urbanization, and internal migrations after World War II , contributed to
15696-469: The proliferation of Standard Italian. The Italians who emigrated during the Italian diaspora beginning in 1861 were often of the uneducated lower class, and thus the emigration had the effect of increasing the percentage of literates, who often knew and understood the importance of Standard Italian, back home in Italy. A large percentage of those who had emigrated also eventually returned to Italy, often more educated than when they had left. Although use of
15840-528: The pronunciation of stressed "e", and of "s" between vowels in many words: e.g. va bene "all right" is pronounced [vabˈbɛːne] by a Roman (and by any standard Italian speaker), [vaˈbeːne] by a Milanese (and by any speaker whose native dialect lies to the north of the La Spezia–Rimini Line ); a casa "at home" is [akˈkaːsa] for Roman, [akˈkaːsa] or [akˈkaːza] for standard, [aˈkaːza] for Milanese and generally northern. In contrast to
15984-415: The publication of Agnolo Monosini 's Latin tome Floris italicae linguae libri novem in 1604 followed by the first Italian dictionary in 1612. An important event that helped the diffusion of Italian was the conquest and occupation of Italy by Napoleon in the early 19th century (who was himself of Italian-Corsican descent). This conquest propelled the unification of Italy some decades after and pushed
16128-487: The referendum that allowed France to annex Savoy and Nice, and a group of his followers (among the Italian Savoyards ) took refuge in Italy in the following years. Corsica passed from the Republic of Genoa to France in 1769 after the Treaty of Versailles . Italian was the official language of Corsica until 1859. Giuseppe Garibaldi called for the inclusion of the " Corsican Italians " within Italy when Rome
16272-481: The same day, none of them were able to maintain their efforts for long..." Lechitsky's 9th Army and Shcherbachev's 7th Army made simultaneous attacks further south, with Lechitsky able to advance the front line to outside Stanislau , capturing it on 11 August. On 7 August, Brusilov resumed his offensive to take Kovel. By 8 August, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians had stopped the Russians, and on 9 August, Brusilov halted any further attempt to take Kovel. The offensive
16416-672: The situation of the Austro-Hungarian army became increasingly pessimistic, the Italian Supreme Command also set in motion the troops of the 1st Army of Giraldi. Since the previous night the Xth Army Corps had attacked in Val d'Astico encountering little resistance; consequently Giraldi decided to speed up the operations and his troops immediately advanced in the Tonezza plateau and in the Luserna plateau. The march of
16560-472: The state of the defenses was ill-prepared. In disagreement with Cadorna, Brusati deployed the defense at the end of the advanced positions counting on the solidity of the strengthening work carried out until then. In addition, on 1 April, the Army again went on the offensive, launching assaults which achieved some partial successes, but at the cost of the defense. In the second half of April General Cadorna visited
16704-535: The support of the German Army for its military successes. On the other hand, the German Army did not suffer much from the operation and retained most of its offensive power afterward. The early success of the offensive convinced Romania to enter the war on the side of the Entente , which led to the failure of the 1916 campaign . The Brusilov Offensive was the high point of the Russian effort during World War I, and
16848-473: The teachings of the Roman Catholic Church began to be understood from new perspectives as humanists —individuals who placed emphasis on the human body and its full potential—began to shift focus from the church to human beings themselves. The continual advancements in technology play a crucial role in the diffusion of languages. After the invention of the printing press in the 15th century,
16992-469: The title Divina , were read throughout the peninsula and his written dialect became the "canonical standard" that all educated Italians could understand. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language. In addition to the widespread exposure gained through literature, the Florentine dialect also gained prestige due to the political and cultural significance of Florence at the time and
17136-542: The total population of the country. In Australia, Italian is the second most spoken foreign language after Chinese, with 1.4% of the population speaking it as their home language. The main Italian-language newspapers published outside Italy are the L'Osservatore Romano ( Vatican City ), the L'Informazione di San Marino ( San Marino ), the Corriere del Ticino and the laRegione Ticino ( Switzerland ),
17280-593: The war, the effects of the Brusilov offensive were far-reaching. It relieved German pressure on French forces at Verdun , and helped to relieve the Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians . It inflicted irreparable losses on the Austro-Hungarian Army , and induced Romania to finally enter the war on the side of the Entente. The human and material losses on the Russian side also greatly contributed to
17424-587: The war. The offensive involved a major Russian attack against the armies of the Central Powers on the Eastern Front . Launched on 4 June 1916, it lasted until late September. It took place in eastern Galicia (present-day northwestern Ukraine ), in the Lviv and Volyn Oblasts . The offensive is named after the commander in charge of the Southwestern Front of the Imperial Russian Army, General Aleksei Brusilov . The largest and most lethal offensive of
17568-430: The west. On 28 July, Hindenburg was placed in command of the front up to the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, with Archduke Karl in command from that point south. On 24 July, artillery preparations began for the Russian assault in the Battle of Kovel . According to Buttar, "The fighting that extended from 28 July into early August was curiously disjointed...Although Lesh, Bezobrazov and Kaledin all launched their attacks on
17712-661: The western Allies caused the Russians to hurry their preparations. Brusilov amassed four armies totaling 40 infantry divisions and 15 cavalry divisions. He faced 39 Austro-Hungarian infantry divisions and 10 cavalry divisions, formed in a row of three defensive lines, as well as German reinforcements that were later brought up. Deception efforts on the Russian side were intended to conceal the point of attack. They included false radio traffic, false orders sent by messengers who were intended to be captured, and equipment displays including dummy artillery. Brusilov, knowing he would not receive significant reinforcements, moved his reserves up to
17856-659: The working languages of the Council of Europe . It is the third-most-widely spoken native language in the European Union (13% of the EU population) and it is spoken as a second language by 13.4 million EU citizens (3%). Including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries (such as Switzerland, Albania and the United Kingdom ) and on other continents, the total number of speakers is approximately 85 million. Italian
18000-723: Was a Corps Troop at Verona consisting of infantry battalions, artillery, bomb units, cavalry and engineer units. For the balance of 1916, this Army engaged in fights and other actions in what became known as the White War . There were attacks on Monte Pasubio (in September and October), Monte Cimone (in September), in Val Sugana (in August and September) and numerous small actions in Val Sugana, Val Posina and Altipiano d'Asiago. Many soldiers also died in avalanches . In November 1916
18144-502: Was a graphic demonstration of Brusilov's theories. Pressure across a broad front forced the defenders to commit their reserves and left no sectors that could release troops to aid others." By 11 June, Pflanzer-Baltin's Gruppe Benigni and XII Corps were forming new defensive lines to the west, as his XI Corps retreated south across the Prut . According to Buttar, adding those killed, wounded, or taken prisoner, "...the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army
18288-735: Was a manifestation of good leadership and planning on the part of the Imperial Russian Army coupled with great skill of the lower ranks. According to John Keegan , "the Brusilov Offensive was, on the scale by which success was measured in the foot-by-foot fighting of the First World War, the greatest victory seen on any front since the trench lines had been dug on the Aisne two years before ". The Brusilov offensive commanded by Brusilov himself went very well, but
18432-488: Was a shadow of its former self." On 11 June, Felix Graf von Bothmer 's South Army prepared a counterattack using Arthur Arz von Straußenburg 's VI Corps. However, Scherbachev was ready and the front line remained unchanged. On 11 June, while pursuing the Austro-Hungarian Army in Bukovina , Russian forces inadvertently crossed into Romanian territory , where they overwhelmed the border guard at Mamornița and had
18576-724: Was able to capture Kolomea. On 19 June, Russian cavalry, led by Mikhail Promtov crossed the Siret , and on 20 June reached the Carpathian Foothills . However, by the end of June, Southwest Front's casualties amounted to a costly 285,000. On 15 June, Linsingen ordered a counterattack, concentrating around the Lutsk salient formed by Kaledin's offensive. Attacking forces included Puhallo's 1st Army, Tersztyánsky's 4th Army, Georg von der Marwitz 's German X Corps, and Gruppe Bernhardi . However, after three days of fighting, little
18720-582: Was added under Lt. General Bertotti; along with the X Corps (9th and 20th Divisions) under Lt. Gen. Grandi; a new Truppe Altipiani commanded by Lt. General Mambretti and consisting of the XII Corps (30th, 29th and 25th Divisions) under Lt. Gen. Zoppi and the XX Corps (13th, 28th and an Alpini Unit) under Lt. General Montuori; and the XVIII Corps (15th Division and 2nd Cavalry) under Lt. Gen. Etna. There
18864-561: Was also introduced to Somalia through colonialism and was the sole official language of administration and education during the colonial period but fell out of use after government, educational and economic infrastructure were destroyed in the Somali Civil War . Italian is also spoken by large immigrant and expatriate communities in the Americas and Australia. Although over 17 million Americans are of Italian descent , only
19008-525: Was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy , but King Victor Emmanuel II did not agree to it. Italian is generally understood in Corsica by the population resident therein who speak Corsican , which is an Italo-Romance idiom similar to Tuscan. Francization occurred in Nice case, and caused a near-disappearance of the Italian language as many of the Italian speakers in these areas migrated to Italy. In Corsica, on
19152-473: Was arguably the most successful offensive in the entirety of the First World War. The victory contributed to a morale upsurge among the Russian troops, in 1917, Nicholas II planned a general offensive along the entire front in order to end the Central Powers . After the victory, the Petrograd conference [ ru ] was held at which the post-war structure of the world was discussed. Even despite
19296-406: Was changed in the position of the front lines, even after the addition of Gruppe Falkenhayn on 21 June. Linsingen then decided to reinforce that attack group in a thrust towards Lutsk, but under the command of Marwitz, with the attack to commence on 30 June. Brusilov was preparing his own continued offensive, with Leonid Lesh 's 3rd Army advancing towards Pinsk , Kaledin's 8th Army towards Kovel,
19440-474: Was created from a portion of Pflanzer-Baltin's 7th Army that had retreated westward. Pflanzer-Baltin remained in command of the 7th Army that had retreated towards the Carpathians. Recognizing Southwest Front had the best chance to advance the Russian front lines, Ragoza's 4th Army was dispersed into Brusilov's 2nd and 10th Armies, and Brusilov was given Bezobrazov 's Guards Army. Southwest Front now had
19584-772: Was deployed from the Stelvio Pass to the Rolle Pass/Cismon or about 200 kilometers along the war front, with the III Army Corps responsible from the Swiss border to the Lake Garda area and the V Army Corps from Garda to Rolle/Cismon, where the 4th Army began its sector. This was designated the Trentino Front. According to the plans of the supreme commander of the army, the 1st Army was to maintain
19728-455: Was essentially over, according to Buttar, "Attacks continued on until the autumn rains turned the roads to mud, but other than add to the already terrible casualty list, nothing was achieved." Brusilov's operation achieved its original goal of forcing Germany to halt its attack on Verdun and transfer considerable forces to the East. Afterward, the Austro-Hungarian Army increasingly had to rely on
19872-706: Was informed by Alexeyev that Evert's West Front would not be able to commence their attacks before 18 June. Meanwhile, Linsingen ordered Friedrich von Bernhardi to gather German forces for a counterattack. On 8 June, in response to appeals for help from Conrad, Erich von Falkenhayn organized five German divisions under the command of Linsingen, concentrating them near Kovel for a counterattack. Brusilov moved to protect his northern flank, while all of his armies continued to maintain pressure all along his Southwest Front. On 9 and 10 June, Lechitsky's 9th Army advanced upon Doroschoutz, Okna and Czarny Potok, as Pflanzer-Baltin's 7th Army troops retreated. According to Buttar, "It
20016-561: Was later reduced, limiting its role to the defense of the Trentino borders and the Verona area. Its commanders were: The 1st Army originated with the Army of Milan which became, in October 1914, the 1st Army. In addition to various army corps (up to five), it had available to it large units not included in the army corps: infantry and cavalry divisions and groups of Alpine troops. Even
20160-506: Was marked by a considerable improvement in the quality of Russian tactics. Brusilov used smaller, specialized units to attack weak points in the Austro-Hungarian trench lines and blow open holes for the rest of the army to advance into. These were a remarkable departure from the human wave attacks that had dominated the strategy of all the major armies until that point during World War I. Evert used conventional tactics that were to prove costly and indecisive, thereby costing Russia its chance for
20304-443: Was mirrored by a decline in the use of the dialects. An increase in literacy was one of the main driving factors (one can assume that only literates were capable of learning Standard Italian, whereas those who were illiterate had access only to their native dialect). The percentage of literates rose from 25% in 1861 to 60% in 1911, and then on to 78.1% in 1951. Tullio De Mauro , an Italian linguist, has asserted that in 1861 only 2.5% of
20448-814: Was part of the re-organization of the Italian Army after Caporetto, the modifications were originally quite minor. In January 1918, the Order of Battle was essentially the same as the October changes except for the addition of the XXV Corps to the Truppe Altipiani under Gen. Zoppi. However, in March, the III Corps and a new Corps, the XIV were transferred to the newly created 7th Army which became responsible for
20592-460: Was replaced by Smekal as X Corps commander. After four days into the offensive, Buttar states, "Brusilov's revolutionary tactics had been stunningly successful: artillery had been used with a precision that was unprecedented; infantry had worked their way close to the defences before launching their attacks; and those attacks had not used the traditional lines of men that were so easy for machineguns and defensive artillery to destroy." However, Brusilov
20736-406: Was replaced by the French. This was due to the annexation of the surrounding County of Nice to France following the Treaty of Turin (1860) . It formerly had official status in Montenegro (because of the Venetian Albania ), parts of Slovenia and Croatia (because of the Venetian Istria and Venetian Dalmatia ), parts of Greece (because of the Venetian rule in the Ionian Islands and by
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