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79-459: Cassian was born around 360, most likely in the region of Scythia Minor (now Dobruja , a historical region shared today by Romania and Bulgaria ), although some scholars assume a Gallic origin. The son of wealthy parents, he received a good education: his writings show the influence of Cicero and Persius . He was bilingual in Latin and Greek. Cassian mentions having a sister in his first work,

158-564: A discourse collected in the Philokalia on Abba Philimon, a Desert Father. Hesychast prayer was a meditative practice that was traditionally done in silence and with eyes closed—"empty of mental pictures" and visual concepts, but with the intense consciousness of God's presence. The words hesychast and hesychia were frequently used in 4th and 5th century writings of Desert Fathers such as Macarius of Egypt , Evagrius Ponticus , and Gregory of Nyssa . The title hesychast

237-532: A good will is either renewed or formed in us. Cassian finds the will to be insufficient for spiritual progress, and traces this back to the initial sin of pride. Cassian illustrates advanced cases of the will's pathology in the Institutions , saying these problems began when man "believed himself capable of attaining the glory of the Godhead by his freedom of will and hard work." To this end, Cassian believes

316-413: A protection that is always present and at hand, for whoever calls unceasingly on his protector is sure that he is always present. It contains a burning love and charity, an awareness of traps, and a fear of enemies. Seeing oneself surrounded by these day and night, one confesses that one cannot be set free without the help of one's defender. This verse is an unassailable wall, an impenetrable breastplate, and

395-441: A room. They supported themselves by weaving cloth and baskets, along with other tasks. Each new monk or nun had a three-year probationary period, concluding with admittance in full standing to the monastery. All property was held communally, meals were eaten together and in silence, twice a week they fasted, and they wore simple peasant clothing with a hood. Several times a day they came together for prayer and readings, and each person

474-549: A saint, with a feast day on 23 July ( death anniversary ). Like his contemporaries Augustine of Hippo and John Chrysostom , he was never formally canonized, a process that came into use several centuries after his death. Pope Urban V referred to him as sanctus (a saint) and he was included in the Gallican Martyrology He is included also in the Roman Martyrology with a feast-day on 23 July. In

553-538: A simple, direct style. They were swiftly translated into Greek, which indicates the Eastern monks recognized him as one of their own. Some of his works had been translated into Georgian by the 11th century. The Institutes were meant to help Castor to establish a coenobium following the model of Egypt, in contrast to the existing monastic life in Gaul, which included the work of Martin of Tours . According to Hugh Feiss

632-480: A time when it was no longer a risk to be a Christian. The solitude, austerity, and sacrifice of the desert was seen by Anthony as an alternative to martyrdom, which was formerly seen by many Christians as the highest form of sacrifice. Anthony quickly gained followers eager to live their lives in accordance with this solidarity and separation from material goods. From these prohibitions, it is recorded by Athanasius that Anthony received special privileges from God, such as

711-629: A very strong shield for those who labour under the attack of demons. Benedict of Nursia praises Cassian's Conferences in his rule and use of this formula became part of the Liturgy of the Hours in the Western Church, in which all the canonical hours , including the minor hours, start with this versicle , which is omitted only if the hour begins with the Invitatory , the introduction to

790-417: Is a prominent representative of a monastic movement in southern Gaul which, ca. 425, gave expression to the soteriological view that much later was called Semipelagianism. This emphasized the role of free will in that the first steps of salvation are in the power of the individual, without the need for divine grace . His thought has been described as a "middle way" between Pelagianism , which taught that

869-505: Is quoted as saying the following: The thief on the cross certainly did not receive the Kingdom of Heaven as a reward for his virtues but as a grace and a mercy from God. He can serve as an authentic witness that our salvation is given to us only by God's mercy and grace. All the holy masters knew this and unanimously taught that perfection in holiness can be achieved only through humility. According to some scholars, Cassian

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948-563: Is still followed by Benedictine , Cistercian , and Trappist monks, John Cassian's thought still exercises influence over the spiritual lives of thousands of men and women in the Latin Church . Cassian died in 435 at Marseille. Cassian came very late into writing and did so only when a request was made by one or more important persons. His sources were the same as those of Evagrius Ponticus , but he added his own ideas, which were arranged in extensive collections. Evagrius was, however,

1027-509: The Abbey of St Victor , was a complex of monasteries for both men and women, one of the first such institutes in the West, and served as a model for later monastic development. Cassian's achievements and writings influenced Benedict of Nursia , who incorporated many of the principles into his monastic rule , and recommended to his own monks that they read the works of Cassian. Since Benedict's rule

1106-583: The Calvinist idea of irresistible grace . Neither Cassian nor any of his teachings have ever been directly or indirectly called into question or condemned by Eastern Orthodox, as they are considered a witness to the Orthodox position. In The Book of Mystical Chapters , a compilation of sayings of the Church Fathers by renowned theologian and early church historian John Anthony McGuckin , Cassian

1185-722: The Conferences be read to monks under his Rule. Moreover, the monastic institutions Cassian inspired kept learning and culture alive during the Early Middle Ages , and were often the only institutions that cared for the sick and poor. His works are excerpted in the Philokalia ( Greek for "love of the beautiful"), the Eastern Orthodox compendium on mystical Christian prayer. Even modern thinkers have been influenced by Cassian's thinking. Michel Foucault

1264-779: The Illuminatio ( theoria in Greek) commenced. During this period the monks practiced the paths to holiness as revealed in the Gospel, identifying strongly with the Christ who taught the Sermon on the Mount (found in Matthew 5–7). Many monks took in visitors and students and tended the poor as much as their resources allowed. Many monks died never having moved past this period. The final stage

1343-580: The Institutes are a counterweight to Sulpicius Severus’ Life of Martin and Dialogues , and are an attempt to put order into a movement Cassian regarded as chaotic. Cassian, who insists on manual work, had a higher opinion of and close ties with the monastery on the Island of Lerins , founded by Honoratus . In Books 1–4 of Institutions , Cassian discusses clothing, prayer and rules of monastic life. Books 5–12 are rules on morality, specifically addressing

1422-522: The Institutes , with whom he corresponded in his monastic life; she may have ended up with him in Marseille. As a young adult he traveled to Palestine with an older friend Germanus, with whom he would spend much of the next twenty-five years. There they entered a hermitage near Bethlehem . After remaining in that community for about three years, they journeyed to the desert of Scete in Egypt , which

1501-690: The Scetes desert of the Roman province of Egypt , beginning around the third century AD . The Apophthegmata Patrum is a collection of the wisdom of some of the early desert monks and nuns , in print as Sayings of the Desert Fathers . The first Desert Father was Paul of Thebes , and the most well known was Anthony the Great , who moved to the desert in AD ;270–271 and became known as both

1580-585: The Tetrarchy or the Constantinian dynasty . Substantial repairs were made under Emperors Anastasius I and Justinian I , who granted the province fiscal immunity. By the fifth century, most of the troops stationed in Scythia were foederati of Germanic , Turkic , Hunnic or (perhaps) Slavic origin. They were a constant source of tension in the province. Christianity flourished in Scythia in

1659-646: The Coenobia ) and the Conlationes or Collationes patrum in scythica eremo ( Conferences of the Desert Fathers ). In these, he codified and transmitted the wisdom of the Desert Fathers of Egypt. The Institutes deal with the external organization of monastic communities, while the Conferences deal with "the training of the inner man and the perfection of the heart". His books were written in Latin , in

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1738-406: The Desert Fathers. Paul of Thebes is often credited with being the first hermit monk to go to the desert, but it was Anthony the Great who launched the movement that became the Desert Fathers. Sometime around AD 270, Anthony heard a Sunday sermon stating that perfection could be achieved by selling all of one's possessions, giving the proceeds to the poor, and following Jesus. He followed

1817-685: The Desert Fathers: The Alphabetical Collection ). This collection contains about a thousand items. The same editors also recognised a number of anonymous sayings and tales of the Desert Fathers and Mothers that were popularly circulated. This material was gathered into a collection now known as the Anonymous Patrum Apophthegmata ( Anonymous Sayings of the Desert Fathers ). These sayings were loosely ordered by subject (for instance: humility, charity etc.). The collection now known as

1896-572: The Great , Poemen , Macarius of Egypt , Moses the Black , and Syncletica of Alexandria . Other notable Desert Fathers include Jerome , Pachomius , Abba Or , and Shenouda the Archimandrite , and many individuals who spent part of their lives in the Egyptian desert, including Athanasius of Alexandria , John Chrysostom , Evagrius Ponticus , and Hilarion . John Cassian 's works brought

1975-572: The Incarnation of the Lord , was a defense of orthodox doctrine against the views of Nestorius , and was written at the request of the Archdeacon of Rome, later Pope Leo I . In this book Cassian points out a link between Nestorianism which stresses the humanity of Jesus and Pelagianism which stresses human effort. Later theologians, however, labeled Cassian as " Semipelagian " because he stressed

2054-780: The Irish church, at the beginning of the ninth century, Cassian was commemorated on 25 November, as indicated in the Martyrology of Óengus: "Lasin nEoin Cassian assa érchain corann" (With John Cassian whose crown is very fair). Like the great majority of recognized saints of the church, he is not one of the saints in the General Roman Calendar , but the Archdiocese of Marseilles and some monastic orders celebrate his memorial on his feast day. In 2022, John Cassian

2133-544: The Monks of Lerins, Cassian qualifies this by saying the good will is "stirred" by God: For when God sees us inclined to will what is good, He meets, guides, and strengthens us: for "At the voice of thy cry, as soon as He shall hear, He will answer thee;" and: "Call upon Me," He says, "in the day of tribulation and I will deliver thee, and thou shalt glorify Me." And again, if He finds that we are unwilling or have grown cold, He stirs our hearts with salutary exhortations, by which

2212-416: The ability to heal the sick, inspire others to have faith in healing through God, and even converse with God on occasion. Around this time, desert monasticism appeared nearly simultaneously in several areas, including Egypt and Syria , and some of the Desert Fathers's Coptic traditions also spread to Nubia . Over time, the model of Anthony and other hermits attracted many followers, who lived alone in

2291-639: The advice and made the further step of moving deep into the desert to seek complete solitude. Anthony lived in a time of transition for Christianity—the Diocletianic Persecution in AD 303 was the last great formal persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire . Only ten years later, Christianity was made legal in Egypt by Diocletian 's successor Constantine I . Those who left for the desert formed an alternate Christian society, at

2370-476: The ascetic life. It was later read in Benedictine communities after the evening meal, and from the Latin title, Collationes , comes the word collation in the sense of "light meal". Outline of Cassian's Conferences : The desert ascetics of Egypt followed a three-step path to mysticism: Purgatio , Illuminatio , and Unitio . These stages correspond to the three ways of later Catholic theology. During

2449-463: The ascetic practices that were so dominant in the Desert Fathers' lives. The lives of the Desert Fathers that were organized into communities included frequent recitation of the scriptures—during the week they chanted psalms while performing manual labour and during the weekends they held liturgies and group services. The monk's experience in the cell occurred in a variety of ways, including meditation on scripture. Group practices were more prominent in

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2528-409: The commandments were not seen as being easy—many of the stories from that time recount the struggle to overcome negative emotions such as anger and judgment of others. Helping a brother monk who was ill or struggling was seen as taking priority over any other consideration. Hermits were frequently seen to break a long fast when hosting visitors, as hospitality and kindness were more important than keeping

2607-454: The community and the responsibility of looking after each other's welfare. The new approach grew to the point that there were tens of thousands of monks and nuns in these organized communities within decades of Pachomius' death. One of the early pilgrims to the desert was Basil of Caesarea , who took the Rule of Pachomius into the eastern church. Basil expanded the idea of community by integrating

2686-413: The desert or in small groups. They chose a life of extreme asceticism , renouncing all the pleasures of the senses, rich food, baths, rest, and anything that made them comfortable. They instead focused their energies on praying, singing psalms, fasting, giving alms to the needy, and preserving love and harmony with one another while keeping their thoughts and desires for God alone. Thousands joined them in

2765-402: The desert, mostly men but also a handful of women. Religious seekers also began going to the desert seeking advice and counsel from the early Desert Fathers. By the time of Anthony's death, there were so many men and women living in the desert that it was described as "a city" by Anthony's biographer. The Desert Fathers advocated three main approaches to monasticism. One was the austere life of

2844-515: The early monastic development in the Byzantine world and eventually in the western Christian world. John Cassian played an important role in mediating the influence of the Desert Fathers to the West. This can be seen, for example, in the Rule of Saint Benedict , where Benedict of Nursia urged his monks to read the writings of John Cassian on the Desert Fathers. The Sayings of the Desert Fathers

2923-409: The effect of God's grace. It is fully divine. Salvation, however, is salvation of a rational creature who has sinned through free choice. Therefore, salvation necessarily includes both free human consent in grace and the gradual rehabilitation in grace of the faculty of free choice. Thus Cassian insists salvation is also fully human. His thought, however, is not Semi-Pelagian, nor do readers who submit to

3002-493: The eight vices  – gluttony , lust , greed , hubris , wrath , envy , listlessness , and boasting  – and what to do to cure these vices. In the Institutions , Cassian discusses a will that is more complex than the will at the heart of the Pelagian message. Willful monks are a contentious problem, and Cassian paid considerable attention to analyzing the will, treating the corrupt will, and chiefly subordinating even

3081-413: The father and founder of desert monasticism. By the time Anthony had died in AD 356, thousands of monks and nuns had been drawn to living in the desert following Anthony's example, leading his biographer, Athanasius of Alexandria , to write that "the desert had become a city." The Desert Fathers had a major influence on the development of Christianity. The desert monastic communities that grew out of

3160-486: The fifth and sixth centuries. Numerous Christian inscriptions have been found. Already in the fourth century, there is evidence of martyr cults there. Churches typically had relic crypts. Several prominent theologians hailed from Scythia, including John Cassian , Dionysius Exiguus and the Scythian monks . Desert Fathers The Desert Fathers were early Christian hermits and ascetics , who lived primarily in

3239-694: The first hour said in the day, whether it be the Office of Readings or Morning Prayer. Alphonsus Liguori also cites Cassian's recommendation to use this short prayer continually. In the West, Cassian's proposition that "the slightest glimmer of goodwill" could be attributed to the human drive was widely regarded as unacceptable in relation to the prosperity of the Augustinianism of the period (Conf. 13.7.1; cf Prosper of Aquitaine Contra Collatorem; Cassiodorus, Institutiones 1.29; Decretum Gelasianum V.7 ) . In his Thirteenth Conference and in writings to

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3318-540: The first level, Purgatio (in Greek, Catharsis ), young monks struggled through prayer and ascetic practices to gain control of "the flesh"—specifically by purging their gluttony, lust and desire for possessions. This period of purgation, which often took many years, was intended to teach young monks that whatever strength they had to resist these desires ( grace ) came directly from the Holy Spirit . At this point,

3397-630: The fourteenth century Byzantine meditative prayer techniques, when it was more closely identified with the Prayer of the Heart , or "Jesus Prayer". The prayer's origin is also traced back to the Desert Fathers—the Prayer of the Heart was found inscribed in the ruins of a cell from that period in the Egyptian desert. The earliest written reference to the practice of the Prayer of the Heart may be in

3476-436: The good will for the good of the community and ultimately, the will of God. Below is an outline of Cassian's Institutes : The Conferences , dedicated to Pope Leo , to the bishop of Fréjus , and to the monk Helladius, summarize important conversations that Cassian had with elders from the monastery at Scetis about principles of the spiritual and ascetic life. This book addresses specific problems of spiritual theology and

3555-615: The hermit, as practiced by Anthony and his followers in lower Egypt. Another was the cenobitic life, communities of monks and nuns in upper Egypt formed by Pachomius . The third was a semi-hermitic lifestyle seen mostly in Nitria , Kellia and Scetis , west of the Nile, begun by Saint Amun . The latter were small groups (two to six) of monks and nuns with a common spiritual elder—these separate groups would join in larger gatherings to worship on Saturdays and Sundays. This third form of monasticism

3634-550: The human consent to God's justifying action is itself an effect of grace, This position of the Roman Catholic Church and of Cassian as interpreted by Casiday is attributed by Eastern Orthodox theologian Georges Florovsky also to the Eastern Orthodox Church, which, he says, "always understood that God initiates, accompanies, and completes everything in the process of salvation", rejecting instead

3713-453: The informal gathering of hermit monks became the model for Christian monasticism , first influencing the Coptic communities these monks were a part of and preached to. Some were monophysites or believed in a similar idea. The eastern monastic tradition at Mount Athos and the western Rule of St. Benedict both were strongly influenced by the traditions that began in the desert. All of

3792-456: The initial letter of the Abba's name in the order of the Greek alphabet, resulting in the editors starting with Anthony the Great, Arsenius and Agathon, and concluding with Cheremon, Psenthaisius and Or. These editors were the first to use the word apophthegms (meaning: saying, maxim or aphorism ), resulting in this collection being known as Apophthegmata Patrum Alphabetica ( The Sayings of

3871-647: The light of writers such as Cassian. Augustine Casiday states that Cassian "boldly asserts that God's grace, not human free will , is responsible for 'everything which pertains to salvation' - even faith." Some other Orthodox, who do not apply the term "Semi-Pelagian" to their theology, criticize the Roman Catholics for allegedly rejecting Cassian, whom they accept as fully orthodox, and for holding, as, in Casiday's interpretation, that everything which pertains to salvation comes from God's grace, and so that even

3950-851: The monastic revivals of the Middle Ages looked to the desert for inspiration and guidance. Much of Eastern Christian spirituality, including the Hesychast movement, has its roots in the practices of the Desert Fathers. Even religious renewals such as the German evangelicals and Pietists in Pennsylvania, the Devotio Moderna movement, and the Methodist Revival in England are seen by modern scholars as being influenced by

4029-408: The monks and nuns into the wider public community, with the monks and nuns under the authority of a bishop and serving the poor and needy. As more pilgrims began visiting the monks in the desert, influence from the monastic communities began spreading. Latin versions of the original Greek stories and sayings of the Desert Fathers, along with the earliest monastic rules coming out of the desert, guided

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4108-414: The need for a more formal structure, established a monastery with rules and organization. His regulations included discipline, obedience, manual labour, silence, fasting, and long periods of prayer—some historians view the rules as being inspired by Pachomius' experiences as a Roman soldier. The first fully organized monastery with Pachomius included men and women living in separate quarters, up to three in

4187-402: The organized communities formed by Pachomius. The purpose of these practices were explained by John Cassian , a Desert Father, who described the goal of psalmody (the outward recitation of scripture) and asceticism as the ascent to deep mystical prayer and mystical contemplation. There are many different collections of sayings of the Desert Fathers. The earliest writings were simply ordered by

4266-463: The plain teaching of scripture. Following an unsuccessful journey to Alexandria to protest the matter, Cassian and Germanus fled with about 300 other Origenist monks. Cassian and Germanus went to Constantinople , where they appealed to the Patriarch of Constantinople , John Chrysostom , for protection. Cassian was ordained a deacon and became a member of the clergy attached to the patriarch while

4345-741: The region was overrun by the Bulgars , which the Emperor Constantine IV was forced to recognize in 681. According to the Laterculus Veronensis of c.  314 and the Notitia Dignitatum of c.  400 , Scythia belonged to the Diocese of Thrace . Its governor held the title of praeses and its dux commanded two legions , Legio I Iovia and Legio II Herculia . The office of dux

4424-458: The renunciate must conquer his will, overcome it, and even kill it. In regards to demons, Cassian noted that the earliest coenobites would ensure one monk was reciting a prayer, psalmody, or reading at all times, due to their belief that demons were especially prevalent at night. Cassian promotes David's evil spirit repulsing prayer at Ps. 35: 1–3, for demons actively oppose the virtuous life, and could be warded off with prayer. His third book, On

4503-453: The rest to the poor. When members of the church began finding ways to work with the Roman state, the Desert Fathers saw that as a compromise between "the things of God and the things of Caesar." The monastic communities were essentially an alternate Christian society. The hermits doubted that religion and politics could ever produce a truly Christian society. For them, the only Christian society

4582-589: The role of God's justice and grace (predestination) and take a more negative view of human effort. His teaching on overcoming the eight evil tendencies (See Books 5 to 12 of The Institutes) were the inspiration behind the way the Irish monks practised asceticism, as shown in the Irish Penitentials. The Institutes had a direct influence on organization of monasteries described in the Rule of Saint Benedict ; Benedict also recommended that ordered selections of

4661-562: The role of the human will , as opposed to Augustine's stress on the totality of grace, in moving towards salvation. The ideas expressed by Cassian to which critics have pointed as examples of his alleged Semipelagianism are found in his Conferences , in book 3, the Conference of Abbot Paphnutius; book 5, the Conference of Abbot Serapion; and most especially in book 13, the Third Conference of Abbot Chaeremon. The view that Cassian propounded Semipelagianism has been disputed. Lauren Pristas, writes: "For Cassian, salvation is, from beginning to end,

4740-501: The seven deadly sins comes from Cassian, as does much of his teaching on compunction and prayer. Philip Neri used to read Cassian to the laity and would frequently use his work as the starting point for his own addresses. He also influenced John Climacus and John of Damascus , as well as Saint Dominic , Francis de Sales , and John Henry Newman . Cassian's writings stress the role of prayer and personal asceticism in attaining salvation by contrast with Augustine's writings which stress

4819-427: The single most important influence on Cassian's ideas, due to his reverence for the "Origenist" monks (who also relied predominantly on Evagrius) of Nitria , Kellia , and Scetis , three early monastic centres in the desert of the northwestern Nile Delta . Around 420, at the request of Bishop Castor of Apt in Gallia Narbonensis, Cassian wrote two major spiritual works, the De institutis coenobiorum ( Institutes of

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4898-478: The struggles with the imperial family ensued. When the patriarch was forced into exile from Constantinople in 404, the Latin-speaking Cassian was sent to Rome to plead his cause before Pope Innocent I . While he was in Rome, Cassian accepted the invitation to found an Egyptian-style monastery in southern Gaul , near Marseille . He may also have spent time as a priest in Antioch between 404 and 415. In any case, he arrived in Marseille around 415. His foundation,

4977-422: The whole body of Scripture. For it takes up all the emotions that can be applied to human nature and with great correctness and accuracy it adjusts itself to every condition and every attack. It contains an invocation of God in the face of any crisis, the humility of a devout confession, the watchfulness of concern and of constant fear, a consciousness of one's own frailty, the assurance being heard, and confidence in

5056-537: The whole corpus emerge Semi-Pelagians." And Augustine Casiday states that "for Cassian ... although sparks of goodwill may exist (which are not directly caused by God), they are totally inadequate and only direct divine intervention can ensure our spiritual progress". The Latin Church condemned Semipelagianism in the local Council of Orange (529) , but recognizes Cassian himself as a saint. It did not endorse Augustine entirely and, while later Catholic theologians accepted Augustine's authority, they interpreted his views in

5135-415: The wide disparity of dates for the sayings attributed to Abba Poemen, some scholars believe that "Poemen" was a generic name for a combination of different unnamed Abbas. Others conclude that the sayings attributed to Abba Poemen are accurate, based on a notable and historical Abba Poemen. Among the notable Desert Fathers and Mothers with sayings in the book, in addition to Anthony the Great , were Arsenius

5214-774: The will alone was sufficient to live a sinless life, and the view of Augustine of Hippo , which emphasizes original sin and the absolute need for grace. For instance, Anglican priest and historian Owen Chadwick stated that Cassian held that man can come to God without the intervention of divine grace first; and the Presbyterian theologian B. B. Warfield called Cassian the leader of the monastics in southern Gaul who asserted that men begin their turning to God and that God assists that beginning. The spiritual traditions of Cassian had an immeasurable effect on Western Europe. Many different western spiritualities, from that of St Benedict of Nursia to that of St Ignatius of Loyola , owe their basic ideas to Cassian. Pope Gregory I 's teaching on

5293-412: The wisdom of the Desert Fathers into a wider arena. The legalization of Christianity by the Roman Empire in 313 gave Anthony a greater resolve to go out into the desert. Nostalgic for the tradition of martyrdom, he saw withdrawal and asceticism as an alternative. He insisted on selling all his material possessions—he left his younger sister a small amount of money to live her life in a convent, and donated

5372-409: Was a Roman province in late antiquity , corresponding to the lands between the Danube and the Black Sea , today's Dobruja divided between Romania and Bulgaria . It was detached from Moesia Inferior by the Emperor Diocletian to form a separate province sometime between 286 and 293 AD. The capital of province was Tomis (today Constanța ). The province ceased to exist around 679–681, when

5451-564: Was also widely read in the early Benedictine monasteries. Many of the monks and nuns developed a reputation for holiness and wisdom, with the small communities following a particularly holy or wise elder, who was their spiritual father ( abba ) or mother ( amma ). The individual Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers are mostly known through The Sayings of the Desert Fathers , which included 1,202 sayings attributed to twenty-seven abbas and three ammas . The greatest number of sayings are attributed to Abba "Poemen", Greek for "shepherd". Because of

5530-440: Was expected to spend time alone meditating on the scriptures. Programs were created for educating those who came to the monastery unable to read. Pachomius also formalized the establishment of an abba (father) or amma (mother) in charge of the spiritual welfare of their monks and nuns, with the implication that those joining the monastery were also joining a new family. Members also formed smaller groups, with different tasks in

5609-521: Was fascinated by the rigorous way Cassian defined and struggled against the "flesh". Perhaps because of investigations like these, Cassian's thought and writings are enjoying a recent popularity even in non-religious circles. He is a saint of the Eastern Orthodox Churches , with a feast day on 29 February. Because this day occurs only once every four years on leap years , official church calendars often transfer his feast to another date (usually 28 February). The Roman Catholic Church also ranks him as

5688-610: Was officially added to the Episcopal Church liturgical calendar with a feast day on 23 July. Cassian's relics are kept in an underground chapel in the Monastery of Saint Victor in Marseilles . His head and right hand are in the main church there. Online texts Others Scythia Minor (Roman province) Scythia Minor or Lesser Scythia ( Greek : Μικρά Σκυθία , romanized: Mikra Skythia )

5767-480: Was rent by Christian struggles. There they visited a number of monastic foundations. Approximately fifteen years later, about 399, Cassian and Germanus faced the Anthropomorphic controversy provoked in letter form by Theophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria . Cassian noted that the majority of the monks received the message of their patriarch "with bitterness", and charged Theophilus with heresy for impugning

5846-467: Was replaced by that of quaestor exercitus , covering a wider area, in 536. The indigenous population of Scythia Minor was Dacian and their material culture is apparent archaeologically into the sixth century. Roman villas have also been found. The cities were either ancient Greek foundations on the coast (like Tomis) or more recent Roman foundations on the Danube. Roman fortifications mostly date to

5925-467: Was responsible for most of the sayings that were compiled as the Apophthegmata Patrum ( Sayings of the Desert Fathers ). The small communities founded by the Desert Fathers were the beginning of Christian monasticism . Initially Anthony and others lived as hermits, sometimes forming groups of two or three. Small informal communities began developing, until the monk Pachomius , seeing

6004-455: Was spiritual and not mundane. Hesychasm (from the Greek for "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") is a mystical tradition and movement that originated with the Desert Fathers and was central to their practice of prayer. Hesychasm for the Desert Fathers was primarily the practice of "interior silence and continual prayer." It did not become a formal movement of specific practices until

6083-628: Was tempered by common sense. Cassian says hospitality should override ascetical routine. Even the most contemplative of anchorites should entertain visitors. Both asceticism and ministry are aspects of the practical life. In his Conferences , Cassian recommended as "absolutely necessary for possessing the perpetual awareness of God" the formula in Psalm 70 (69) v. 2, Deus, in adiutorium meum intende. Domine, ad adiuvandum me festina ("God, incline unto my aid; O Lord, make haste to help me"). He says of it: Not without reason has this verse been selected out of

6162-593: Was the Unitio ( theosis in Greek), a period in which the soul of the monk was meant to bond with the Spirit of God in a union often described as the marriage of the Song of Solomon (also called the "Song of Songs" or the "Canticle of Canticles"). To find the solitude and peace that this level of mystical awareness demanded, elderly monks often fled into the deep desert or into remote forests. His asceticism, while rigorous,

6241-458: Was used in early times synonymously with hermit , as compared to a cenobite who lived in community. Hesychasm can refer to inner or outer stillness, though in The Sayings of the Desert Fathers it referred to inner tranquility. The Desert Fathers gave a great deal of emphasis to living and practicing the teachings of Jesus, much more than theoretical knowledge. Their efforts to live

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