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109-468: Jochi ( Mongolian : ᠵᠦᠴᠢ ; c.  1182 – c.  1225 ), also known as Jüchi , was a prince of the early Mongol Empire . His life was marked by controversy over the circumstances of his birth and culminated in his estrangement from his family. He was nevertheless a prominent military commander and the progenitor of the family who ruled over the khanate of the Golden Horde . Jochi

218-776: A literary standard for Mongolian in whose grammar is said to be based on the Standard Mongolian of Inner Mongolia and whose pronunciation is based on the Chakhar dialect as spoken in the Plain Blue Banner . Dialectologically, however, western Mongolian dialects in Inner Mongolia are closer to Khalkha than they are to eastern Mongolian dialects in Inner Mongolia: e.g. Chakhar is closer to Khalkha than to Khorchin. Juha Janhunen (2003: 179) lists

327-526: A daughter of his ally Toghrul, but because of Jochi's uncertain birth and Temüjin's comparatively low status, this proposal was taken as insulting by Toghrul's people and eventually led to war between the two leaders. After Toghrul's defeat in 1204, Jochi was given one of his nieces, Begtütmish, as a wife. He also married other women : Börte's niece Öki; her relative Sorghan; and several less powerful women, namely Qutlugh Khatun, Sultan Khatun, Nubqus, Shīr, Qarajin, and Kul. In addition, Jochi took concubines . It

436-584: A firstborn, Jochi received the territories furthest away from the homeland for his ulus (domain): they were located in western Mongolia along the River Irtysh . This allocation was made with the expectation that Jochi would expand, and so in 1207–08 he campaigned against and subjugated the Hoi-yin Irgen  [ ja ] , a collection of tribes on the edge of the Siberian taiga between

545-534: A less febrile gathering which took place after the war's conclusion, some historians speculate that the Secret History 's account was "a later interpolation" and that Jochi only lost his place as heir after making mistakes during the Khwarazmian campaign. The Mongol armies, estimated to number 150,000 or 200,000 men in total, descended upon Otrar in late 1219. Leaving Chagatai and Ögedei to besiege

654-459: A lesson in self-control. He summoned Chagatai to his tent and accused him of not following orders; Chagatai replied that he would rather be executed than disobey. Genghis then revealed Mutukan's death and ordered Chagatai not to grieve—the latter managed to control himself until he was able to weep in private. He was later present at the defeat of the Khwarazmian prince Jalal al-Din at the Battle of

763-590: A much broader "Mongolian language" consisting of a Central dialect (Khalkha, Chakhar, Ordos), an Eastern dialect (Kharchin, Khorchin), a Western dialect (Oirat, Kalmyk), and a Northern dialect (consisting of two Buryat varieties). Additionally, the Language Policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949 , states that Mongolian can be classified into four dialects: the Khalkha dialect in

872-538: A parameter called ATR ( advanced tongue root ); the groups are −ATR, +ATR, and neutral. This alignment seems to have superseded an alignment according to oral backness. However, some scholars still describe Mongolian as being characterized by a distinction between front vowels and back vowels, and the front vowel spellings 'ö' and 'ü' are still often used in the West to indicate two vowels which were historically front. The Mongolian vowel system also has rounding harmony. Length

981-535: A postalveolar or palatalized consonant will be followed by an epenthetic [i] , as in [ˈatʃĭɮ] . Stress in Mongolian is nonphonemic (does not distinguish different meanings) and thus is considered to depend entirely on syllable structure. But scholarly opinions on stress placement diverge sharply. Most native linguists, regardless of which dialect they speak, claim that stress falls on the first syllable. Between 1941 and 1975, several Western scholars proposed that

1090-496: A report on sports composed in Mongolian script on stone, which is most often dated at 1224 or 1225. The Mongolian- Armenian wordlist of 55 words compiled by Kirakos of Gandzak (13th century) is the first written record of Mongolian words. From the 13th to the 15th centuries, Mongolian language texts were written in four scripts (not counting some vocabulary written in Western scripts): Uyghur Mongolian (UM) script (an adaptation of

1199-419: A reputation for being anti-Muslim. One contemporary Muslim writer claimed that he urged Ögedei to kill every Muslim in the empire. Modern historians such as Michael Hope and Peter Jackson suggest this is likely far from the truth: they point to a number of powerful Muslim officials and nobles at Chagatai's court on whom he relied and whom he would have been unlikely to unnecessarily antagonise. More probable

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1308-426: A short first syllable are stressed on the second syllable. But if their first syllable is long, then the data for different acoustic parameters seems to support conflicting conclusions: intensity data often seems to indicate that the first syllable is stressed, while F0 seems to indicate that it is the second syllable that is stressed. The grammar in this article is also based primarily on Khalkha Mongolian. Unlike

1417-591: A system of vowel harmony : For historical reasons, these have been traditionally labeled as "front" vowels and "back" vowels, as /o/ and /u/ developed from /ø/ and /y/, while /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ developed from /o/ and /u/ in Middle Mongolian. Indeed, in Mongolian romanizations , the vowels /o/ and /u/ are often conventionally rendered as ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ , while the vowels /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ are expressed as ⟨o⟩ and ⟨u⟩ . However, for modern Mongolian phonology, it

1526-521: Is Classical Mongolian , which is dated from the 17th to the 19th century. This is a written language with a high degree of standardization in orthography and syntax that sets it quite apart from the subsequent Modern Mongolian. The most notable documents in this language are the Mongolian Kangyur and Tengyur as well as several chronicles. In 1686, the Soyombo alphabet ( Buddhist texts )

1635-433: Is determined according to phonotactic requirements. The following table lists the consonants of Khalkha Mongolian. The consonants enclosed in parentheses occur only in loanwords. The occurrence of palatalized consonant phonemes, except /tʃ/ /tʃʰ/ /ʃ/ /j/ , is restricted to words with [−ATR] vowels. A rare feature among the world's languages, Mongolian has neither a voiced lateral approximant, such as [l] , nor

1744-714: Is dialectally more diverse and written in the traditional Mongolian script. However, Mongols in both countries often use the Latin script for convenience on the Internet. In the discussion of grammar to follow, the variety of Mongolian treated is the standard written Khalkha formalized in the writing conventions and in grammar as taught in schools, but much of it is also valid for vernacular (spoken) Khalkha and other Mongolian dialects, especially Chakhar Mongolian . Some classify several other Mongolic languages like Buryat and Oirat as varieties of Mongolian, but this classification

1853-409: Is ellipsis . The rules governing the morphology of Mongolian case endings are intricate, and so the rules given below are only indicative. In many situations, further (more general) rules must also be taken into account in order to produce the correct form: these include the presence of an unstable nasal or unstable velar, as well as the rules governing when a penultimate vowel should be deleted from

1962-466: Is CVVCCC, where the last C is a word-final suffix. A single short vowel rarely appears in syllable-final position . If a word was monosyllabic historically, *CV has become CVV. In native words, the following consonants do not occur word-initially: /w̜/ , /ɮ/ , /r/ , /w̜ʲ/ , /ɮʲ/ , /rʲ/ , /tʰʲ/ , and /tʲ/ . [ŋ] is restricted to codas (else it becomes [n] ), and /p/ and /pʲ/ do not occur in codas for historical reasons. For two-consonant clusters,

2071-438: Is a +ATR vowel, then every vowel of the word must be either /i/ or a +ATR vowel. In the case of suffixes, which must change their vowels to conform to different words, two patterns predominate. Some suffixes contain an archiphoneme /A/ that can be realized as /a, ɔ, e, o/ ; e.g. Other suffixes can occur in /U/ being realized as /ʊ, u/ , in which case all −ATR vowels lead to /ʊ/ and all +ATR vowels lead to /u/ ; e.g. If

2180-491: Is based primarily on the Khalkha dialect as spoken in Ulaanbaatar , Mongolia's capital. The phonologies of other varieties such as Ordos, Khorchin, and even Chakhar, differ considerably. This section discusses the phonology of Khalkha Mongolian with subsections on Vowels, Consonants, Phonotactics and Stress. The standard language has seven monophthong vowel phonemes. They are aligned into three vowel harmony groups by

2289-566: Is impeded by the fact that existing data for the major varieties is not easily arrangeable according to a common set of linguistic criteria. Such data might account for the historical development of the Mongolian dialect continuum , as well as for its sociolinguistic qualities. Though phonological and lexical studies are comparatively well developed, the basis has yet to be laid for a comparative morphosyntactic study, for example between such highly diverse varieties as Khalkha and Khorchin. In Juha Janhunen's book titled Mongolian , he groups

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2398-410: Is more appropriate to instead characterize the two vowel-harmony groups by the dimension of tongue root position. There is also one neutral vowel, /i/ , not belonging to either group. All the vowels in a non compound word, including all its suffixes, must belong to the same group. If the first vowel is −ATR, then every vowel of the word must be either /i/ or a −ATR vowel. Likewise, if the first vowel

2507-427: Is not in line with the current international standard. Mongolian is a language with vowel harmony and a complex syllabic structure compared to other Mongolic languages, allowing clusters of up to three consonants syllable-finally. It is a typical agglutinative language that relies on suffix chains in the verbal and nominal domains. While there is a basic word order, subject–object–verb , ordering among noun phrases

2616-1269: Is phonemic for vowels, and except short [e], which has merged into short [i], at least in Ulaanbaatar dialect, each of the other six phonemes occurs both short and long. Phonetically, short /o/ has become centralised to the central vowel [ɵ] . In the following table, the seven vowel phonemes, with their length variants, are arranged and described phonetically. The vowels in the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet are: Khalkha also has four diphthongs : historically /ui, ʊi, ɔi, ai/ but are pronounced more like [ʉe̯, ʊe̯, ɞe̯, æe̯] ; e.g. ой in нохой ( nohoi ) [nɔ̙ˈχɞe̯] 'dog', ай in далай ( dalai ) [taˈɮæe̯] sea', уй in уйлах ( uilah ) [ˈʊe̯ɮɐχ] 'to cry', үй in үйлдвэр ( üildver ) [ˈʉe̯ɮtw̜ɘr] 'factory', эй in хэрэгтэй ( heregtei ) [çiɾɪxˈtʰe] 'necessary'. There are three additional rising diphthongs /ia/ (иа), /ʊa/ (уа) /ei/ (эй); e.g. иа in амиараа ( amiaraa ) [aˈmʲæɾa] 'individually', уа in хуаран ( huaran ) [ˈχʷaɾɐɴ] 'barracks'. This table below lists vowel allophones (short vowels allophones in non-initial positions are used interchangeably with schwa): Mongolian divides vowels into three groups in

2725-465: Is relatively free, as grammatical roles are indicated by a system of about eight grammatical cases . There are five voices . Verbs are marked for voice, aspect , tense and epistemic modality / evidentiality . In sentence linking, a special role is played by converbs . Modern Mongolian evolved from Middle Mongol , the language spoken in the Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries. In

2834-659: Is unknown who Jochi's senior wife was, but it was likely either Öki or Sorghan. Jochi's most important sons were Orda Khan and Batu Khan ; they were the children of Sorghan and Öki respectively. Neither these women nor Begtütmish was the mother of Jochi's other notable son, Berke . The names of eleven other sons are known, but none had significant careers, reflecting the junior status of their mothers. Descendants of younger sons nevertheless used their Jochid lineage to legitimise their right to rule: these included Khiḍr Khan of Shiban 's line, and Tokhtamysh who descended from Jochi's youngest son Tuqa-Timur . In 1206, having united

2943-402: Is word-final, it gets stressed anyway. In cases where there is only one phonemic short word-initial syllable, even this syllable can get the stress: More recently, the most extensive collection of phonetic data so far in Mongolian studies has been applied to a partial account of stress placement in the closely related Chakhar dialect. The conclusion is drawn that di- and trisyllabic words with

3052-530: The Altaic language family and contrasted with the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area . However, instead of a common genetic origin, Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak proposed that Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages form a language Sprachbund , rather than common origin. Mongolian literature is well attested in written form from the 13th century but has earlier Mongolic precursors in

3161-675: The Angara and Irtysh rivers. Jochi secured a marriage alliance with the Oirats , whose leader Qutuqa Beki guided the Mongols to the Yenisei Kyrgyz and other Hoi-yin Irgen. These tribes soon submitted, and Jochi took control of the region's trade in grain and furs, as well as its gold mines. He subsequently reinforced Subutai 's army before it defeated the renegade Merkits at the battle of

3270-618: The Ergüne river , in modern-day Inner Mongolia . At the age of ten, she was betrothed to a Mongol boy named Temüjin , son of the Mongol chieftain Yesugei . Seven years later ( c.  1178 ), after he had survived a violent adolescence, they married. They had their first child, a daughter named Qojin, in 1179 or 1180. By forming alliances with notable steppe leaders, such as his friend Jamukha and his father's former ally Toghrul , and with

3379-509: The Kalmyk variety ) and Buryat, both of which are spoken in Russia, Mongolia, and China; and Ordos , spoken around Inner Mongolia's Ordos City . The influential classification of Sanžeev (1953) proposed a "Mongolian language" consisting of just the three dialects Khalkha, Chakhar, and Ordos, with Buryat and Oirat judged to be independent languages. On the other hand, Luvsanvandan (1959) proposed

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3488-619: The Qara Khitai state during the late 1100s, and contained a mixture of nomadic and sedentary populations. Chagatai and his descendants remained largely nomadic in the Mongol tradition and often disagreed with the governors of the settlements in Transoxiana, who were representatives not of the Chagatayids but of the ruler of the empire. Tension soon developed between one such official named Mahmud Yalavach and Chagatai. In 1238,

3597-667: The Shuluun Huh/Zhènglán Banner , and is written in the traditional Mongolian script . The number of Mongolian speakers in China is still larger than in the state of Mongolia, where the majority of Mongolians in China speak one of the Khorchin dialects , or rather more than two million of them speak the Khorchin dialect itself as their mother tongue, so that the Khorchin dialect group has about as many speakers as

3706-588: The Taihang Mountains into Shanxi , where they pillaged and plundered in autumn 1213. He may have also taken part in the Irghiz River skirmish , an inconclusive engagement fought against the army of Muhammad II of Khwarazm . The Secret History records two conversations between Jochi and his father about his campaigns: once when Genghis declined Jochi's request to spare the life of a renowned Merkit archer, and once when Jochi's triumphant return from

3815-584: The Uyghur alphabet), 'Phags-pa script (Ph) (used in decrees), Chinese (SM) ( The Secret History of the Mongols ), and Arabic (AM) (used in dictionaries). While they are the earliest texts available, these texts have come to be called " Middle Mongol " in scholarly practice. The documents in UM script show some distinct linguistic characteristics and are therefore often distinguished by terming their language "Preclassical Mongolian". The Yuan dynasty referred to

3924-553: The syllable 's position in the word. In word-initial syllables, there is a phonemic contrast in vowel length . A long vowel has about 208% the length of a short vowel. In word-medial and word-final syllables, formerly long vowels are now only 127% as long as short vowels in initial syllables, but they are still distinct from initial-syllable short vowels. Short vowels in noninitial syllables differ from short vowels in initial syllables by being only 71% as long and by being centralized in articulation. As they are nonphonemic, their position

4033-668: The Indus in November 1221, and commanded the rearguard during his father's final campaign against the Western Xia state. The tribes of the Mongol steppe had no fixed succession system, and instead tended to elect a successor at a kurultai after the death of a ruler; importantly, the kurultai was not obliged to follow the wishes of the previous ruler. Although some Mongols argued that Chagatai's traits would make him an excellent successor to his father, Genghis thought that he

4142-603: The Inner Mongolia since September, which caused widespread protests among ethnic Mongol communities. These protests were quickly suppressed by the Chinese government. Mandarin has been deemed the only language of instruction for all subjects as of September 2023. Mongolian belongs to the Mongolic languages . The delimitation of the Mongolian language within Mongolic is a much disputed theoretical problem, one whose resolution

4251-524: The Irtysh River in late 1208 or early 1209. Jochi would campaign intermittently against the Merkits and their Qangli allies for the next decade, finally destroying the last remnants of the people in 1217 or 1218 alongside Subutai. The historian Christopher Atwood has argued that this narrative minimised Jochi's role, that in reality he, not Subutai, was the primary commander in all campaigns against

4360-521: The Khalkha dialect group in the State of Mongolia. Nevertheless, the Chakhar dialect, which today has only about 100,000 native speakers and belongs to the Khalkha dialect group, is the basis of standard Mongolian in China. The characteristic differences in the pronunciation of the two standard varieties include the umlauts in Inner Mongolia and the palatalized consonants in Mongolia (see below) as well as

4469-573: The Merkit and Qangli, and that his right to rule the former Qangli lands was justified by the success of the campaigns. Alongside his brothers Chagatai and Ögedei, Jochi commanded the right wing in the 1211 invasion of the Chinese Jin dynasty . The Mongols marched southwards from Genghis's campaign headquarters in modern Inner Mongolia in November 1211: first they attacked the cities in the area between Hohhot and Datong , and then they followed

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4578-515: The Merkits for nearly nine months, Jochi's paternity was uncertain; this was reflected in his name, meaning "guest" in Mongolian . While Temüjin always regarded Jochi as his son by blood and treated him accordingly, many Mongols, such as his younger brother Chagatai , viewed him as a bastard sired by Chilger-Bökö. Jochi does not reappear in historical sources until 1203. By this time, he was old enough for marriage. Temüjin intended to betroth him to

4687-847: The Mongolian language in Chinese as "Guoyu" ( Chinese : 國語 ), which means "National language", a term also used by other non-Han dynasties to refer to their languages such as the Manchu language during the Qing dynasty , the Jurchen language during the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) , the Khitan language during the Liao dynasty , and the Xianbei language during the Northern Wei period. The next distinct period

4796-504: The Mongolic language family into four distinct linguistic branches: The Common Mongolic branch is grouped in the following way: There is no disagreement that the Khalkha dialect of the Mongolian state is Mongolian. However, the status of certain varieties in the Common Mongolic group—whether they are languages distinct from Mongolian or just dialects of it—is disputed. There are at least three such varieties: Oirat (including

4905-426: The accusative, while it must take the nominative if it is indefinite . In addition to case, a number of postpositions exist that usually govern the genitive, dative-locative, comitative and privative cases, including a marked form of the nominative (which can itself then take further case forms). There is also a possible attributive case (when a noun is used attributively ), which is unmarked in most nouns but takes

5014-515: The authority of Genghis's eldest son, and many others remained unwaveringly faithful to Genghis's will, and prevented any usurpation of power. Chagatai presided over the coronation ceremony alongside Tolui and their uncle Temüge and was a stalwart follower of Ögedei throughout his reign. In return, Ögedei often sought his elder brother's advice and sent his eldest son Güyük to serve as one of Chagatai's guards. Chagatai nevertheless chastised Ögedei for his excessive drinking and made him agree to limit

5123-465: The campaign, Chagatai was granted large tracts of conquered land in Central Asia, which he ruled until his death. He quarrelled with civil officials such as Mahmud Yalavach over matters of jurisdiction and advised Ögedei on questions of rulership. Chagatai died shortly after Ögedei in 1242; his descendants would rule his territories as the eponymous Chagatai Khanate . Chagatai's mother, Börte ,

5232-514: The central problem remains the question of how to classify Chakhar, Khalkha, and Khorchin in relation to each other and in relation to Buryat and Oirat. The split of [tʃ] into [tʃ] before *i and [ts] before all other reconstructed vowels, which is found in Mongolia but not in Inner Mongolia, is often cited as a fundamental distinction, for example Proto-Mongolic *tʃil , Khalkha /tʃiɮ/ , Chakhar /tʃil/ 'year' versus Proto-Mongolic *tʃøhelen , Khalkha /tsoːɮəŋ/ , Chakhar /tʃoːləŋ/ 'few'. On

5341-605: The citadel before being captured himself. In revenge for Inalchuq's actions, the Mongols either killed or enslaved Otrar's entire population, while pillaging and destroying their town. Chagatai and Ögedei brought Inalchuq to their father at the siege of Samarkand , where he was publicly executed. Chagatai and Ögedei were then sent to join Jochi at the Siege of Gurganj , the capital of the Khwarazmian Empire . The siege

5450-500: The cities in the area between Hohhot and Datong , and then they followed the Taihang Mountains into Shanxi , where they pillaged and plundered in autumn 1213, capturing the pastures of their enemies' cavalry reserves. During the 1219 invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire , Chagatai was charged with building bridges and maintaining roads to speed the Mongol advance and keep lines of communication open, in which capacity he

5559-411: The city destroyed either by burning naphtha or flooding from collapsed dams. After the city's eventual fall in 1221, its inhabitants were either killed or enslaved. The usual narrative of the siege recounts that Jochi and Chagatai quarrelled on how best to conduct its progress, as Jochi presumed that the rich city would become part of his domain and wished to damage it as little as possible. Chagatai on

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5668-486: The daughters of Börte's cousin Qata; Yesülün was his favourite and the mother of his favourite son Mutukan . His other named sons were Mochi Yaba, the son of one of Yesülün's servants and thus given little regard by his father, as well as Balgashi, Sarban, Yesu-Mongke , and Baidar , whose mothers are unknown. Chagatai was renowned for his expertise in Mongol laws and traditional customs, especially when it came to following

5777-473: The empire and that Jochi in reality retained primacy throughout the siege. Chagatai returned to his father's side during the siege of Taliqan , which fell in summer 1221. Unknown to him, his favourite son Mutukan had died while besieging Bamiyan , whose population was massacred by the Mongols at the request of Mutukan's widow. Genghis had been angered by Chagatai's failure to capture Gurganj without significant Mongol casualties, and he decided to teach his son

5886-478: The events, while the two that did include them (the Secret History of the Mongols , a mid-13th-century epic poem, and the 14th-century Persian historian Rashid al-Din 's Jami al-tawarikh ) are contradictory. The following narrative, containing elements from both, is considered most plausible. In 1180 or 1181, a large force of Merkits raided Temüjin's camp; while most of his family managed to escape, Börte

5995-412: The examples given above, the words are phonetically [ˈxɔjɔ̆r] , [ˈatʃĭɮ] , and [ˈsaːrmăɢ] . The phonetic form of the epenthetic vowel follows from vowel harmony triggered by the vowel in the preceding syllable. Usually it is a centralized version of the same sound, with the following exceptions: preceding /u/ produces [e] ; /i/ will be ignored if there is a nonneutral vowel earlier in the word; and

6104-635: The following Mongol dialects, most of which are spoken in Inner Mongolia . There are two standard varieties of Mongolian. Standard Mongolian in the state of Mongolia is based on the northern Khalkha Mongolian dialects, which include the dialect of Ulaanbaatar , and is written in the Mongolian Cyrillic script . Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia is based on the Chakhar Mongolian of the Khalkha dialect group, spoken in

6213-444: The following restrictions obtain: Clusters that do not conform to these restrictions will be broken up by an epenthetic nonphonemic vowel in a syllabification that takes place from right to left. For instance, hoyor 'two', azhil 'work', and saarmag 'neutral' are, phonemically, /xɔjr/ , /atʃɮ/ , and /saːrmɡ/ respectively. In such cases, an epenthetic vowel is inserted to prevent disallowed consonant clusters. Thus, in

6322-490: The help of his charisma, Temüjin began to attract followers and gain power. Word of his rise spread and soon drew the attention of the Merkit tribe to the northwest, from whom Yesugei had abducted Temüjin's mother Hö'elün , sparking a blood feud ; they resolved to take revenge on Yesugei's heir. Because of their consequences, the subsequent events were considered controversial: most contemporary authors omitted any mention of

6431-583: The independent words derived using verbal suffixes can roughly be divided into three classes: final verbs , which can only be used sentence-finally, i.e. ‑ na (mainly future or generic statements) or ‑ ö (second person imperative); participles (often called "verbal nouns"), which can be used clause-finally or attributively, i.e. ‑ san ( perfect - past ) or ‑ maar 'want to'; and converbs , which can link clauses or function adverbially , i.e. ‑ zh (qualifies for any adverbial function or neutrally connects two sentences ) or ‑ tal (the action of

6540-413: The language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in Inner Mongolia has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during

6649-405: The late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012. However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to

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6758-535: The latter claimed he was too ill to do so. When a traveller claimed that he was not ill and merely hunting, Genghis resolved to bring him to heel. Before he could do so, in either 1225 or 1227, news came that Jochi had died of his illness. One account, likely fabricated, states that Jochi had been so offended by the destruction at Gurganj that he had made a secret alliance with the Khwarazmians, and that having found out, Genghis ordered that Jochi be poisoned. Batu

6867-418: The leftmost heavy syllable gets the stress. Yet other positions were taken in works published between 1835 and 1915. Walker (1997) proposes that stress falls on the rightmost heavy syllable unless this syllable is word-final: A "heavy syllable" is defined as one that is at least the length of a full vowel; short word-initial syllables are thereby excluded. If a word is bisyllabic and the only heavy syllable

6976-532: The line of succession to the Mongol throne. After Temüjin founded the Mongol Empire in 1206 and took the name Genghis Khan, he entrusted Jochi with nine thousand warriors and a large territory in the west of the Mongol heartland ; Jochi commanded and participated in numerous campaigns to secure and extend Mongol power in the region. He was also a prominent commander during the invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire (1219–1221), during which he subdued cities and tribes to

7085-526: The literature of the Khitan and other Xianbei peoples. The Bugut inscription dated to 584 CE and the Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi dated to 604–620 CE appear to be the oldest substantial Mongolic or Para-Mongolic texts discovered. Writers such as Owen Lattimore referred to Mongolian as "the Mongol language". The earliest surviving Mongolian text may be the Stele of Yisüngge  [ ru ] ,

7194-421: The main clause takes place until the action expressed by the suffixed verb begins). Roughly speaking, Mongolian has between seven and nine cases : nominative ( unmarked ), genitive , dative - locative , accusative , ablative , instrumental , comitative , privative and directive , though the final two are not always considered part of the case paradigm. If a direct object is definite , it must take

7303-646: The middle, the Horcin-Haracin dialect in the East, Oriat-Hilimag in the west, and Bargu–Buriyad in the north. Some Western scholars propose that the relatively well researched Ordos variety is an independent language due to its conservative syllable structure and phoneme inventory. While the placement of a variety like Alasha , which is under the cultural influence of Inner Mongolia but historically tied to Oirat, and of other border varieties like Darkhad would very likely remain problematic in any classification,

7412-522: The north. During the 1221 Siege of Gurganj , tensions arose between him, his brothers, and Genghis, which never healed. Jochi was still estranged from his family when he died of ill health c.  1225 . His son Batu was appointed to rule his territories in his stead. Jochi's mother, Börte , was born into the Onggirat tribe, who lived along the Greater Khingan mountain range south of

7521-709: The number of cups of alcohol he drank; Ögedei managed to get around this restriction by finding a very large cup. After the conclusion of the Khwarazmian campaign, Chagatai had been allocated a wide span of territories in Central Asia, stretching from the former Uighur territories near Almaliq , which became his capital and summer pastures, to the Amu Darya river in Transoxiana , which served as his winter pastures. These territories, roughly encompassing modern Uzbekistan , Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan , southern Kazakhstan , and parts of Xinjiang in China, had been ruled by

7630-491: The only vowel in the word stem is /i/ , the suffixes will use the +ATR suffix forms. Mongolian also has rounding harmony, which does not apply to close vowels. If a stem contains /o/ (or /ɔ/ ), a suffix that is specified for an open vowel will have [o] (or [ɔ] , respectively) as well. However, this process is blocked by the presence of /u/ (or /ʊ/ ) and /ei/ ; e.g. /ɔr-ɮɔ/ 'came in', but /ɔr-ʊɮ-ɮa/ 'inserted'. The pronunciation of long and short vowels depends on

7739-414: The other hand held no such qualms. When Genghis heard about this infighting, he ordered that Ögedei be promoted to command his brothers. Atwood however argues that this narrative was a later invention designed to buttress Ögedei's rule as khan of the empire and that Jochi in reality retained primacy throughout the siege. Regardless of the narrative discrepancies, Jochi lost the favour of his father following

7848-618: The other hand, the split between the past tense verbal suffixes - /sŋ/ in the Central varieties v. - /dʒɛː/ in the Eastern varieties is usually seen as a merely stochastic difference. In Inner Mongolia, official language policy divides the Mongolian language into three dialects: Standard Mongolian of Inner Mongolia , Oirat, and Barghu-Buryat. The Standard Mongolian of Inner Mongolia is said to consist of Chakhar, Ordos, Baarin , Khorchin, Kharchin, and Alasha. The authorities have synthesized

7957-448: The phonology, most of what is said about morphology and syntax also holds true for Chakhar, while Khorchin is somewhat more diverse. Modern Mongolian is an agglutinative —almost exclusively suffixing—language, with the only exception being reduplication. Mongolian also does not have gendered nouns, or definite articles like "the". Most of the suffixes consist of a single morpheme . There are many derivational morphemes. For example,

8066-408: The population of Bukhara , led by a sieve-maker, revolted against tax demands—the rebellion attracted wide support and succeeded in expelling the Mongol garrison. Chagatai did not help and left the revolt to Ögedei, whose armies quickly suppressed the uprising; the population faced total slaughter but was spared after Mahmud argued that only a part had been involved. It is likely that Chagatai exploited

8175-555: The preferential policies for minorities in education, healthcare, family planning, school admissions, the hiring and promotion, the financing and taxation of businesses, and regional infrastructural support given to ethnic minorities in China. In 2020, the Chinese government required three subjects—language and literature, politics, and history—to be taught in Mandarin in Mongolian-language primary and secondary schools in

8284-601: The presence of urban ethnic communities. The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language. Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols. The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols so they can benefit from

8393-461: The reign of his younger brother Ögedei Khan . Chagatai held military commands alongside his brothers during the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty in 1211 and the invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire in 1219. During the latter, he was appointed to a key role in organising logistics in addition to battlefield responsibilities, but was censured after feuding with Jochi during the Siege of Gurganj . After

8502-399: The rich city would become part of his domain and wished to damage it as little as possible. Chagatai on the other hand held no such qualms. When Genghis heard about this infighting, he ordered that Ögedei be promoted to command his brothers. The historian Christopher Atwood however argues that the narrative of fraternal conflicts was a later invention designed to buttress Ögedei's right to rule

8611-459: The same powers as his father. Chagatai also squabbled with Körgüz , his brother's governor in the region of Khorasan . After Ögedei's death from alcoholism in December 1241, Chagatai was the de facto kingmaker . Ögedei's favourite wife Möge initially assumed control but Töregene , the mother of his presumptive heir Güyük, sought to become regent; she crucially persuaded Chagatai that she

8720-518: The shores of the Aral Sea to Gurganj, while his brothers Chagatai and Ögedei, having captured Otrar , converged on his position. There are contradictory accounts of the siege of Gurganj and Jochi's part in it. What is certain is that the siege was lengthy, lasting between four and seven months, and that it was exceptionally fierce: the defiant Khwarazmian defenders forced the Mongol army to engage in bitter house-by-house urban warfare , with much of

8829-480: The siege. Genghis likely considered it a military failure on account of its length and destruction; Jochi also erred by not sending his father his rightful share of the loot. After its conclusion, Chagatai and Ögedei departed southwards to join their father in his pursuit of the renegade Khwarazmian prince Jalal al-Din , while Jochi moved north, ostensibly to bring the Qangli to heel in his new territories, which included

8938-518: The situation to Mahmud's detriment, although the precise details are unknown. Soon afterwards, Chagatai transferred the control of certain lands under Mahmud's jurisdiction to one of his own followers. Mahmud complained to Ögedei, who ordered his brother to explain himself. Upon receiving an apology, Ögedei settled the tense situation to the satisfaction of all by sanctioning Chagatai's initial transfer, moving Mahmud to an important post in north China, and promoting Mahmud's son to govern in his place with

9047-610: The splitting of the Middle Mongol affricates * ʧ ( ᠴ č ) and * ʤ ( ᠵ ǰ ) into ʦ ( ц c ) and ʣ ( з z ) versus ʧ ( ч č ) and ʤ ( ж ž ) in Mongolia: Aside from these differences in pronunciation, there are also differences in vocabulary and language use: in the state of Mongolia more loanwords from Russian are being used, while in Inner Mongolia more loanwords from Chinese have been adopted. The following description

9156-414: The stem with certain case endings (e.g. цэрэг  ( tsereg ) → цэргийн  ( tsergiin )). The additional morphological rules specific to loanwords are not covered. Chagatai Khan Chagatai Khan ( Mongolian : ᠴᠠᠭᠠᠲᠠᠶ ; c.  1184 – 1242) was a son of Genghis Khan and a prominent figure in the early Mongol Empire . The second son of Genghis's wife Börte , Chagatai

9265-454: The steppes west of the river Chu . Some sources allege that he preferred to spend his time hunting, an activity he was very greatly fond of. It is unclear if he ever met his father again. Although Jochi sent huge numbers of wild asses and 20,000 white horses to Genghis as a gift c.  1224 , relations were steadily worsening because of Jochi's preoccupation with his territories. On his return home, Genghis ordered Jochi to join him, but

9374-550: The subjugation of the Oirats garnered high praise from his father. In 1218, Genghis was provoked into launching a campaign against the Central Asian Khwarazmian Empire after a Mongol trade caravan was killed by the governor of the border town of Otrar and subsequent diplomatic overtures failed. According to the Secret History , Yesui , one of Genghis's secondary wives, requested that he decide

9483-475: The succession before setting out. Though Genghis appears not to have cared about Jochi's possible illegitimacy, Chagatai vehemently objected to his brother becoming the next khan, shouting "How can we let ourselves be ruled by this Merkit bastard?" After a short brawl between the brothers was broken up, the Secret History continues, the suggestion of Ögedei as a compromise candidate was endorsed by both brothers and their father. Because of other sources which present

9592-430: The suffix ‑ н  (‑ n ) when the stem has an unstable nasal. Nouns can also take a reflexive-possessive suffix , indicating that the marked noun is possessed by the subject of the sentence: bi najz-aa avar-san I friend- reflexive-possessive save- perfect "I saved my friend". However, there are also somewhat noun-like adjectives to which case suffixes seemingly cannot be attached directly unless there

9701-618: The territories which became known as the Chagatai Khanate . Although Chagatai's loyalty to nomadic customs meant that he constructed no more than pools for waterfowl , storehouses, and small villages in his territories, he was a capable ruler who recruited both foreign educated experts and local Uighur officials to help administer his realm. Because Chagatai was a strict upholder of the traditional Mongol law, which forbade various elements of Islamic Sharia law , such as animal slaughter , ritual hygiene , or public prayer , he gained

9810-491: The throne. Jochi was also eliminated because of his rumoured illegitimacy, although Genghis himself did not care. Their younger brother Ögedei was eventually designated as heir. After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, Chagatai played a role in stabilising the empire before Ögedei's accession in 1229. Tolui, who assumed the regency and who had also been a candidate for succession, considered attempting to gain power himself. Chagatai, who after Jochi's death c.  1225 held

9919-678: The town, Genghis took their younger brother Tolui and traversed the Kyzyl Kum desert to attack the city of Bukhara . Meanwhile, Jochi was dispatched to march down the Syr Darya river in the direction of the Khwarazmian capital Gurganj and subdue all the cities en route , which Genghis intended to become part of Jochi's territories. The towns of Sighnaq and Asanas offered particularly stiff resistance and their inhabitants were thus slaughtered, while Jand and Yanikant were occupied without much trouble. In late 1220, he travelled southwest along

10028-456: The transition, a major shift in the vowel-harmony paradigm occurred, long vowels developed, the case system changed slightly, and the verbal system was restructured. Mongolian is related to the extinct Khitan language . It was believed that Mongolian was related to Turkic , Tungusic , Korean and Japonic languages but this view is now seen as obsolete by a majority of (but not all) comparative linguists. These languages have been grouped under

10137-458: The tribes of Mongolia , Temüjin held a large assembly called a kurultai where he was acclaimed as "Genghis Khan". He began to reorder his new nation, dividing it between members of his ruling dynasty. As the eldest son, Jochi received the largest share—nine thousand subject warriors, all with their own families and herds; Chagatai received eight thousand, and their younger brothers Ögedei and Tolui received five thousand each. As expected for

10246-424: The voiceless velar plosive [k] ; instead, it has a voiced alveolar lateral fricative , /ɮ/ , which is often realized as voiceless [ɬ] . In word-final position, /n/ (if not followed by a vowel in historical forms) is realized as [ŋ] . Aspirated consonants are preaspirated in medial and word-final contexts, devoicing preceding consonants and vowels. Devoiced short vowels are often deleted. The maximal syllable

10355-603: The will of the khan. According to some sources, Genghis entrusted him and his adopted brother Shigi Qutuqu with administering the legal code known as the Yasa . Medieval chroniclers such as Juzjani noted his strictness in interpreting the law and the harshness of his temperament. Alongside his brothers Jochi and Ögedei, Chagatai commanded the right wing in the 1211 invasion of the Chinese Jin dynasty . The Mongols marched southwards from Genghis's campaign headquarters in modern Inner Mongolia in November 1211: first they attacked

10464-547: The word baiguullagiinh consists of the root bai 'to be', an epenthetic ‑ g ‑, the causative ‑ uul ‑ (hence 'to found'), the derivative suffix ‑ laga that forms nouns created by the action (like - ation in organisation ) and the complex suffix ‑ iinh denoting something that belongs to the modified word (‑ iin would be genitive ). Nominal compounds are quite frequent. Some derivational verbal suffixes are rather productive , e.g. yarih 'to speak', yarilc 'to speak with each other'. Formally,

10573-651: Was acclaimed as "Genghis Khan". He began to reorder his new nation, dividing it between members of his ruling dynasty. Chagatai was granted territories near the Altai Mountains , where the Naiman tribe had previously ruled. He also received either 4,000 or 8,000 subjects, drawn from the Jalayir , Barlas , Suldus , Sonit, and Dughlat tribes. Chagatai's two primary wives were the Onggirat women Yesülün and Tögen,

10682-521: Was aided by his retainer Zhang Rong (1158–1230). He and Ögedei took charge of the siege of the city of Otrar , whose governor Inalchuq had provoked the invasion, while their father and brothers moved on. Its inhabitants fought fiercely for five months but were weakened by the defection of a leading general, who was executed by Ögedei and Chagatai because of his disloyalty. The city eventually fell in February 1220; Inalchuq held out for another month in

10791-416: Was born into the Onggirat tribe, who lived along the Greater Khingan mountain range south of the Ergüne river , in modern-day Inner Mongolia . She married a Mongol leader named Temüjin c.  1178 after a seven-year betrothal. After giving birth to a daughter named Qojin, Börte was kidnapped and raped by members of the Merkit tribe —the true paternity of her next child, a son named Jochi ,

10900-451: Was built much later and that it is not the site of the grave. Mongolian language The number of speakers across all its dialects may be 5–6 million, including the vast majority of the residents of Mongolia and many of the ethnic Mongol residents of the Inner Mongolia of China . In Mongolia , Khalkha Mongolian is predominant, and is currently written in both Cyrillic and the traditional Mongolian script . In Inner Mongolia, it

11009-599: Was captured. She was forcibly married to Chilger-Bökö, the younger brother of Hö'elün's original husband. Meanwhile, Temüjin had convinced his allies to assemble substantial forces to help him rescue Börte. Under Jamukha's command, the combined army campaigned against the Merkits and defeated them, recovering Börte and taking large amounts of plunder. However, there was a problem—Börte was heavily pregnant and c.  1182 gave birth to Jochi in Jamukha's camp. As Chilger-Bökö had undoubtedly raped her, and as she had been among

11118-583: Was confirmed as ruler of his father's territories by Genghis—his elder brother Orda assumed a junior position, while their younger brothers each took a strip of land to rule. Jochi's descendants would grow more independent, eventually ruling over the state known as the Golden Horde . Although a large mausoleum in Ulytau Region in Kazakhstan has traditionally been identified as the resting place of Jochi's remains, radiocarbon dating indicates that it

11227-417: Was created, giving distinctive evidence on early classical Mongolian phonological peculiarities. Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken (but not always written) by nearly 3.6 million people (2014 estimate), and the official provincial language (both spoken and written forms) of Inner Mongolia, where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China,

11336-564: Was lengthy, lasting between four and seven months, and exceptionally fierce: the defiant Khwarazmian defenders forced the Mongol army to engage in bitter house-by-house urban warfare , with much of the city destroyed either by burning naphtha or flooding from collapsed dams. After the city's eventual fall in April 1221, its inhabitants were either killed or enslaved. The usual narrative of the siege recounts that Jochi and Chagatai quarrelled on how best to conduct its progress, as Jochi presumed that

11445-417: Was never known, although Temüjin accepted his legitimacy. Chagatai, born in late 1183 or 1184, was thus the first son definitively fathered by Temüjin. He had six younger full siblings: two brothers named Ögedei and Tolui , and four sisters named Checheyigen , Alaqa , Tümelün, and Al Altan . In 1206, having united the tribes of Mongolia , Temüjin held a large assembly called a kurultai where he

11554-428: Was renowned for his masterful knowledge of Mongol custom and law , which he scrupulously obeyed, and his harsh temperament. Because Genghis felt that he was too inflexible in character, most notably never accepting the legitimacy of his elder brother Jochi , he excluded Chagatai from succession to the Mongol throne. He was nevertheless a key figure in ensuring the stability of the empire after Genghis's death and during

11663-463: Was suitable, and with his support attained the position. Chagatai died in 1242; he was replaced as the senior Genghisid prince by Jochi's son Batu . Yesülün accused one of Chagatai's stewards, an Uighur from North China named Vajir, of poisoning him, and had him executed. Chagatai was succeeded in Central Asia by Qara Hülegü , the son of Mutukan, but he was usurped by his drunkard uncle Yesü-Möngke between 1246 and 1250, causing long-term weaknesses in

11772-477: Was the son of Börte , the first wife of the Mongol leader Temüjin . For many months before Jochi's birth, Börte had been a captive of the Merkit tribe , one of whom forcibly married and raped her. Although there was thus considerable doubt over Jochi's parentage, Temüjin considered him his son and treated him accordingly. Many Mongols, most prominently Börte's next son Chagatai , disagreed; these tensions eventually led to both Chagatai and Jochi being excluded from

11881-404: Was too strict and narrow-minded, indicating a degree of inflexibility that did not suit a ruler. Genghis was also concerned about Chagatai's intense dislike for Jochi, whom Chagatai regarded as illegitimate: at one family meeting, he reportedly called his brother a "Merkit bastard" and started brawling with him in front of their father. For these reasons, Genghis excluded Chagatai from succession to

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