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101-509: The presence of a numerous community of Italians in Tunisia has ancient origins, but it is only from the first half of the 19th century that its economic and social weight became critical in many fields of the social life of the country. The Republic of Genoa owned the island of Tabarka near Biserta , where the Genoese family Lomellini, who had purchased the grant of the coral fishing from

202-470: A French university. The first Italians in Tunisia at the beginning of the 19th century were mainly traders and professionals in search of new opportunities, coming from Liguria and the other regions of northern Italy. In those years even a great number of Italian political exiles (related to Giuseppe Mazzini and the Carbonari organizations) were forced into expatriation in Tunisia, in order to escape

303-798: A central position in the Mediterranean slave trade at this time. This left the Republic with only one major rival in the Mediterranean: Venice. The Genoese slave trade and the Venetian slave trade were the main players of the slave trade in the Mediterranean during the middle ages. Genoese Crusaders brought home a green glass goblet from the Levant , which Genoese long regarded as the Holy Grail . Not all of Genoa's merchandise

404-675: A climate of constant economic and power decline, in 1729 the Republic had to face another revolt in Corsica. It is considered the first moment of real rupture between the island and the Genoese Republic: perhaps the most important, because the representatives of the Church in full harmony with the Roman Curia , "justified" the war. This time the Genoese government requested the help of Charles VI , who sent 10,000 German infantry of

505-699: A key factor in the triumph of the Genoese Republic is still recognized, and its coat of arms is depicted in the flag of the Italian Navy . In 1284, Genoa fought victoriously against the Republic of Pisa in the Battle of Meloria for dominance over the Tyrrhenian Sea , and it was an eternal rival of Venice for dominance in the Mediterranean as a whole. The republic began when Genoa became

606-667: A large portion of the trade of the Byzantine Empire , Tripoli (Libya), the Principality of Antioch , Cilician Armenia , and Egypt. Although Genoa maintained free-trading rights in Egypt and Syria, it lost some of its territorial possessions after Saladin's campaigns in those areas in the late 12th century. In 1147, Genoa took part in the Siege of Almería , helping Alfonso VII of León and Castile reconquer that city from

707-528: A naval ascendency that was the source of their power and position within northern Italy. The Genoan defeat deprived Genoa of this naval supremacy, pushed it out of eastern Mediterranean markets and began the decline of the city-state. Rising Ottoman power also cut into the Genoese emporia in the Aegean, and the Black Sea trade was reduced. In 1396, in order to protect the republic from internal unrest and

808-578: A number of Italian city-states during this period. Nominally, the Holy Roman Emperor was overlord and the Bishop of Genoa was president of the city; however, actual power was wielded by a number of " consuls " annually elected by popular assembly . At that time Muslim raiders were attacking coastal cities on the Tyrrhenian Sea . Muslims raided Pisa in 1000, and in 1015 they escalated their attacks, raiding Luni . Mujahid al-Siqlabi , Emir of

909-612: A part of the Genoese army returned to Genoa with the relics of Saint John the Baptist , granted to the Republic of Genoa as part of their reward for providing military support to the First Crusade. Many settlements in the Middle East were given to Genoa as well as favorable commercial treaties . Genoa later allied with King Baldwin I of Jerusalem (reigned 1100–1118). To secure the alliance, Baldwin gave Genoa one-third of

1010-489: A residential bishopric, Clypea is now listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see . The town's Kelibia Olympic Club, founded in 1957 and active since 1959, is one of the best Tunisian volleyball clubs. The club has won two Tunisian championship titles (in 1977 and 2003), eight cups (1972, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1989, 2004 and 2011) and an Arab Cup of clubs' champions (in 1998). Since 1964, Kélibia has hosted

1111-677: A self-governing commune in the 11th century and ended when it was conquered by the French First Republic under Napoleon and replaced with the Ligurian Republic . The Ligurian Republic was annexed by the First French Empire in 1805; its restoration was briefly proclaimed in 1814 following the defeat of Napoleon, but it was annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1815. From the 11th century to 1528 it

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1212-458: A small number of noble houses in the city organized into 28 " Alberghi ", in particular: Kelibia Kelibia ( Kélibia ) (Arabic: قليبية Qlībiya ), often referred to as Klibia or Gallipia by European writers, is a coastal town on the Cap Bon peninsula, Nabeul Governorate in the far north-eastern part of Tunisia . Its sand beaches are considered some of the finest in

1313-586: A strong tradition of trading goods from the Levant and its financial expertise was recognised all over Europe. After a brief period of French domination from 1394 to 1409, Genoa came under the rule of the Visconti of Milan . Genoa lost Sardinia to Aragon , Corsica to internal revolt, and its colonies in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Asia Minor to the Ottoman Empire . In the 15th century, two of

1414-404: Is so tempting to land-hungry Italy as France's North African protectorate—Tunisia. For nearly 60 years, Tunisia was reasonably contented. The country is fertile—a major producer of olive oil and fertilizer, it may also have oil. Tunisia has strategic importance in a major Mediterranean war and could make Rome again master of this sea.The French employ a Muslim figurehead, who, in return for his keep,

1515-568: Is supposed to ensure that the Muslim population is content. The fascist imperial state of Italy has sent advance men sent into Tunisia, so that there are more Italians in French Tunisia than in all African colonies. Well supplied with fascist funds, Italy's consuls and their agents have long been busy systematically undermining French influence of authority. Italian banks are generous to Italian colonists, Italians have their own schools loyal to

1616-514: The lingua franca in the field of the commerce in the Maghreb . After the 1848 revolutions many Italian patriots sought refuge in Tunis; among them were Giuseppe Morpurgo and Pompeo Sulema , from Leghorn (even Garibaldi had called at Tunis in 1834 to advise Bey Hussein on the administration of a modern navy; he came back in 1849 and was hosted at Palazzo Gnecco, Rue de l'Ancienne Douane.) Among

1717-686: The Aegean Sea . The islands of Chios and Lesbos became commercial stations of Genoa as well as the city of Smyrna (İzmir). Genoa and Pisa became the only states with trading rights in the Black Sea . In the same century the Republic conquered many settlements in Crimea , where the Genoese colony of Caffa was established. The alliance with the restored Byzantine Empire increased the wealth and power of Genoa, and simultaneously decreased Venetian and Pisan commerce. The Byzantine Empire had granted

1818-482: The Banca siciliana ) and some Italian newspapers (like L'Unione ), but even Italian hospitals, teachers, cinemas, schools (primary and secondary) and health assistance organizations. The March of Times (a documentary from Time magazine) in 1939 stated that "...With 1 million trained soldiers and its powerful navy, Italy is in a position to execute its plan for Mediterranean conquest. Of all Mediterranean plums, none

1919-657: The Berlin Congress . In 1881 a French force crossed the Algerian frontier under pretext of chastising the independent Khmir tribes on the north-east of the regency, and, quickly dropping the mask, advanced on the capital and compelled the Bey to accept the French protectorate. The actual conquest of the country was not effected without a serious struggle with the existing Muslim population, especially at Sfax ; but all Tunisia

2020-631: The Corsican Republic was declared in 1755. Eventually relying on French intervention to quash the rebellion, Genoa was forced to cede Corsica to the French in the 1768 Treaty of Versailles . In 1794 and 1795 the revolutionary echoes from France reached Genoa, thanks to Genoese propagandists and refugees sheltered in the nearby state of the Alps, and in 1794 a conspiracy against the aristocratic and oligarchic ruling class developed. However, in May 1797

2121-621: The Council of Carthage (411) , which brought together Catholic and Donatist bishops, Clypea was represented by Bishop Leodicius and the Donatist Geminius. Aurilius was one of the bishops whom the Arian Vandal king Huneric summoned to Carthage in 484 and then exiled. Two other bishops of Clypia took part in the Council of Carthage (525) (Bishop Crescentius) and Council of Carthage (645) (Bishop Stephanus). No longer

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2222-456: The French language and allowing, on request, French citizenship to foreign residents. Some Sicilians become French: in the 1926 Census there were 30,000 French "of foreign language" in Tunisia. For example, attending free French schools, Mario Scalesi , the son of poor Sicilian emigrants, became a French speaker and in French wrote Les poèmes d’un maudit ("The poems of one damned") and was thus

2323-798: The House of Bourbon in the War of the Austrian Succession . Consequently, the Republic of Genoa signed a secret treaty with the Bourbon allies of Kingdom of France , Spanish Empire and Kingdom of Naples . On 26 June 1745, the Republic of Genoa declared war on the Kingdom of Sardinia. This decision would prove disastrous for Genoa, which later surrendered to the Austrians in September 1746 and

2424-586: The Imperial Army , after the payment by Genoa of 60,000 florins and 100 scudi for each dead soldier, joining the Republic's soldiers commanded by Camillo Doria. Genoa managed to contain the rebellion, however this did not prove lasting. Another revolt broke out in 1733, causing the Genoese to again appeal to the Emperor, but the Imperial Army was tied up against the French in the ongoing War of

2525-512: The Kelibia International Amateur Film Festival , the oldest of its kind in the country. The main landmark of Kelibia is the recently restored Kelibia Fort overlooking the harbor. Kelibia is a fishing port and is home to Tunisia's National Fishing School. The town has a population of 52,000 (2014 census). The 'Muscat de Kélibia', a fruity regional white wine is widely recognized as one of the best of

2626-466: The Lordship of Arsuf , one-third of Caesarea , and one-third of Acre and its port's income. Additionally the Republic of Genoa would receive 300 bezants every year, and one-third of Baldwin's conquest every time 50 or more Genoese soldiers joined his troops. The Republic's role as a maritime power in the region secured many favorable commercial treaties for Genoese merchants. They came to control

2727-543: The Ottoman Turks , maintained a garrison from 1540 to 1742. Here may still be seen the ruins of a stronghold, a church and some Genoese buildings. At Tabarka the ruins consist of a pit once used as a church and some fragments of walls which belonged to Christian buildings. Italian Jews from Livorno created the first foreign community in Tunisia, after the 16th century. In those centuries, the Italian language became

2828-577: The Taifa of Denia attacked Sardinia with a fleet of 125 ships. In 1016, the allied troops of Genoa and Pisa defended Sardinia . In 1066, war erupted between Genoa and Pisa – possibly over control of Sardinia. The republic was one of the so-called "Maritime Republics" ( Repubbliche Marinare ), along with Venice , Pisa , Amalfi , Gaeta , Ancona , and Ragusa . In 1087, Genoese and Pisan fleets, led by Hugh of Pisa , and accompanied by troops from Pantaleone of Amalfi , Salerno , and Gaeta , attacked

2929-558: The Trentino . At the end of the 19th century, Tunisia received the immigration of tens of thousands of Italians, mainly from Sicily and also Sardinia . As a consequence, in the first years of the 20th century there were more than 100,000 Italian residents in Tunisia. They concentrated not only in Tunis , Biserta , La Goulette , and Sfax , but even in small cities like Zaghouan , Bouficha , Kelibia , and Ferryville . In those years,

3030-453: The languages of Italy (especially Italian , Sicilian and Neapolitan ), while the assimilated ones speak Tunisian Arabic and French only. In religion, most are Roman Catholic Christians . Small list of notable Tunisians of Italian descent: Republic of Genoa The Republic of Genoa ( Ligurian : Repúbrica de Zêna [ɾeˈpybɾika de ˈzeːna] ; Italian : Repubblica di Genova ; Latin : Res Publica Ianuensis )

3131-523: The treaty of the alliance was signed in Nymphaeum . On July 25, 1261, Nicaean troops under Alexios Strategopoulos recaptured Constantinople. As a result, the balance of favour tipped toward Genoa, which was granted free trade rights in the Nicene Empire. Besides the control of commerce in the hands of Genoese merchants, Genoa received ports and way stations in many islands and settlements in

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3232-520: The " Annales ianuenses ". The Republic of Genoa's governance history is divided into five stages: The republic was substantially democratic in shape, while those of the Podestàs and the Captains of the people strongly restored the often conflicting relationship between the authority and the freedom. The perpetual doges, on the other hand, proclaimed themselves popular, even though sometimes crossing

3333-526: The "old nobility" entrenched in the mountain fastnesses behind Genoa, captured the city on May 30, 1522, and subjected the city to a pillage. When the admiral Andrea Doria of the powerful Doria family allied with the Emperor Charles V to oust the French and restore Genoa's independence, a renewed prospect opened: 1528 marks the first loan from Genoese banks to Charles. Under the ensuing economic recovery, many aristocratic Genoese families, such as

3434-699: The 1968 movie Once Upon a Time in the West of Sergio Leone , was born in La Goletta in 1938. Even the Tunisian language has many words borrowed from the Italian language . For example, "fatchatta" from Italian "facciata" (facade), "trino" from Italian "treno" (train), "miziria" from Italian "miseria" (misery), "jilat" from Italian "gelato" (ice cream), "guirra" from Italian "guerra" (war), etc.... Most Italian Tunisians speak Tunisian Arabic , French , and any of

3535-630: The 19th century, who constituted nearly half the population until the 1950s (the international actress Claudia Cardinale was born there in 1938). The presence of the Italians was fundamental in the process of cultural modernization of the country with the creation of various schools and institutes of culture, with the foundation of newspapers and reviews in Italian language and with the construction of hospitals, roads and small manufacturing industries, supported by Italian financial institutions. The British Encyclopedia states that "...after 1862, however,

3636-581: The Balbi, Doria, Grimaldi, Pallavicini, and Serra, amassed tremendous fortunes. According to Felipe Fernandez-Armesto and others, the practices Genoa developed in the Mediterranean (such as chattel slavery ) were crucial in the exploration and exploitation of the New World. At the time of Genoa's peak in the 16th century, the city attracted many artists, including Rubens , Caravaggio , and van Dyck . The architect Galeazzo Alessi (1512–1572) designed many of

3737-474: The French citizenship between the Italians in Tunisia was one of the main reasons of the direct intervention of Mussolini in the Tunisian problems. From 1910 to 1926, the Italians were reduced by this French policy of assimilation from 105,000 to fewer than 90,000. In the 1926 census of the Tunisian colony, there were 173,281 Europeans, of which 89,216 were Italians, 71,020 French and 8,396 Maltese. Indeed, this

3838-415: The French regime, the Italian community in Tunisia began to disappear. This process was aggravated in the 1950s when Tunisia gained independence . In the 1946 census, the Italians in Tunisia numbered 84,935, but in 1959 (three years after many Italian settlers had left for Italy or France) there were only 51,702, and in 1969 there were fewer than 10,000. As of 2005, there are only 900, mainly concentrated in

3939-586: The German banking houses into chaos and ended the reign of the Fuggers as Spanish financiers. The Genoese bankers provided the unwieldy Habsburg system with fluid credit and a dependably regular income. In return the less dependable shipments of American silver were rapidly transferred from Seville to Genoa, to provide capital for further ventures. From about 1520 the Genoese controlled the Spanish port of Panama ,

4040-632: The Italian community was the main European community in the French Protectorate: Sicilians made up 72.5% of the community's population, while 16.3% were from central Italy (mainly Tuscan Jews), 3.8% were Sardinians and 2.5% from northern Italy (mainly from Veneto and Emilia ). The small city of La Goulette (called La Goletta by the Italian Tunisians) was practically developed by Italian immigrants in

4141-568: The Jewish community. The secretary of state of the Bey, today we would say the prime minister of the time, was often an Italian. In 1859 the trade convention between the Bey of Tunis and the consul general of Austria, Giovanni Gasparo Merlato, had been written in Italian; that is no wonder, since in the Austrian Empire as a federal entity, the official language for the Navy and most of the trade

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4242-522: The Kingdom of Sicily. Genoese bankers also profited from loans to the new nobility of Sicily. Corsica was formally annexed in 1347. Genoa was far more than a depot of drugs and spices from the East: an essential engine of its economy was the weaving of silk textiles, from imported thread, following the symmetrical styles of Byzantine and Sassanian silks. As a result of the economic retrenchment in Europe in

4343-471: The Mediterranean and the Black Sea, including Corsica from 1347 to 1768, Monaco , Southern Crimea from 1266 to 1475, and the islands of Lesbos and Chios from the 14th century to 1462 and 1566, respectively. With the arrival of the early modern period , the Republic had lost many of its colonies, and shifted its focus to banking. This was successful for Genoa, which remained a hub of capitalism , with highly developed banks and trading companies. Genoa

4444-589: The Mediterranean. Known in Roman times as Clypia or Clypea , ( Ancient Greek : Κλυπέα ) the town was founded by the Carthaginians as the fortified town of Aspis ( Ancient Greek : Ἀσπίς ) in the 5th century BC. The Siege of Aspis in 255   BC was the first battle of the First Punic War fought on African soil. Clypea was also the seat of an ancient Christian bishopric . At

4545-423: The Muslims. After the conquest the republic leased out its third of the city to one of its own citizens, Otto de Bonvillano , who swore fealty to the republic and promised to guard the city with three hundred men at all times. This demonstrates how Genoa's early efforts at expanding her influence involved enfeoffing private citizens to the commune and controlling overseas territories indirectly, rather than through

4646-406: The Netherlands in the early 17th century. The decline of Spain in the 17th century brought also the renewed decline of Genoa, and the Spanish crown's frequent bankruptcies, in particular, ruined many of Genoa's merchant houses. In 1684 the city was heavily bombarded by a French fleet as punishment for its alliance with Spain. In May 1625, a French-Savoian army briefly laid siege to Genoa. Though it

4747-474: The North African city of Mahdia , the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate . The attack, supported by Pope Victor III , became known as the Mahdia campaign . The attackers captured the city, but could not hold it against Arab forces. After the burning of the Arab fleet in the city's harbor, the Genoese and Pisan troops retreated. The destruction of the Arab fleet gave control of the Western Mediterranean to Genoa, Venice, and Pisa. This enabled Western Europe to supply

4848-403: The Philippines and to found the city of Zamboanga upon the conquests of the Sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao . In this situation Genoese Bankers were thus active in Spain's Mediterranean and New World possessions (Peru, Mexico, and Philippines ). The Genoese banker Ambrogio Spinola, Marquess of Los Balbases , for instance, raised and led an army that fought in the Eighty Years' War in

4949-553: The Polish Succession , and thus declined to intervene. Even before the rebellions, Genoa's control of the island had been loose; the Republic had effectively demilitarized itself, with only 2,000 soldiers (all spread throughout fortifications in Liguria) for a mainland population of about half a million, and law and order on Corsica were very weak, with nearly 900 homicides per 100,000 people there annually from 1701 to 1733. The Genoese government tried to ban private firearm ownership on Corsica without success. A guerilla war would continue on

5050-464: The Republic when in early June, the old elites who had ruled the state for all of its history were overthrown, giving birth to the Ligurian Republic on June 14, 1797, under the watchful care of Napoleonic France. After Bonaparte's seizure of power in France, a more conservative constitution was enacted, but the Ligurian Republic's life was short—in 1805 it was annexed by France, becoming the départements of Apennins , Gênes , and Montenotte . With

5151-419: The Republic, while the other 60 galleys were rented to individuals. More than 15,000 mercenaries were hired as rowmen and soldiers. The Pisan fleet avoided combat, and tried to wear out the Genoese fleet during 1283. On August 5, 1284, in the naval Battle of Meloria the Genoese fleet, consisting of 93 ships led by Oberto Doria and Benedetto I Zaccaria , defeated the Pisan fleet, which consisted of 72 ships and

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5252-413: The Seas'), and la Repubblica dei magnifici ('the Republic of the Magnificents'). After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , the city of Genoa was invaded by Germanic tribes, and, in about 643, Genoa and other Ligurian cities were captured by the Lombard Kingdom under the King Rothari . In 773 the Kingdom was annexed by the Frankish Empire ; the first Carolingian count of Genoa was Ademarus, who

5353-435: The Sicilian gastronomy). The city of La Goletta was practically created by Sicilian immigrants during the 19th century, with a quarter called "Piccola Sicilia" (Little Sicily, or "Petite Sicile" in French). In 1926 there were 2,449 Italians living in this city near Tunis (40.8% of a total population of 5,997), while the French population only numbered 772. The Italian international actress Claudia Cardinale , famous for

5454-447: The Spanish crown's foreign endeavors from their counting houses in Seville. Fernand Braudel has even called the period 1557 to 1627 the "age of the Genoese", "of a rule that was so discreet and sophisticated that historians for a long time failed to notice it". However, the modern visitor passing brilliant Mannerist and Baroque palazzo facades along Genoa's Strada Nova (now Via Garibaldi) or via Balbi cannot fail to notice that there

5555-404: The church of San Siro in order to gather troops for the First Crusade . Twelve galleys , one ship, and 1,200 soldiers from Genoa joined the crusade. The Genoese troops, led by noblemen de Insula and Avvocato, set sail in July 1097. The Genoese fleet transported and provided naval support to the crusaders, mainly during the siege of Antioch in 1098, when the Genoese fleet blockaded the city while

5656-439: The city's splendid palazzi . In the next 50 years, other palazzi were designed by Bartolomeo Bianco (1590–1657), designer of centrepieces of the University of Genoa . A number of Genoese Baroque and Rococo artists settled elsewhere and a number of local artists became prominent. Thereafter, Genoa underwent something of a revival as a junior associate of the Spanish Empire, with Genoese bankers, in particular, financing many of

5757-417: The colony. A French decree of 1919 made the acquisition of real estate property practically prohibitive to the Tunisian Italians and this French attitude toward the Italians paved the way for the Mussolini's complaints in the 1920s and 1930s. With the rise of Benito Mussolini , the contrasts between Rome and Paris were sharpened also because the Italians of Tunisia showed themselves to be very sensitive to

5858-473: The control of John of Anjou , a French royal governor. However, with support from Milan, Genoa revolted and the Republic was restored in 1461. The Milanese then changed sides, conquering Genoa in 1464 and holding it as a fief of the French crown. Between 1463–78 and 1488–99, Genoa was held by the Milanese House of Sforza . From 1499 to 1528, the Republic reached its nadir, being under nearly continual French occupation. The Spanish, with their intramural allies,

5959-405: The earliest banks in the world were founded in Genoa: the Bank of Saint George , founded in 1407, which was the oldest state deposit bank in the world at its closure in 1805, and the Banca Carige , founded in 1483 as a mount of piety , which existed until 2022 Threatened by Alfonso V of Aragon , the Doge of Genoa in 1458 handed the Republic over to the French, making it the Duchy of Genoa under

6060-419: The exiled was Gustavo Modena, who earned his living by teaching Italian to the Tunisian gentry 'smerciando participi' (peddling participles, in his own inventive expression.) Sulema opened a regular school that was soon patronized by the Jewish minority, both local and from Leghorn, as it was not a confessional one, while the other Italians preferred to follow the Rotonda and Visconti school. Another Italian school

6161-416: The fall of Napoleon, and the subsequent Congress of Vienna , Genoa regained an ephemeral independence, with the name of the Repubblica genovese , which lasted less than a year. However, the congress established the annexation of the territories, and therefore of the whole of Liguria with the Oltregiogo area and the island of Capraia to the Kingdom of Sardinia , governed by the House of Savoy , contravening

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6262-406: The fascist propaganda and many of them joined in compact form the nationalistic ideals of the Fascism of the "Duce". Indeed, the Tunisian Italians showed "to be defiantly nationalistic and robustly resistant to amalgamation" and many of them refused – often vehemently – to be naturalized by the French authorities. The fact that the French government promoted actively

6363-546: The fascist state of Italy, and many Tunisian newspapers are subsidized by Italy. Professional agitators are actively encouraging trouble, magnifying grievances, imaginary or real. Radio programs tell Muslims that Mussolini alone is their protector. Membership in the Fascist Party is all but compulsory for every Italian male in Tunisia, and refusing to join means virtual banishment. Granted free speech and free assembly by French law, fascist leaders in Tunisia have become loud and aggressive in demanding special privileges for Italians, at

6464-423: The first francophone poet from the Maghreb . Even under the Protectorate the emigration of Italian workers to Tunisia continued unabated. Scalesi pinpointed that in 1910 there were 105,000 Italians in Tunisia, as against 35,000 Frenchmen, but there were only 1,167 holders of land among the former, with an aggregate of 83,000 hectares, whereas the Frenchmen include 2,395 landowners who had grabbed 700,000 hectares in

6565-414: The first months of 1943 after the fall of Vichy France , Italian schools were opened in Tunis and Biserta , while 4000 Italian Tunisians volunteered for the Italian Army . Some Italian newspapers and magazines that had been closed by the French government in the late 1930s were reopened. After regaining Tunisia, French authorities closed all the Italian schools and newspapers. As a result of harassment by

6666-450: The first port on the Pacific, founded by the conquest of the Americas. The Genoese obtained a concession to exploit the port mainly for the slave trade of the new world on the Pacific, which lasted until the sacking and destruction of the original city in 1671. In the meantime in 1635 Don Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera , the then governor of Panama, had recruited Genoese, Peruvians, and Panamanians, as soldiers to wage war against Muslims in

6767-681: The full consequences of the French protectorate until 1896..." On 30 September 1896, Italy and France signed a treaty whereby Italy virtually recognised Tunisia as a French dependency. The French conquest of Tunisia in 1881, the so-called Schiaffo di Tunisi , created many problems to the Tunisian Italians, who were seen as Le Peril Italien (the Italian danger) by the French colonial rulers. In Tunisian cities (like Tunis , Biserta and La Goulette ) there were highly populated quarters called “Little Sicily” or “Little Calabria”. Italian schools, religious institutions, orphanages and hospitals were opened. The prevailing Italian presence in Tunisia, at both

6868-406: The gold that traveled up through the Sahara and establishing Atlantic depots as far afield as Salé and Safi . In 1283 the population of the Kingdom of Sicily revolted against the Angevin rule. The revolt became known as the Sicilian Vespers . As a result, the Aragonese rule was established on the Kingdom. Genoa, which had supported the Aragonese, was granted free trading and export rights in

6969-402: The intent of the Genoese jacobins and French citizens to overthrow the government of the Doge Giacomo Maria Brignole took shape, giving rise to a fratricidal war in the streets between opponents and popular supporters of the current customs system. The direct intervention of Napoleon (during the Campaigns of 1796 ) and his representatives in Genoa was the final act that led to the fall of

7070-436: The island until it was sold to France in 1768. The Convention of Turin of 1742, in which Austria allied with the Kingdom of Sardinia , caused some consternation in the Republic. However, when this provisional relationship was given a more durable and reliable character in the signing of the Treaty of Worms , in 1743, the fear of diplomatic isolation had caused the Genoese Republic to abandon its neutrality and to ally with

7171-418: The kingdom of Italy began to take a deep interest in the future of Tunisia. When the country went bankrupt in 1869, a triple control was established over Tunisian finances, with British, French and Italian controllers.' In 1880 the Italians bought the British railway from Tunis to Goletta . This and other actions excited the French to act on the secret understanding effected with the British foreign minister at

7272-450: The late fourteenth century, as well as its long war with Venice , which culminated in its defeat at Chioggia (1380), Genoa went into decline. This pivotal war with Venice has come to be called the War of Chioggia because of this decisive battle which resulted in the defeat of Genoa at the hands of Venice. Prior to the War of Chioggia, which lasted from 1379 until 1381, the Genoese had enjoyed

7373-497: The lords of the surrounding valleys and coasts. The new city-state was termed a Compagna Communis. The local organization remained politically and socially significant for centuries. As late as 1382, the members of the Grand Council were classified by both the compagnia to which they belonged as well as by their political faction ("noble" versus "popular"). Before 1100, Genoa emerged as an independent city-state , one of

7474-409: The majority of free trading rights to Genoa. In 1282 Pisa tried to gain control of the commerce and administration of Corsica , after being called for support by the judge Sinucello who revolted against Genoa. In August 1282, part of the Genoese fleet blockaded Pisan commerce near the river Arno . During 1283 both Genoa and Pisa made war preparations. Genoa built 120 galleys, 60 of which belonged to

7575-403: The metropolitan area of Tunis . Another 2,000 Italians, according to the Italian embassy in Tunis, are temporary residents, working as professionals and technicians for Italian companies in different areas of Tunisia. The legacy of the Italians in Tunisia is extensive. It goes from the construction of roads and buildings to literature and gastronomy (many Tunisian dishes are heavily influenced by

7676-519: The newly established Latin Empire meant that Venetian trading rights were enforced, and Venice gained control of a large portion of the commerce of the eastern Mediterranean. In order to regain control of the commerce , the Republic of Genoa allied with Michael VIII Palaiologos , emperor of Nicaea , who wanted to restore the Byzantine Empire by recapturing Constantinople . In March 1261

7777-614: The oligarchy; finally the fifth republic was institutionally aristocratic. By custom, prelates in Genoa were unable to take on public office. In the first two centuries from the institution of the Dogate for life in Genoa, it was above all the Adorno (seven doges elected) and Fregoso (ten doges elected) families who fought the position. After the reform of 1528, among the seventy-nine "biennial Doges" who came to power, many were elected from

7878-587: The political oppression enacted by the preunitary States of the Italian peninsula. One of them was Giuseppe Garibaldi , in 1834 and 1849. In a move that foreshadowed the Triple alliance , Italian colonial interests in Tunisia were actually encouraged by the Germans and Austrians in the late 19th century to offset French interests in the region and to retain a perceived balance of power in Europe. The Austrians also had an interest in diverting Italy's attention away from

7979-477: The popular and entrepreneurial level, was such that France set in motion with its experienced diplomacy and its sound entrepreneurial sense the process which led to the " Treaty of Bardo " and a few years later the Conventions of La Marsa , which rendered Tunisia a Protectorate of France in 1881. In this way France began its policy of economic and cultural expansion in Tunisia, opening free schools, spreading

8080-539: The principle of restoring the legitimate governments and monarchies of the old Republic. The history of Genoa, of the Genoese and of the republic that held its fate for a long time, but also of the governments that gradually took turns leading the city, to reach the time of the Doges, is traceable through the work of historians who have continued the storytelling work begun at the end of the 11th century by Caffaro Di Caschifellone (historian and himself municipal consul) with

8181-545: The provocations of the Duke of Orléans and the former Duke of Milan , the Doge of Genoa Antoniotto Adorno made Charles VI of France the difensor del comune ("defender of the municipality") of Genoa. Though the republic had previously been under partial foreign control, this marked the first time Genoa was dominated by a foreign power. Though not well-studied, Genoa in the 15th century seems to have been tumultuous. The city had

8282-546: The republican administration. In 1148, it joined the Siege of Tortosa and helped Count Raymond Berengar IV of Barcelona take that city, for which it also received a third. Over the course of the 11th and particularly the 12th centuries, Genoa became the dominant naval force in the Western Mediterranean, as its erstwhile rivals Pisa and Amalfi declined in importance. Genoa (along with Venice) succeeded in gaining

8383-506: The same time denouncing the French government, which tolerates their activities. Italy is making buildings that are easily convertible to military use, and building up the civil population to support a mass takeover..." In 1940, Mussolini requested France to give Tunisia (along with Djibouti , Corsica and Nice ) to Italy, when World War II was just beginning. However it was only in November 1942 that Italian troops occupied Tunisia. In

8484-510: The state's extinction in 1797, the ruler of the republic was the Doge , originally elected for life, after 1528 elected for terms of two years; in practice, the Republic was an oligarchy ruled by a small group of merchant families, from whom the doges were selected. The Genoese navy played a fundamental role in the wealth and power of the Republic over the centuries and its importance was recognized throughout Europe. To this day, its legacy as

8585-582: The troops of the First Crusade of 1096–1099 by sea. In 1092, Genoa and Pisa, in collaboration with Alfonso VI of León and Castile attacked the Muslim Taifa of Valencia . They also unsuccessfully besieged Tortosa with support from troops of Sancho Ramírez , King of Aragon . Genoa started expanding during the First Crusade . In 1097 Hugh of Châteauneuf , Bishop of Grenoble and William , Bishop of Orange , went to Genoa and preached in

8686-515: The troops provided support during the siege. In the siege of Jerusalem in 1099, Genoese crossbowmen led by Guglielmo Embriaco acted as support units against the defenders of the city. After the capture of Antioch on May 3, 1098, Genoa forged an alliance with Bohemond of Taranto , who became the ruler of the Principality of Antioch . As a result, he granted them a headquarters, the church of San Giovanni, and 30 houses in Antioch. On May 6, 1098

8787-422: Was "hardly more than a fishing village" or a vibrant trading town worth attacking. In the year 958, a diploma granted by Berengar II of Italy gave full legal freedom to the city of Genoa, guaranteeing the possession of its lands in the form of landed lordships. At the end of the 11th century the municipality adopted a constitution, at a meeting consisting of the city's trade associations ( compagnie ) and of

8888-480: Was Italian. Around the start of the 20th century there was also an Italian newspaper in Tunis, called L'Unione, which clamored for annexation of the territory; but France was gradually taking hold and, after 1902, foreign lawyers (most of whom were Italian nationals) could not practice unless they had a French degree, and the license from the Italian High School in Tunis was not adequate to gain access to

8989-601: Was a medieval and early modern maritime republic from the years 1099 to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast. During the Late Middle Ages , it was a major commercial power in both the Mediterranean and Black Sea . Between the 16th and 17th centuries, it was one of the major financial centres in Europe. Throughout its history, the Genoese Republic established numerous colonies throughout

9090-488: Was a relative majority that prompted Laura Davi (in his Memoires italiennes en Tunisie of 1936) to write that "La Tunisia è una colonia italiana amministrata da funzionari francesi" (Tunisia is an Italian colony administered by French managers). Initially, during the 1920s, fascists promoted only the defense of the national and social rights of the Italians of Tunisia against potential assimilation by France. Mussolini opened some financial institutions and Italian banks (like

9191-460: Was briefly occupied before a revolt liberated the city two months later. The Austrians returned in 1747 and, along with a contingent of Sardinian forces, laid siege to Genoa before being driven off by the approach of a Franco-Spanish army. Though Genoa retained its lands in the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle , it was unable to keep its hold on Corsica in its weakened state. After driving out the Genoese,

9292-480: Was brought completely under French jurisdiction and administration, supported by military posts at every important point. In 1883 the new situation under the French protectorate was recognized by the British government withdrawing its consular jurisdiction in favour of the French courts, and in 1885 it ceased to be represented by a diplomatic official. The other powers followed suit, except Italy, which did not recognize

9393-440: Was conspicuous wealth, which in fact was not Genoese but concentrated in the hands of a tightly knit circle of banker-financiers, true " venture capitalists ". Genoa's trade, however, remained closely dependent on control of Mediterranean sealanes, and the loss of Chios to the Ottoman Empire (1566), struck a severe blow. The opening for the Genoese banking consortium was the state bankruptcy of Philip II in 1557, which threw

9494-529: Was eventually lifted with the aid of the Spanish , the French would later bombard the city in May 1684 for its support of Spain during the War of the Reunions . In-between, a plague killed as many as half of the inhabitants of Genoa in 1656–57. Genoa continued its slow decline well into the 18th century, losing its last Mediterranean colony, the island fortress of Tabarka , to the Bey of Tunis in 1742. In

9595-441: Was given the title praefectus civitatis Genuensis . During this time and in the following century Genoa was little more than a small centre, slowly building its merchant fleet , which was to become the leading commercial carrier of the Western Mediterranean. In 934–35 the town was thoroughly sacked and burned by a Fatimid fleet under Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi . This has led to discussion about whether early tenth-century Genoa

9696-783: Was known as la Superba ("the Superb One"), la Dominante ("The Dominant One"), la Dominante dei mari ("the Dominant of the Seas"), and la Repubblica dei magnifici ("the Republic of the Magnificents"). From the 11th century to 1528, it was officially known as the Compagna Communis Ianuensis and from 1580 as the Serenìscima Repùbrica de Zêna ( Most Serene Republic of Genoa). From 1339 until

9797-454: Was led by Albertino Morosini and Ugolino della Gherardesca . Genoa captured 30 Pisan ships, and sank seven. About 8,000 Pisans were killed during the battle, more than half of the Pisan troops, which were about 14,000. The defeat of Pisa, which never fully recovered as a maritime competitor, resulted in gain of control of the commerce of Corsica by Genoa. The Sardinian town of Sassari , which

9898-558: Was officially known as the Compagna Communis Ianuensis and from 1580 as the Serenìscima Repùbrica de Zêna (the Most Serene Republic of Genoa) or also Repubblica di Genova ( Latin : Res Publica Ianuensis , Ligurian : Repúbrica de Zêna ). It was nicknamed by Petrarch as La Superba , in reference to its glory and impressive landmarks. For over eight centuries the republic was also known as la Dominante ('The Dominant one'), la Dominante dei mari ('the Dominant of

9999-456: Was opened in 1845 by Morpurgo, Luisada and Salone, joined later by Sulema, and was closed in 1863. Trading houses of the regency in this period were mostly Italian (Bensasson, Fiorentino, Gutierrez, Moreno, Peluffo, Sonnino.) On 4 January 1874 the Italian community, headed by the Consul, opened an elementary school that was partly funded by the state: on opening it had 73 pupils, half of them from

10100-471: Was so innocuous, however, as medieval Genoa became a major player in the slave trade . The commercial and cultural rivalry of Genoa and Venice was played out through the thirteenth century. The Republic of Venice played a significant role in the Fourth Crusade , diverting "Latin" energies to the ruin of its former patron and present trading rival, Constantinople . As a result, Venetian support of

10201-472: Was under Pisan control, became a commune or self-styled "free municipality" which was controlled by Genoa. Control of Sardinia, however, did not pass permanently to Genoa: the Aragonese kings of Naples disputed control and did not secure it until the fifteenth century. Genoese merchants pressed south, to the island of Sicily, and into Muslim North Africas, where Genoese established trading posts, pursuing

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