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62-683: Ivan Zholtovsky was born in Plotnitsa, Minsk Governorate (in present-day Belarus ) November 27, 1867. He joined Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg at the age of 20. Degree studies took 11 years till 1898 – strapped for cash, Ivan used to take long leaves working as apprentice for the Saint Petersburg architectural firms. By the time of graduation, Zholtovsky had a first-rate practical experience in design, technology and project management . He retained this hands-on approach for

124-521: A "professional round table" branded his Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya House as formalist , condemned Zholtovsky's educational efforts, and virtually excommunicated him from practice for a year. Suddenly, fortune turned around, and in March, 1950 Zholtovsky was awarded Stalin Prize , second class – for the same building that was ostracized a year before. By 1952, critics praised it as the way to build. Zholtovsky

186-472: A 1949 Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya building is an interesting illustration of Zholtovsky's shift from elite to the masses, an attempt to bring mass construction to the levels of quality expected of Stalinist architecture and his own Renaissance style . All apartments in this building are relatively small, with two rooms yet with plenty storage space. Floor plans deliberately discouraged conversion of small-family units to overcrowded multi-family kommunalki (kitchen

248-466: A Marshal of Soviet Union . Immediately, political accusations poured in; November 2, 1945 Zholtovsky received a formal order to discard completed student projects, reverse their grades, and issue a new, politically correct , assignment. After 1945, Zholtovsky personally designed only three apartment houses in Moscow (including an expansion of his 1935 NKVD building on Smolenskaya Square). The best known,

310-602: A brief period, architects worked the old fashioned way, with their firms and apprentices. Some of Zholtovsky's students operated their own projects, some joined the firm. Zholtovsky's three better-known works of the time are: In 1931–1932, the State consolidated once mosaic architectural profession. In June, 1931, Central Committee authorized three megaprojects – reconstruction of Moscow, Moscow Canal and Moscow Metro , creating thousands of architectural and engineering jobs under tight state control. A fourth megaproject, Palace of

372-425: A centrally supervised market-influenced program of state capitalism". Lenin was following Karl Marx 's precepts that a nation must first reach "full maturation of capitalism as the precondition for socialist realization." Future years would use the term Marxism–Leninism to describe Lenin's approach to economic policies which were seen to favor policies that moved the country toward communism. The main policy Lenin used

434-540: A credit with the Bolshevik administration. He met with Vladimir Lenin and was very well received; according to Zholtovsky's own memoirs ( as approved for print in the USSR ), Master Plan was commissioned by Lenin himself, who wasn't exactly competent in architecture and couldn't recall any past projects of his contractor. Zholtovsky's plan, as reported to Lenin, relied on shifting urban development into greenfield land to

496-459: A harbor for modernists. Zholtovsky was spared from revolutionary new-vs-old rhetoric: after all, he was the employer to many modernist architects, giving them whatever jobs he could secure (like the pavilions of 1923 All-Russian Agricultural Exhibition, a project managed jointly by Zholtovsky and Shchusev). Together with Shchusev, and relying on his juniors, Zholtovsky supervised the first master plan for redevelopment of Moscow. This work earned him

558-537: A means to prevent the stratification of the classes. Trotsky believed the state should repossess all output to invest in capital formation. On the other hand, Stalin supported the more moderate members of the Communist Party and advocated for a state-run capitalist economy. Stalin would later play on Trotsky's support of New Economic Policy to gain political influence over him by stating that Trotsky lacked confidence in his people. Stalin managed to wrest control of

620-864: A new category of people called NEPmen (нэпманы) ( nouveau riches ). Joseph Stalin abandoned the NEP in 1928 with the Great Break . In November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized control of key centres in Russia. This led to the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, which pitted the Bolsheviks and their allies against the Whites and other counter-revolutionary forces. During this period the Bolsheviks attempted to administer Russia's economy purely by decree,

682-468: A policy of the War Communism . Farmers and factory workers were ordered to produce, and food and goods were seized and issued by decree. While this policy enabled the Bolshevik regime to overcome some initial difficulties, it soon caused economic disruptions and hardships. Producers who were not directly compensated for their labor often stopped working, leading to widespread shortages. Combined with

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744-543: A position of leadership during the Great Break . Stalin was initially noncommitted to the NEP. Stalin then enacted a system of collectivization during the Grain Procurement Crisis of 1928 and saw the need to quickly accumulate capital for the vast industrialization programme introduced with the Five Year Plans starting in 1928. The Bolsheviks hoped that the USSR's industrial base would reach

806-585: A shortage of heating oil, then coal, until they resorted to wood. Populations in northern towns (excluding capital cities) declined an average of 24%. Northern towns received less food than towns in the agricultural south. Petrograd alone lost 850,000 people, half of the urban population decline during the Civil War. Hunger and poor conditions drove residents out of cities. Workers migrated south to get peasants' surpluses. Recent migrants to cities left because they still had ties to villages. Urban workers formed

868-593: A strategic retreat from socialism. He believed it was capitalism, but justified it by insisting that it was a different type of capitalism, " state capitalism ", the last stage of capitalism before socialism evolved. While Stalin seemed receptive towards Lenin's shift in policy towards a state capitalist system, he stated in the Twelfth Party Congress in April 1923 that it allowed the "growth of nationalistic and reactionary thinking..". He also states that in

930-484: A temporary expedient. Lenin characterized the NEP in 1922 as an economic system that would include "a free market and capitalism , both subject to state control", while socialized state enterprises would operate on "a profit basis". The NEP represented a more market-oriented economic policy (deemed necessary after the Russian Civil War of 1918 to 1922) to foster the economy of the country, which had suffered severely since 1915. The Soviet authorities partially revoked

992-471: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Russian history –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . New Economic Policy The New Economic Policy ( NEP ) (Russian: новая экономическая политика (НЭП) , romanized : novaya ekonomicheskaya politika ) was an economic policy of the Soviet Union proposed by Vladimir Lenin in 1921 as

1054-408: Is accessible only through the family rooms). Zholtovsky's favorite flat walls (no bay windows , no setbacks) and modest application of Florentine canon fit the purpose quite well. In 1948, 80-year-old Zholtovsky became the subject of a witch-hunt once again. With no apparent reason, small-time critics slammed his works and his role in education. Zholtovsky lost the chair of MArchI. In February 1949,

1116-585: Is mainly done by Tatars, in Bobruysk by Old Believers . Horticulture spread everywhere, but it was not lacking in industrial character, it is a special property of every household, starting with a peasant and ending with a rich landowner. One feature of horticulture in the Minsk provinces was that each gardener tried to grow as many different fruit trees as possible. Since horticulture was not of an industrial nature, fruits were imported from Little Russia. Beekeeping

1178-445: Is still known as Zholtovsky House. In 1940, already 73 years old, Zholtovsky accepts the chair of Moscow Architectural Institute (MArchI). Zholtovsky stayed in Moscow throughout World War II , managing MArchI and engaged in various consultancies; when time came to repair the damage of war, he was too old to take serious out-of-town jobs. He bid for expansion of Mossoviet headquarters, making 18 proposals (1939–1945,); all failed, and

1240-619: The Left Opposition in the Bolshevik Party because of its compromise with some capitalist elements and the relinquishment of state control. The Left saw the NEP as a betrayal of Communist principles, and believed it would have a negative long-term economic effect, so they wanted a fully planned economy instead. In particular, the NEP fostered a class of traders (" NEPmen ") whom the Communists regarded as "class enemies" of

1302-701: The Russian Empire , with its capital in Minsk . It was created from the land acquired in the partitions of Poland and existed from 1793 until 1921. Its territory covered the majority of modern-day Belarus . Vileysky and Disnensky Uyezds passed to the Vilna Governorate in 1843. In 1919, Baranovichsky Uyezd was created from Novogorodoksky Uyezd and Nesvizhsky Uyezd was created from Slutsky Uyezd. In 1920, Novogrudoksky, Pinsky, Baranovichsky, and Nesvizhsky Uyezds were controlled by Poland . According to

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1364-594: The black market to use a barter system, which was inefficient. Drought and frost led to the Russian famine of 1921 , in which millions starved to death, especially in the Volga region, and urban support for the Bolshevik party eroded. When no bread arrived in Moscow in 1921, workers became hungry and disillusioned. They organised demonstrations against the Bolshevik Party's policy of privileged rations, in which

1426-524: The first five-year plan . After the New Economic Policy was instituted, agricultural production increased greatly. In order to stimulate economic growth, farmers were given the opportunity by the Bolsheviks to sell portions of their crops to the government in exchange for monetary compensation. Farmers now had the option to sell some of their produce, giving them a personal economic incentive to produce more grain. This incentive, coupled with

1488-496: The 12 disciples , split evenly between constructivism and traditional art). There were few orders, mostly for repairs or additions of old properties, and very few actually materialized. As construction halted, he concentrated on education and urban planning studies. Zholtovsky continued teaching at Vkhutemas . Whether the architectural college in Leningrad (VKhuTEIN) was led by traditionalists, Moscow college (Vkhutemas) became

1550-400: The 1897 imperial census, Minsk Governorate had a population of 2,147,621. The ethnic makeup (based on native language) was as follows: Minsk province has mostly swampy terrain and clay soil, but the climate is favorable for agriculture. Flax and hemp were planted for home use. Horticulture is common everywhere, primarily in the form of subsistence farming. In the city of Minsk, horticulture

1612-478: The 1913 (pre-World War I) level. The austere social practices and social-equality theories of revolution and war communism gave way to a more stratified society in which a new bureaucratic elite flaunted conspicuous status symbols: Vladimir Sosnovsky dubbed this "the automobile-harem factor". By 1924, the year of Lenin's death, Nikolai Bukharin had become the foremost supporter of the New Economic Policy. The USSR abandoned NEP in 1928 after Joseph Stalin obtained

1674-880: The Academic title as soon as 1909. By the time of the Russian Revolution, when he was reaching the age of 50, Zholtovsky was already considered a master builder, an elder in his profession. Zholtovsky stayed in Moscow throughout the course of World War I , Revolution of 1917 and Civil War . In 1918, he and Alexey Shchusev led the Architectural Studio for the Replanning of Moscow , Moscow's only state architectural firm, hiring and training young men like Ilya Golosov , Panteleimon Golosov , Konstantin Melnikov , Nikolai Ladovsky and Nikolai Kolli (

1736-522: The Communist Party from Trotsky, and after defeating the Trotsky faction, Stalin reversed his opinions about economic policy. Stalin believed that creating a socialist society was achievable in the Soviet Union without aid from outside sources or capitalist ideology. Backed by Stalin's Bolshevik -leaning ideology, he believed there was no need to build a basis of capital upon communism and implemented

1798-639: The NEP approach. Pantsov and Levine see many of the post- Mao economic reforms of the Chinese Communist Party 's former paramount leader Deng Xiaoping away from a command economy and towards a socialist market economy during the 1980s as influenced by the NEP: "It will be recalled that Deng Xiaoping himself had studied Marxism from the works of the Bolshevik leaders who had propounded NEP. He drew on ideas from NEP when he spoke of his own reforms. In 1985, he openly acknowledged that 'perhaps'

1860-414: The NEP in his work, Towards Socialism or Capitalism? . Because of Trotsky's history with Menshevik ideology, he believed in the importance of creating a basis of capital for communism to build on. In Trotsky's mind, the New Economic Policy helped lay a foundation of economic opportunities that would aid in a gradual transition to Collective Farming . Additionally, Trotsky saw the New Economic Policy as

1922-416: The NEP pointed in another direction, it would provide the economic conditions necessary for socialism eventually to evolve. After only seven years of NEP, Lenin's successor Stalin introduced full central planning , re-nationalized much of the economy, and from the late 1920s onwards introduced a policy of rapid industrialization . Stalin's collectivization of agriculture was his most notable departure from

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1984-521: The NEP, not only were "private property, private enterprise, and private profit largely restored in Lenin's Russia," but Lenin's regime turned to international capitalism for assistance, willing to provide "generous concessions to foreign capitalism." Lenin took the position that in order to achieve socialism, he had to create "the missing material prerequisites" of modernization and industrial development that made it imperative for Soviet Russia to "fall back on

2046-648: The Red Army, Party members, and students received rations first. The Kronstadt rebellion of soldiers and sailors broke out in March 1921, fueled by anarchism and populism . In 1921 Lenin replaced the food requisitioning policy with a tax, signaling the inauguration of the New Economic Policy. Leon Trotsky had also proposed the principles which would underly the NEP in 1920 to the Politbureau in an effort to mitigate urgent economic matters arising from war communism. He would later reproach Lenin privately about

2108-685: The Renaissance influence was unique to Zholtovsky, and will remain his trademark style until his death. He traveled to Italy frequently, recording its architectural legacy. Zholtovsky's Italian collection is still frequently exhibited, including rare photographs of Venetian St Mark's Campanile prior to collapse on July 14, 1902 He spoke fluent Italian, translated Palladio ’s Four Books in Russian (and eventually published them in 1938). Notable works of this period: Practice, educator's work and outspoken public activity in artistic world earned him

2170-422: The Soviet Union's push for rapid industrialization, and Soviet economists claimed that only large collective farms could support such an expansion. Accordingly, Stalin imposed collectivization of agriculture. Land held by the kulaks was seized and given to agricultural cooperatives ( kolkhozes and sovkhozes ). Lenin and his followers saw the NEP as an interim measure. However, it proved highly unpopular with

2232-722: The Soviets , was already in design contest stage. Zholtovsky shared contest prize with Boris Iofan and Hector Hamilton ; Iofan's draft was later selected. Zholtovsky, however, refused to work for Metro , believing that the lowly underground job is not worth his time. After the carrot came the stick: in April 1932 another Party ruling outlawed all independent artistic unions; they were replaced with state-controlled Union of Soviet architects (July 1932) and Academy of Architecture (1933). Independent architects had to join state projects, switch to bureaucratic jobs ( Viktor Vesnin ) or quit (like Melnikov did). Reconstruction of Moscow project

2294-472: The breakup of the quasi-feudal landed estates, resulted in agricultural production surpassing pre-Revolution levels. The agricultural sector became increasingly reliant on small family-farms, while heavy industries, banks, and financial institutions remained under state-ownership and -control. This led to an imbalance in the economy where the agricultural sector started to grow much faster than heavy industry. To maintain their income, factories raised prices. Due to

2356-399: The complete nationalization of industry (established during the period of war communism of 1918 to 1921) and introduced a mixed economy which allowed private individuals to own small and medium-sized enterprises, while the state continued to control large industries, banks and foreign trade. In addition, the NEP abolished forced grain-requisition and introduced a tax on farmers, payable in

2418-401: The concrete industry acquired enough capacity for mass construction. Zholtovsky's last apartment block (Prospect Mira, 184) was stripped of "redundancies", and in ten years that followed, architecture separated from construction management and folded down to city planning and engineering. Minsk Governorate Minsk Governorate was an administrative-territorial unit ( guberniya ) of

2480-407: The core of Bolshevik support, so the exodus posed a serious problem. Factory production severely slowed or halted. Factories lacked 30,000 workers in 1919. To survive, city dwellers sold personal valuables, made artisan craft-goods for sale or barter, and planted gardens. The acute need for food drove them to obtain 50–60% of food through illegal trading (see meshochnik ). The shortage of cash caused

2542-487: The delayed government response in 1921–1922. The laws sanctioned the co-existence of private and public sectors, which were incorporated in the NEP, which was a state oriented "mixed economy". The NEP represented a move away from full nationalization of certain parts of industries. Some kinds of foreign investments were expected by the Soviet Union under the NEP, in order to fund industrial and developmental projects with foreign exchange or technology requirements. The NEP

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2604-603: The devastation of the war, these were major hardships for the Russian people and diminished popular support for the Bolsheviks. At the end of the Civil War, the Bolsheviks controlled Russian cities, but 80% of the Russian population were peasants. Although almost all the fighting had occurred outside urban areas, urban populations decreased substantially. The war disrupted transportation (especially railroads), and basic public services. Infectious diseases thrived, especially typhus. Shipments of food and fuel by railroad and by water dramatically decreased. City residents first experienced

2666-439: The drought and famine of 1921–22. NEP economic reforms aimed to take a step back from central planning and allow the economy to become more independent. NEP labor reforms tied labor to productivity, incentivizing the reduction of costs and the redoubled efforts of labor. Labor unions became independent civic organizations. NEP reforms also opened up government positions to the most qualified workers. The NEP gave opportunities for

2728-413: The expectation of higher prices, or sold them to "NEPmen" (traders and middle-men) who re-sold them at high prices. Many members of the Communist Party considered this an exploitation of urban consumers. To lower the price of consumer goods, the state took measures to decrease inflation and enacted reforms of the internal practices of the factories. The government also fixed prices , in an attempt to halt

2790-563: The form of raw agricultural product. The Bolshevik government adopted the NEP in the course of the 10th Congress of the All-Russian Communist Party (March 1921) and promulgated it by a decree on 21 March 1921: "On the Replacement of grain-requisition by food tax ". Further decrees refined the policy. Other policies included monetary reform (1922–1924) and the attraction of foreign capital . The NEP created

2852-406: The government to use engineers, specialists, and intelligentsia for cost accounting, equipment purchasing, efficiency procedures, railway construction, and industrial administration. A new class of " NEPmen " thrived. These private traders opened up urban firms hiring up to 20 workers. NEPmen also included rural artisan craftsmen selling their wares on the private market. Lenin considered the NEP as

2914-538: The job was awarded to Dmitry Chechulin . In summer 1945, the state instituted Zholtovsky School and Workshop , where he would work till his death. In the same 1945, Zholtovsky workshop completed a controversial House of Lions , in Yermolayevsky lane - a luxurious downtown residence for Red Army Marshals , styled as an early 19th-century estate. Reverence to top brass backfired very soon. Zholtovsky issued his students an exercise to design Country residence of

2976-462: The level of capitalist countries in the West, to avoid losing a future war. (Stalin proclaimed, "Either we do it, or we shall be crushed.") Stalin asserted that the grain crisis was caused by kulaks – relatively wealthy farmers who allegedly "hoarded" grain and participated in "speculation of agricultural produce". He also considered peasant farms too small to support the massive agricultural demands of

3038-456: The recent Central Committee plenum there were speeches made which were incompatible with communism, all of which were ultimately caused by the NEP. These statements were made just after Lenin was incapacitated by strokes. Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin disagreed over how to develop the Soviet economy. Trotsky would elaborate on his views concerning the prospects and challenges associated with

3100-412: The rest of his career, being a construction manager in the original sense of architectural profession. Zholtovsky planned to relocate to Tomsk after graduation, but eventually received and accepted a quick job offer from Stroganov Art School in Moscow. He became a tutor in architecture just weeks after earning his own diploma – a part-time job that allowed plenty of time for professional practice. From

3162-462: The rising cost of manufactured goods, peasants had to produce much more wheat to buy these consumer goods, which increased supply and thus lowered the price of agricultural products. This fall in prices of agricultural goods and the sharp rise in prices of industrial products was dubbed by Trotsky the " Scissors Crisis " (due to the crossing of representation of the prices of the two types of product on graphs). Peasants began withholding their surpluses in

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3224-671: The same time his work on reducing construction costs and evaluating new technologies in 1950s spelled the demise of profession in the USSR. This work, pushed forward in January 1951 by Nikita Khrushchev (then City of Moscow party boss ), paved the road for a switch from masonry to prefab concrete in later 1950s. Zholtovsky workshop proposed various prefab concrete drafts, mixing new technologies with Stalinist exterior; this line of architecture never materialized: Khrushchev announced his war with "architectural excesses" in November 1955, just when

3286-542: The scissor effect. The NEP succeeded in creating an economic recovery after the devastation of World War I , the Russian Revolution , and the Russian Civil War . By 1925, in the wake of Lenin's NEP, a "... major transformation was occurring politically, economically, culturally and spiritually. Small-scale and light industries were largely in the hands of private entrepreneurs or cooperatives." By 1928, agricultural and industrial production had been restored to

3348-516: The south-west of the city. Later, he and Shchusev settled on a less radical growth model with only minor attempt to break away from circular layout by cutting two major avenues through the city core. This plan was discarded by Stalin in 1932. Works of this period (none survived to date) When he came back from a long trip to Italy in 1923–1926, New Economic Policy ( NEP ) brought considerable relief to architects. Seasoned professionals were in demand again, mostly from state or semi-state companies. For

3410-498: The very start, he joined the "traditionists" revival group (ретроспективисты, lit. retrospectivists ), placing himself against then-dominant Art Nouveau ( Russky Modern ). His search for classic excellence took some time, as he was equally influenced by Russian classicism and Italian Renaissance . While Neoclassical revival was at this time the second largest school in Russia (in high demand in Saint Petersburg, less so in Moscow),

3472-510: The working class. Vladimir Lenin is quoted to have said "For a year we have been retreating. On behalf of the Party we must now call a halt. The purpose pursued by the retreat has been achieved. This period is drawing, or has drawn, to a close." which implies Lenin believed the NEP should have ended in his lifetime. Lenin had also been known to say about NEP, "We are taking one step backward, to take two steps forward later", suggesting that, though

3534-424: Was an end to grain requisitions and instead instituted a tax ( Prodnalog ) on the peasants, thereby allowing them to keep and trade part of their produce. At first, this tax known was paid in kind, that is in the form of agricultural service, but as the currency became more stable in 1924, it was changed to a cash payment. This increased the peasants' incentive to produce, and in response production jumped by 40% after

3596-515: Was delayed twice, and each time list of speakers was approved at the very top). His pre-war works range from seaside resorts to industrial freezers, although his actual personal input to each project, with a few exceptions, is not clear. His most influential, undisputed work, highly praised by officials, was completed in 1934, right across the Kremlin . An apartment house at Mokhovaya Street , originally House of Engineers and Technicians (Дом ИТР)

3658-581: Was married twice and left no children. Since 1920 he lived in a 19th-century Stankevich House in Voznesensky lane. He died of pneumonia at the age of 92. As soon as he died, his widow, pianist Olga Arenskaya, was evicted from the house ( in 48 hours ,) his art and antiques collection was dispersed. His widow survived Zholtovsky one year. Zholtovsky's creed was that architecture and construction process are indivisible; separation of architect from construction management reduces art to draftsmanship. Yet at

3720-424: Was primarily a new agricultural policy. The Bolsheviks viewed traditional village life as conservative and backward. With the NEP, the state only allowed private landholdings because the idea of collectivized farming had met strong opposition. Lenin understood that economic conditions were dire, so he opened up markets to a greater degree of free trade, hoping to motivate the population to increase production. Under

3782-480: Was set up as 10 state architectural workshops, roughly corresponding to the radial sectors of the city. Zholtovsky was invited to lead Workshop No.1 ; like other old architects (Shchusev, Vladimir Shchuko , Ivan Fomin ), he fitted perfectly in Stalin's system. His educational work was in high esteem: in 1935 and 1937 Politburo appointed him to speak on education at the forthcoming Congress of Architects (this Congress

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3844-665: Was spread throughout the province, although it was not of an industrial nature. In 1897, there were 11,740 beekeepers. Forestry, which was exclusively practiced by Jews, played a significant role. Cattle breeding and sheep breeding was widespread throughout the province. Factory and similar industry is limited only to the needs of its own province. In 1860, there were 594 factories and plants; in 1879 — 623; in 1895 — 378; in 1912 — 493. In 1912, there were 61,485 artisans, 20,842 of them in cities. 53°54′08″N 27°33′42″E  /  53.9022°N 27.5618°E  / 53.9022; 27.5618 This Belarus location article

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