Misplaced Pages

#134865

63-529: In the first half of the 15th century, the larger Italian powers had been consolidating their territories, with Savoy expanding towards the Ligurian Coast , Venice focusing on Terraferma while the Stato da Màr was threatened by Turkish expansion, Milan expanding southwards (and, even after the dismembering of the empire after Gian Galeazzo Visconti 's death, retaining the bulk of Lombardy ),

126-800: A French ally during the first phase of the War of the Spanish Succession , but changed sides later. France invaded again, and Savoy was saved by Austrian troops led by the duke's cousin, Prince Eugene of Savoy at the siege of Turin . At the end of the war in 1713, Victor Amadeus II received the Kingdom of Sicily . By the Treaty of London , Victor Amadeus II reluctantly exchanged Sicily for Sardinia in 1720. The various dominions held in personal union by Victor Amadeus II included Sardinia, Savoy, Piedmont , Aosta Valley, Nice , and Oneglia . The collection

189-581: A French knight, Charles de la Motte, was captured by Spanish forces and later used as a hostage after declaring his famous Challenge of Barletta on 13 February 1503. Chronic in-fighting between the Italian and French knights, as well as a better supply-line guaranteed by the Spanish navy, gave Cordoba and his Spanish army the upper hand against the French, who were defeated at Cerignola on 28 April 1503. At

252-598: A consequence of its participation in the Burgundian Wars , Savoy lost all its possessions north and south-east of Lake Geneva to the Swiss . When Philibert II died in 1504, he was succeeded by Charles III the Good , a weak ruler. Since 1515, Savoy had been occupied by foreign armies, and Francis I of France was just waiting for the opportunity to permanently annex Savoy and its possessions. In 1536, Francis I ordered

315-495: A mutual defense agreement and a 25-year truce between the Italian powers, forbidding separate alliances and treaties while committing to maintenance of the established boundaries. The other Italian states acknowledged the condottiero Francesco Sforza as successor to the last of the Visconti of Milan , after having married the only daughter of Filippo Maria Visconti . The relative peace and stability resulting from Lodi and

378-618: A result, the Great Council was open to an alliance with France to remove Ludovico, although some members disagreed, including Agostino Barbarigo , the current Doge of Venice . In their initial talks, the Venetians demanded lands on both sides of the Adda river, which Louis considered excessive, while Venice rejected a French request for a subsidy of 100,000 ducats . Under a deal brokered by Ercole I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara , Venice

441-455: The Angevin claim to the Kingdom of Naples as a pretext. This in turn was driven by the intense rivalry between Ludovico's wife, Beatrice d'Este , and that of his nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza , son of Isabella of Aragon . Despite being the hereditary Duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo had been sidelined by his uncle in 1481 and exiled to Pavia . Both women wanted to ensure their children inherited

504-596: The Discorso di Logrogno (1512) that the partition of the Mezzogiorno between the houses of Aragon and Orléans neglected to take into account the economic system of a region dominated by sheep-rearing and its concomitant transhumance . Within two years, differences over the allocation of the disputed areas led to war between the two powers. When the conflict broke out again in the second half of 1502, Spanish General Gonzalo de Cordoba lacked numeric superiority, but

567-657: The French Revolutionary Army in 1792 and annexed to France. Savoy was first incorporated as the department of Mont-Blanc ; then, in 1798, it was divided between the departments of Mont-Blanc and Léman . Savoy, Piedmont, and Nice were restored to the House of Savoy at the Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815. Under the 1847 Perfect Fusion the duchy was merged with the other parts of the Savoyard state into

630-632: The Pazzi conspiracy , the Barons' conspiracy , and the Salt War . The League provided enough stability to allow the peninsular economy to recover from the population loss and economic depression caused by the Black Death and its aftermath, leading to an economic expansion that endured until the first part of the 17th century. The League also enabled the creation of the first permanent embassies amongst

693-648: The Second Italian War (1499–1501), sometimes known as Louis XII's Italian War , and the Third Italian War (1502–1504) or War over Naples . The first phase was fought for control of the Duchy of Milan by an alliance of Louis XII of France and the Republic of Venice against Ludovico Sforza , the second between Louis and Ferdinand II of Aragon for possession of the Kingdom of Naples . In

SECTION 10

#1732765082135

756-858: The Upper Rhenish Circle . Its territory included the current French departments of Savoie , Haute-Savoie , and the Alpes-Maritimes , the current Italian region of Aosta Valley , a large part of Piedmont and the County of Geneva in Switzerland, which was then lost to the Old Swiss Confederacy . The main Vulgar languages that were spoken within the Duchy of Savoy were Piedmontese and Arpitan . The Duchy of Savoy

819-598: The Cittadella (remnants of the Cittadella can still be seen, although it was largely destroyed by the subsequent expansion of the city). From his military experience in Flanders , Emmanuel Philibert learned how to run an army, having won the famous Battle of St. Quentin (1557) . He was the first duke of Savoy to establish a stable military apparatus that was not composed of mercenaries but rather by specially trained Savoyard soldiers. His son, Charles Emmanuel I , extended

882-645: The Duchy and when Isabella's father became Alfonso II of Naples in January 1494, she asked for his help in securing their rights. In September Charles invaded the peninsula, which he justified by claiming he wanted to use Naples as a base for a crusade against the Ottoman Turks . Although Charles conquered Naples with relative ease, after his return to France, Ferdinand II of Naples quickly regained his kingdom. He did so with support from his distant Trastamaran relative Ferdinand II of Aragon , who as ruler of

945-514: The Duchy of Savoy. The Savoys themselves referred to their possessions as a whole as " the States of the Duke of Savoy " ( Italian : "gli Stati del Duca di Savoia"). Today, historians use the term Savoyard state to indicate this entity, which is an example of composite monarchy where many different and distinct territories are united in a personal union by having the same ruler. The duchy

1008-567: The European powers and found support from the Habsburgs . The policy of Charles Emmanuel was in fact based more on actions of international warfare, such as the possessions of the Marquis of Saluzzo, and the wars of succession in the duchies of Mantua and Montferrat. Generally, Savoy sided with Spain, but on occasion allied with France (as, for example, the Treaty of Susa required). During

1071-637: The Florentines having gained most of Tuscany and the Papal States having begun an expansion in central Italy that would continue into the next century, while King Alfonso V of Aragon expanded from Sicily into the Kingdom of Naples . Solemnly proclaimed on the 2 March 1455 with the accession of Pope Nicholas V (1447–1455), King Alfonso, and other small states to the League (excluding Malatestine Rimini , at Alfonso's insistence), it established

1134-496: The French on 21 March. However, his inability to pay his troops meant this success proved short-lived and on April 10 Ludovico's army was annihilated at the Battle of Novara . Despite disguising himself as a Swiss pikeman to evade imprisonment by the French, Sforza was betrayed by his own men and turned over to the French on April 15 and sent into captivity at Lys-Saint-Georges , remaining in French dungeons until his death in 1508. For

1197-618: The French since it had been founded by their ancestors the Gauls , as stated by Roman historian Livy . Louis now approached the Republic of Venice , then the leading military power in Northern Italy . Venice had been financing Pisa in its fight for independence from Florence , which was supported by Milan. Doing so had proved extremely expensive while Venice was also concerned by the Ottoman threat to their maritime possessions. As

1260-475: The House of Savoy becoming rulers of Portugal. After Victor Amadeus II assumed power, Savoy became hostile to France, which invaded in the Nine Years' War . Savoy defeated the French in the siege of Cuneo , but was dramatically defeated in the battles of Staffarda and Marsaglia . Savoy became a French satellite, and Victor Amadeus II married Anne Marie d'Orléans , niece of King Louis XIV. Savoy remained

1323-468: The League, promoted by Sforza, allowed him to consolidate his rule over Milan. It was Cosimo de' Medici 's most important foreign policy decision to end the traditional rivalry between his Florence and Sforza's Milan. The League was the coherent development of the Peace of Lodi, born from the realisation that none of the regional Italian states, despite the long and bloody wars in the preceding hundred years,

SECTION 20

#1732765082135

1386-718: The Sforza arms at the Castello Sforzesco , while portraits of French kings replaced those of the Sforza family in the library at Pavia . However, tensions soon emerged within the Franco-Venetian alliance over Pisa; while the Venetians preferred an independent Pisa as a way to weaken Florence, Louis needed Florentine support for his attack on Naples. With help from Emperor Maximilian, Ludovico recruited an army of 20,000 mercenaries and retook Milan on 5 February 1500; his army then moved north and captured Novara from

1449-515: The advantage of maintaining a balance among the five powers as opposed to trying to eliminate his enemies. Whilst the League failed to prevent the French invasion in 1494 that began the Italian Wars , it did enable (as the League of Venice ) the creation of the army that repelled Charles VIII 's army after its sack of Naples. The League army engaged the French at Fornovo and retained control of

1512-663: The aftermath of the Italian War of 1494–1498 , Louis was determined to pursue French claims to Milan and Naples and in October 1499 he captured Milan , which remained in French hands for the next thirteen years. His invasion of Naples in 1501 eventually led to war with Ferdinand of Aragon, who expelled the French in 1504. This is an overview of notable events including battles during the wars. The Italian War of 1494–1498 began when Ludovico Sforza , then Regent of Milan , invited Charles VIII of France to invade Italy, using

1575-469: The baroque style. After his death in 1675, there followed the period of the regency (1675-1684) of his widow, the new Madama Reale , Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours . Charles Emmanuel II was succeeded by his 11-year-old son, Victor Amadeus II ; his mother, the French born Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours was regent. Marie Jeanne sought to marry her son to the daughter and heir presumptive of King Peter II of Portugal . This could have led to

1638-664: The battlefield but failed to prevent an orderly French retreat. The Venetian alliance with France and Spain against Milan and Naples in the Italian Wars of 1499–1504 , however, sounded the death knell for the League. As a result of the détente , unlike France, Spain , and England , Italy did not coalesce into a single monarchy in the Middle Ages, and was consequently left vulnerable to invasion from more powerful neighbours. Several factors have been considered causes of this; Francesco Guicciardini blamed particularism , for example, while Niccolò Machiavelli believed it resulted from

1701-526: The cultivation of the arts in the Italian Piedmont. However, his first son Amedeo died prematurely in 1431 and was succeeded by his second son Louis . Louis was in turn succeeded by the weak Amadeus IX , who was extremely religious (he was eventually declared blessed), but of little practical power, to the point that he allowed his wife, Yolande (Violante) of Valois , sister of Louis XI , to make very important decisions. During this period, France

1764-606: The death of Victor Amadeus I in 1637. He was succeeded for a short period of time by his eldest surviving son, the 5-year-old Francis Hyacinth . The post of regent for the next-oldest son, Charles Emmanuel II , also went to his mother Christine of France , whose followers became known as madamisti (supporters of Madama Reale ). Because of this, Savoy became a satellite state of the regent's brother, King Louis XIII of France. The supporters of Cardinal Prince Maurice of Savoy and Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano (both sons of Charles Emmanuel I), together with their followers, took

1827-495: The death of Charles Emmanuel I (26 July 1630). First of all, the plague ran rampant in 1630 and contributed significantly to the already widespread poverty. The War of the Mantuan Succession (1628–1631) was very bloody in the countryside and subjected Casale Monferrato to a long siege (1629). Developments of arms and politics affected the economy and future history, exacerbating the already difficult situation after

1890-456: The duchy to the detriment of the lordships of Montferrat and the territory of Saluzzo, previously ceded to France, in 1601 under the Treaty of Lyon . The wars of Charles Emmanuel ended mostly in defeats. Nevertheless, he is remembered as "Charles the Great", since he was a versatile and cultured man, a poet and a skillful reformer. He was able to manage the duchy at a time of severe crisis vis-a-vis

1953-540: The establishment of the first public school-system in 1661. A cultured man, but also a great statesman, Charles Emmanuel imitated King Louis XIV of France at the sumptuous Palace of Venaria , a masterpiece of Baroque architecture , and a copy recreated in Italy of the magnificence of the Palace of Versailles . It was a time of great urban expansion, and Charles Emmanuel II promoted the growth of Turin and its reconstruction in

Italic League - Misplaced Pages Continue

2016-404: The first battle of Garigliano on November 8, a superior French force beat back the Spanish but in a second battle on 29 December, the Spanish prevailed. Attacking the French army that was still resting and relaxing after their Christmas festivities from the north at the village of Sujo, the Spanish scored a decisive and war-ending victory. The French army under Italian ally, Francesco de Gonzaga

2079-803: The flag of the Knights of Malta (whence the modern Flag of Malta and of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta ), and others (flags of Denmark and Switzerland , with inverted colors to those of England and Genoa , among others). In the 18th century, the letters " FERT " were sometimes added in the cantons to distinguish the flag from the Maltese one. Italian Wars of 1499%E2%80%931504 Second Italian War Second Italian War Third Italian War : War over Naples Third Italian War : War over Naples The Italian Wars of 1499–1504 are divided into two connected, but distinct phases:

2142-430: The future policy of Savoy, managing to put an end to the more than twenty-year long occupation. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis , signed in 1559, restored full autonomy to the duchy, with his marriage to Margaret of France . Emmanuel Philibert realized that Savoy could no longer trust France. He therefore moved the capital from Chambéry to Turin in 1562, which he protected with a complex system of fortifications known as

2205-446: The intentions of newly unified Spain as he moved further into Italy, drawing his forces eastward. The Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella were known to be fearful of a new rapprochement between Louis XII and the Italian powers. They might invade France from the west, while Louis XII had his armies in Italy, and thus involve Louis in a war on two fronts. In the Treaty of Granada , signed by Louis and Ferdinand on 11 November 1500,

2268-541: The invasion of Milan in exchange for the French backing Cesare Borgia 's campaign in Romagna . Louis hired a strong force of Swiss mercenaries and led by Gian Giacomo Trivulzio , his troops quickly over-ran the duchy. Ludovico and his children took refuge in Germany with Emperor Maximilian , while the French entered Milan on 6 October 1499. Following his victory, Louis' Franco-Visconti heraldry and name were painted over

2331-591: The military decisions made by the Duke. On 18 August 1655, the Pinerolo Declaration of Mercy was issued, which constituted a peace treaty between Charles Emmanuel II and the Waldensians. The government of Charles Emmanuel II was the first step towards major reforms carried out by his successor Victor Amadeus II in the next century. Of particular importance were the founding of militias in Savoy and

2394-422: The moral and civil decay of institutions and morals and in papal policy, for centuries aimed at avoiding the formation of a unified Italy. It should be borne in mind, however, that Machiavelli's great work The Prince was a reflection of the political equilibrium resulting from the League's existence. Duchy of Savoy The Duchy of Savoy ( Italian : Ducato di Savoia ; French : Duché de Savoie )

2457-509: The name of principisti (supporters of the Princes). Each warring faction soon besieged the city of Turin . The principisti made early gains, severely looting Turin on 27 July 1639. Only in 1642 did the two factions reach an agreement; by now, the widow of Victor Amadeus I had placed Victor's son Charles Emmanuel II on the throne and ruled as regent in his place, even past his age of majority. A resurgence of religious wars took place during

2520-636: The neighbouring Kingdom of Sicily viewed French expansion in Southern Italy as a threat. In September 1496, Ferdinand of Naples was succeeded by his uncle Frederick . Charles VIII died on 7 April 1498 and was succeeded by his second cousin Louis XII of France , who inherited the Angevin claim to Naples while also claiming the Duchy of Milan through his grandmother Valentina Visconti . His lawyers also asserted that Milan naturally belonged to

2583-502: The next thirteen years, French possession of Milan gave them a base form which to intervene directly in Italy. Despite defeating Ludovico, Louis XII viewed his brief but violent restoration as inspired by Pope Alexander VI and led him to deeply distrust the Holy See end up with France openly hostile and attempting to depose the next pope, Julius II . As the summer campaign season of the year 1500 neared, Louis XII became worried about

Italic League - Misplaced Pages Continue

2646-417: The occupation of the duchy, which was invaded by a strong military contingent. Charles III realized too late the weakness of the state, and tried to defend the city of Turin . However, the city was lost on 3 April of the same year. Charles III retreated to Vercelli , trying to continue the fight, but never saw the state free from occupation. Emmanuel Philibert was the duke who more than any other influenced

2709-412: The peacetime year of 1660, then 26,178 in 1672, and 35,000 in 1705 (with 10,000 militia called up to bolster them and more uncalled). The militia was relatively well-armed and consisted of 24,000 men in 1566, of whom about a third could be used outside of their immediate district. The flag of Savoy was a white cross on a red field. It is based on a crusader flag, and as such is identical in origin to

2772-533: The proposed marriage between Charles of the House of Habsburg , the future Charles V , and Claude of France , daughter of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany . If the King Louis XII were to die without producing a male heir, Charles of the House of Habsburg would receive as dowry the Duchy of Milan, Genoa and its dependencies, the Duchy of Brittany , the counties of Asti and Blois , the Duchy of Burgundy ,

2835-655: The regency. Subsequently, in 1655, Savoyard troops massacred large numbers of the Protestant population of the Waldensian valleys, an event known as the Piedmontese Easter ( Pasque Piedmont ). Reports from the massacres spread quickly throughout Protestant Europe, sparking outrage, especially in Britain. Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell threatened the Duchy of Savoy with intervention, somewhat shaping

2898-464: The rest of the Renaissance era for Savoy. The reign of Amadeus VIII was a turning point for the economy and the policy of the state, which deeply marked the history of the nation. His long reign was highlighted by wars (the country expanded its territory by defeating the Duchy of Montferrat and Marquisate of Saluzzo ), as well as reforms and edicts, and also some controversial actions. The first

2961-470: The seventeenth century, the influence of the court of Versailles put pressure on Savoy. Due to the proximity of the Spanish controlled Duchy of Milan and Savoyard defeats in the previous century, French troops were garrisoned in forts (such as Pinerolo ) in a number of key Alpine passes on the Italian side. This severely threatened the independence of the duchy. During the Thirty Years' War , Savoy

3024-401: The size of the army quickly rose. In 1625, the duchy had an army of 26,600 regulars (25,381 infantry and 1,213 cavalry), plus about 8,000 militia. The regulars consisted of 5 to 7 regiments of Piedmontese, with mercenaries comprising the rest, including 9 regiments of French and 2 regiments of Italians. In 1635 the regular army was down to 12,250, then 15,710 in 1637, 18,000 in 1649, then 5,500 in

3087-638: The states of the Italian peninsula, in order to monitor compliance with the terms prohibiting supporting exiled dissidents, with De Officio Legati — what seems to be the first treatise on ambassadorship — written by Ermolao Barbaro in Venice in 1490, after he had served the Serenìsima in Burgundy and Milan. The death of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492 marked the decline of the League. He had been one of its greatest supporters and prime maintainer, recognising

3150-554: The two agreed Louis would become King of Naples and gain control of Naples , Terra di Lavoro , and Abruzzi while Ferdinand was made Duke of Calabria and Apulia ; the territories between were to be shared along with their revenue. On 25 June 1500, these terms were approved by Pope Alexander VI , nominal overlord of the Kingdom of Naples. On 25 July 1501, Frederick IV of Naples abdicated in favour of Louis and died in French captivity in 1504; Francesco Guicciardini points out in

3213-479: The unitary Kingdom of Sardinia. Savoy itself would be given to France under the terms of the Treaty of Turin (1860) . The duchy was a notable regional military power, often getting involved in wars between the French and Habsburgs. In the 17th century, peacetime strength tended to hover around 4,800 professional soldiers (3,600 infantry and 1,200 cavalry), with a large peasant militia. In times of war, militiamen were trained and impressed and mercenaries were hired, and

SECTION 50

#1732765082135

3276-591: Was a territorial entity of the Savoyard state that existed from 1416 until 1847 and was a possession of the House of Savoy . It was created when Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor , raised the County of Savoy into a duchy for Amadeus VIII . The duchy was an Imperial fief, subject of the Holy Roman Empire , until 1792, with a vote in the Imperial Diet . From the 16th century, Savoy belonged to

3339-547: Was able to apply the lessons learned in 1495 against the Swiss infantry that France employed; moreover, the Spanish tercios , accustomed to close combat after the Reconquista , redressed some of the imbalance in arms the Spanish had with the French. Cordoba avoided encounter with the enemy at first, hoping to lure the French into complacency. Later, the conflict became characterized by short skirmishes. During this campaign,

3402-447: Was created in 1416 when Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor ( r.   1433–1437) awarded the title of " Duke " to Count Amadeus VIII . Being landlocked at its conception in 1388, the then- County of Savoy acquired a few kilometres of coastline around Nice . Other than this expansion, the 14th century was generally a time of stagnation. Pressure from neighboring powers, particularly France , prevented development, which characterized

3465-750: Was destroyed, with about 4,000 of just over 15,000 soldiers killed at Garigliano, leaving Louis XII forced to abandon his current ambitions in Naples and, on 2 January 1504, the king withdrew to Lombardy . The Treaty of Lyon was signed on 31 January 1504 between Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon. Based on the terms of the treaty, France ceded Naples to the Hispanic Monarchy. Moreover, France and Spain defined their respective control of Italian territories. France controlled northern Italy from Milan and Spain controlled Sicily and southern Italy. The Treaty of Blois of 22 September 1504 concerned

3528-460: Was granted Cremona along with lands on the eastern bank of the Adda, and agreed to pay part of Louis' expenses. They would also supply 1,500 cavalry and 4,000 infantry for an attack on Milan from the east and allow Louis to capture Genoa . In return, France promised to provide military support if the Ottomans attacked Venice while they were at war with Milan. The Treaty of Blois was signed on 9 February 1499, while Pope Alexander VI approved

3591-418: Was in 1434, when he chose to withdraw to the Château de Ripaille, where, living the life of a hermit , he founded the Order of St. Maurice . In 1439, he received an appointment as antipope , which he accepted (under the name of Felix V), although he subsequently resigned a decade later out of a fear of undermining the religious unity of Christians. The second important action of the Government of Amadeus VIII

3654-440: Was in a position to assume hegemony in the north, let alone in the peninsula. The League therefore provided a détente , founded on mutual suspicion and fear of France rather than on collaboration, which might have led to the formation of a broader, unified state. The Italic League played an essential part in the balance of power subsequently pursued by the Florentine ruler Lorenzo de' Medici (1449–1492); its only cracks were

3717-464: Was more or less free to control the affairs of Savoy, which bound Savoy to the crown in Paris. The Duchy's economy suffered during these years, not only because of war, but also because of the poor administration by Violante. The future of the nation was entrusted to the hands of a boy, Philibert I , who died at the early age of seventeen, after reigning for ten years. He was succeeded by Charles I , who died aged 21, and Charles II , who died aged 6. As

3780-423: Was one of the states of the Holy Roman Empire that largely sided with France and against both the Emperor and Spain. Savoyard troops participated on the side of the French in the Savoyard-Genoese War , the War of the Montferrat Succession , the Tornavento campaign and, in part, in the Piedmontese Civil War , among other places. The strong French influence, plus various misfortunes, repeatedly hit Savoy following

3843-494: Was the central and most prominent of the territories possessed by the House of Savoy, and hence this title was and still is used often to indicate the whole of their possessions. In reality, the Savoys ruled not a unitary state, but a complex array of different entities and titles with different institutional, cultural, and legal backgrounds. These included for example the Duchy of Aosta , Principality of Piedmont , and County of Nice , which were distinct and not juridically part of

SECTION 60

#1732765082135

3906-405: Was the creation of the Principality of Piedmont in August 1424, the management of which was entrusted to the firstborn of the family as a title of honor. The duke left the territory largely formed from the old Savoy domain. As a cultured and refined man, Duke Amadeus gave great importance to art. Among others, he worked with the famous Giacomo Jaquerio in literature and architecture, encouraging

3969-405: Was usually referred to as "Sardinia", meaning the kingdom. Charles Emmanuel III , son and successor of Victor Amadeus II, joined the War of the Austrian Succession and concluded it with a resounding victory against the French in the Battle of Assietta . Gaining parts of western Lombardy like Angera and Vigevano in the subsequent treaty. After the French Revolution , Savoy was invaded by

#134865