Misplaced Pages

#488511

55-520: The house is a 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 -story wood-frame structure with a gambrel roof , built c. 1746–1750 as a duplex , housing the families of Dinah Kilton and David Wilkinson. Both sides of the house were acquired by 1763 by George Corliss, who converted it to single-family use. The exterior has relatively plain Georgian styling, while the interior has been the subject of significant alteration, due to Corliss' alterations as well as later renovations. In

110-463: A Super Imposed Dead Load (SIDL) of around 5 pounds per square foot (psf) accounting for miscellaneous weight such as bolts and other fasteners, cabling, and various fixtures or small architectural elements. Live loads, on the other hand, can be furniture, moveable equipment, or the people themselves, and may increase beyond normal or expected amounts in some situations, so a larger factor of 1.6 attempts to quantify this extra variability. Snow will also use

165-463: A building or structure in Providence, Rhode Island is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Timber framing Timber framing ( German : Fachwerkbauweise ) and "post-and-beam" construction are traditional methods of building with heavy timbers , creating structures using squared-off and carefully fitted and joined timbers with joints secured by large wooden pegs. If

220-451: A building. Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in many parts of the world, many styles of historic framing have developed. These styles are often categorized by the type of foundation, walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers, and the roof framing details. A simple timber frame made of straight vertical and horizontal pieces with a common rafter roof without purlins . The term box frame

275-566: A frame of load-bearing timber, creating spaces between the timbers called panels (in German Gefach or Fächer = partitions), which are then filled-in with some kind of nonstructural material known as infill . The frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building. Gallery of infill types: The earliest known type of infill, called opus craticum by the Romans, was a wattle and daub type construction. Opus craticum

330-438: A laboratory test method or to the normal usage of a material or structure. Live loads are usually variable or moving loads . These can have a significant dynamic element and may involve considerations such as impact , momentum , vibration , slosh dynamics of fluids, etc. An impact load is one whose time of application on a material is less than one-third of the natural period of vibration of that material. Cyclic loads on

385-416: A maximum factor of 1.6, while lateral loads (earthquakes and wind) are defined such that a 1.0 load factor is practical. Multiple loads may be added together in different ways, such as 1.2*Dead + 1.0*Live + 1.0*Earthquake + 0.2*Snow, or 1.2*Dead + 1.6(Snow, Live(roof), OR Rain) + (1.0*Live OR 0.5*Wind). For aircraft, loading is divided into two major categories: limit loads and ultimate loads. Limit loads are

440-810: A structure can lead to fatigue damage, cumulative damage, or failure. These loads can be repeated loadings on a structure or can be due to vibration . Imposed loads are those associated with occupation and use of the building; their magnitude is less clearly defined and is generally related to the use of the building. Structural loads are an important consideration in the design of buildings. Building codes require that structures be designed and built to safely resist all actions that they are likely to face during their service life, while remaining fit for use. Minimum loads or actions are specified in these building codes for types of structures, geographic locations, usage and building materials . Structural loads are split into categories by their originating cause. In terms of

495-404: A structure, such as: A load combination results when more than one load type acts on the structure. Building codes usually specify a variety of load combinations together with load factors (weightings) for each load type in order to ensure the safety of the structure under different maximum expected loading scenarios. For example, in designing a staircase , a dead load factor may be 1.2 times

550-444: A structure. Particular mechanical structures—such as aircraft , satellites , rockets , space stations , ships , and submarines —are subject to their own particular structural loads and actions. Engineers often evaluate structural loads based upon published regulations , contracts , or specifications . Accepted technical standards are used for acceptance testing and inspection . In civil engineering , specified loads are

605-408: Is a mechanical load (more generally a force ) applied to structural elements . A load causes stress , deformation , displacement or acceleration in a structure . Structural analysis , a discipline in engineering , analyzes the effects of loads on structures and structural elements. Excess load may cause structural failure , so this should be considered and controlled during the design of

SECTION 10

#1732779985489

660-544: Is also a dead load. Dead loads are also known as permanent or static loads . Building materials are not dead loads until constructed in permanent position. IS875(part 1)-1987 give unit weight of building materials, parts, components. Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration, or a moving load . These dynamic loads may involve considerations such as impact , momentum , vibration , slosh dynamics of fluids and material fatigue . Live loads, sometimes also referred to as probabilistic loads, include all

715-467: Is another alternative where straw bales are stacked for nonload-bearing infill with various finishes applied to the interior and exterior such as stucco and plaster. This appeals to the traditionalist and the environmentalist as this is using "found" materials to build. Mudbricks also called adobe are sometimes used to fill in timber-frame structures. They can be made on site and offer exceptional fire resistance. Such buildings must be designed to accommodate

770-541: Is attached to the peak of the timber frame after the frame is complete as a celebration. Historically, it was common for the master carpenter to give a speech, make a toast, and then break the glass. In Northern Europe, a wreath made for the occasion is more commonly used rather than a bough. In Japan, the "ridge raising" is a religious ceremony called the jotoshiki . In Germany, it is called the Richtfest . Structural load A structural load or structural action

825-454: Is not well defined and has been used for any kind of framing (with the usual exception of cruck framing). The distinction presented here is that the roof load is carried by the exterior walls. Purlins are also found even in plain timber frames. A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers which form a bent (U.S.) or crossframe (UK); the individual timbers are each called a blade. More than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in

880-455: Is now confusingly applied to a Roman stone/mortar infill as well. Similar methods to wattle and daub were also used and known by various names, such as clam staff and daub, cat-and-clay, or torchis (French), to name only three. Wattle and daub was the most common infill in ancient times. The sticks were not always technically wattlework (woven), but also individual sticks installed vertically, horizontally, or at an angle into holes or grooves in

935-510: Is readily available and log houses were favored, instead. Half-timbered construction in the Northern European vernacular building style is characteristic of medieval and early modern Denmark, England, Germany, and parts of France and Switzerland, where timber was in good supply yet stone and associated skills to dress the stonework were in short supply. In half-timbered construction, timbers that were riven (split) in half provided

990-474: Is technically called a nave . However, a nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisled barns are common in the U.S., the Netherlands , and Germany. Aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a Ständerhaus . Half-timbering refers to a structure with

1045-400: Is used to describe timber frames with an infill of stone rubble laid in mortar the Romans called opus incertum . A less common meaning of the term "half-timbered" is found in the fourth edition of John Henry Parker's Classic Dictionary of Architecture (1873) which distinguishes full-timbered houses from half-timbered, with half-timber houses having a ground floor in stone or logs such as

1100-521: The Kluge House which was a log cabin with a timber-framed second floor. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating framed structures of heavy timber jointed together with various joints, commonly and originally with lap jointing , and then later pegged mortise and tenon joints. Diagonal bracing is used to prevent "racking", or movement of structural vertical beams or posts. Originally, German (and other) master carpenters would peg

1155-632: The maximum loads a component or structure may carry safely. Ultimate loads are the limit loads times a factor of 1.5 or the point beyond which the component or structure will fail. Gust loads are determined statistically and are provided by an agency such as the Federal Aviation Administration . Crash loads are loosely bounded by the ability of structures to survive the deceleration of a major ground impact . Other loads that may be critical are pressure loads (for pressurized, high-altitude aircraft) and ground loads. Loads on

SECTION 20

#1732779985489

1210-644: The structural frame of load-bearing timber is left exposed on the exterior of the building it may be referred to as half-timbered , and in many cases the infill between timbers will be used for decorative effect. The country most known for this kind of architecture is Germany, where timber-framed houses are spread all over the country. The method comes from working directly from logs and trees rather than pre-cut dimensional lumber . Hewing this with broadaxes , adzes , and draw knives and using hand-powered braces and augers (brace and bit) and other woodworking tools, artisans or framers could gradually assemble

1265-624: The 12th century to the 19th century, and subsequently imported to North America, where it was common into the early 19th century. In a scribe frame, timber sockets are fashioned or "tailor-made" to fit their corresponding timbers; thus, each timber piece must be numbered (or "scribed"). Square-rule carpentry was developed in New England in the 18th century. It used housed joints in main timbers to allow for interchangeable braces and girts. Today, standardized timber sizing means that timber framing can be incorporated into mass-production methods as per

1320-402: The 20th century the property was used for commercial retail purposes, and some of its additions were eventually destroyed by fire. John Corliss, the son of George, was a prominent businessman who contributed significantly to the economic development of Providence in the decades around the turn of the 19th century. This house is one of the few pre-Revolutionary buildings to survive an 1801 fire in

1375-522: The 5- to 25-cm (2- to 10-in) range. The methods of fastening the frame members also differ. In conventional framing, the members are joined using nails or other mechanical fasteners, whereas timber framing uses the traditional mortise and tenon or more complex joints that are usually fastened using only wooden pegs. Modern complex structures and timber trusses often incorporate steel joinery such as gusset plates, for both structural and architectural purposes. Recently, it has become common practice to enclose

1430-487: The Canadian Military Engineers undertook to construct airplane hangars using this timber construction system in order to conserve steel. Wood hangars were constructed throughout North America and employed various technologies including bowstring , Warren , and Pratt trusses, glued laminated arches, and lamella roof systems. Unique to this building type is the interlocking of the timber members of

1485-681: The German ständerbohlenbau , timbers as in ständerblockbau , or rarely cob without any wooden support. The wall surfaces on the interior were often "ceiled" with wainscoting and plastered for warmth and appearance. Brick infill sometimes called nogging became the standard infill after the manufacturing of bricks made them more available and less expensive. Half-timbered walls may be covered by siding materials including plaster , weatherboarding , tiles , or slate shingles. The infill may be covered by other materials, including weatherboarding or tiles , or left exposed. When left exposed, both

1540-503: The UK. Several types of cruck frames are used; more information follows in English style below and at the main article Cruck . Aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry more structural load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the same concept of the aisle in church buildings, sometimes called a hall church , where the center aisle

1595-425: The actual load on a structure, there is no difference between dead or live loading, but the split occurs for use in safety calculations or ease of analysis on complex models. To meet the requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, building codes prescribe that, for structural design, loads are increased by load factors. These load factors are, roughly, a ratio of the theoretical design strength to

1650-524: The area, and now sits somewhat incongruously in an area occupied mostly by larger commercial brick buildings. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. [REDACTED] Media related to John Corliss House at Wikimedia Commons This article about a National Register of Historic Places listing in Providence , Rhode Island is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to

1705-451: The assembly was held together with through-bolts. The through-bolts only held the assembly together but were not load-carrying. Shear plate connectors were used to transfer loads between timber members and metal. Shear plate connectors resembled large washers, deformed on the side facing the timber in order to grip it, and were through-fastened with long bolts or lengths of threaded rod. A leading manufacturer of these types of timber connectors

John Corliss House - Misplaced Pages Continue

1760-444: The best estimate of the actual loads a structure is expected to carry. These loads come in many different forms, such as people, equipment, vehicles, wind, rain, snow, earthquakes, the building materials themselves, etc. Specified loads also known as characteristic loads in many cases. Buildings will be subject to loads from various sources. The principal ones can be classified as live loads (loads which are not always present in

1815-469: The complete skeletal framing of the building. Europe is full of timber-framed structures dating back hundreds of years, including manors, castles, homes, and inns, whose architecture and techniques of construction have evolved over the centuries. In Asia, timber-framed structures are found, many of them temples. Some Roman carpentry preserved in anoxic layers of clay at Romano-British villa sites demonstrate that sophisticated Roman carpentry had all

1870-519: The distinctive "half-timbered", or occasionally termed, " Tudor " style, or "black-and-white". The most ancient known half-timbered building is called the House of opus craticum . It was buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD in Herculaneum, Italy. Opus craticum was mentioned by Vitruvius in his books on architecture as a timber frame with wattlework infill. However, the same term

1925-636: The famous street known as The Shambles exemplifies this, where jettied houses seem to almost touch above the street. Historically, the timbers would have been hewn square using a felling axe and then surface-finished with a broadaxe . If required, smaller timbers were ripsawn from the hewn baulks using pitsaws or frame saws. Today, timbers are more commonly bandsawn, and the timbers may sometimes be machine- planed on all four sides. The vertical timbers include: The horizontal timbers include: When jettying, horizontal elements can include: The sloping timbers include: Historically were two different systems of

1980-614: The first people to publish the term "half-timbered" was Mary Martha Sherwood (1775–1851), who employed it in her book, The Lady of the Manor , published in several volumes from 1823 to 1829. She uses the term picturesquely: "...passing through a gate in a quickset hedge, we arrived at the porch of an old half-timbered cottage, where an aged man and woman received us." By 1842, half-timbered had found its way into The Encyclopedia of Architecture by Joseph Gwilt (1784–1863). This juxtaposition of exposed timbered beams and infilled spaces created

2035-583: The forces that are variable within the object's normal operation cycle not including construction or environmental loads. Roof and floor live loads are produced during maintenance by workers, equipment and materials, and during the life of the structure by movable objects, such as planters and people. Bridge live loads are produced by vehicles traveling over the deck of the bridge. Environmental loads are structural loads caused by natural forces such as wind, rain, snow, earthquake or extreme temperatures. Engineers must also be aware of other actions that may affect

2090-649: The framing and infill were sometimes done in a decorative manner. Germany is famous for its decorative half-timbering and the figures sometimes have names and meanings. The decorative manner of half-timbering is promoted in Germany by the German Timber-Frame Road , several planned routes people can drive to see notable examples of Fachwerk buildings. Gallery of some named figures and decorations: The collection of elements in half timbering are sometimes given specific names: According to Craven (2019),

2145-522: The framing. The coating of daub has many recipes, but generally was a mixture of clay and chalk with a binder such as grass or straw and water or urine . When the manufacturing of bricks increased, brick infill replaced the less durable infills and became more common. Stone laid in mortar as an infill was used in areas where stone rubble and mortar were available. Other infills include bousillage , fired brick , unfired brick such as adobe or mudbrick , stones sometimes called pierrotage , planks as in

2200-470: The joinery industry, especially where timber is cut by precision computer numerical control machinery. A jetty is an upper floor which sometimes historically used a structural horizontal beam, supported on cantilevers, called a bressummer or 'jetty bressummer' to bear the weight of the new wall, projecting outward from the preceding floor or storey. In the city of York in the United Kingdom,

2255-414: The joints with allowance of about 1 inch (25 mm), enough room for the wood to move as it ' seasoned ', then cut the pegs, and drive the beam home fully into its socket. To cope with variable sizes and shapes of hewn (by adze or axe) and sawn timbers, two main carpentry methods were employed: scribe carpentry and square rule carpentry. Scribing or coping was used throughout Europe, especially from

John Corliss House - Misplaced Pages Continue

2310-460: The maximum load expected in service. They are developed to help achieve the desired level of reliability of a structure based on probabilistic studies that take into account the load's originating cause, recurrence, distribution, and static or dynamic nature. The dead load includes loads that are relatively constant over time, including the weight of the structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as walls, plasterboard or carpet . The roof

2365-459: The necessary techniques for this construction. The earliest surviving (French) half-timbered buildings date from the 12th century. Important resources for the study and appreciation of historic building methods are open-air museums . The topping out ceremony is a builders' rite , an ancient tradition thought to have originated in Scandinavia by 700 AD. In the U.S., a bough or small tree

2420-769: The number of knots, the moisture content, the temperature, the grain direction, the number of holes, and other factors. There are design specifications for sawn lumber, glulam members, prefabricated I-joists , composite lumber , and various connection types. In the United States, structural frames are then designed according to the Allowable Stress Design method or the Load Reduced Factor Design method (the latter being preferred). The techniques used in timber framing date back to Neolithic times, and have been used in many parts of

2475-480: The panels span considerable distances and add rigidity to the basic timber frame. An alternate construction method is with concrete flooring with extensive use of glass. This allows a solid construction combined with open architecture. Some firms have specialized in industrial prefabrication of such residential and light commercial structures such as Huf Haus as low-energy houses or – dependent on location – zero-energy buildings . Straw-bale construction

2530-419: The poor thermal insulating properties of mudbrick, however, and usually have deep eaves or a veranda on four sides for weather protection. Timber design or wood design is a subcategory of structural engineering that focuses on the engineering of wood structures. Timber is classified by tree species (e.g., southern pine, douglas fir, etc.) and its strength is graded using numerous coefficients that correspond to

2585-529: The position of posts and studs: Ridge-post framing is a structurally simple and ancient post and lintel framing where the posts extend all the way to the ridge beams. Germans call this Firstsäule or Hochstud . In the 1930s a system of timber framing referred to as the "modern timber connector method" was developed. It was characterized by the use of timber members assembled into trusses and other framing systems and fastened using various types of metal timber connectors. This type of timber construction

2640-728: The roof trusses and supporting columns and their connection points. The timber members are held apart by "fillers" (blocks of timber). This leaves air spaces between the timber members which improves air circulation and drying around the members which improves resistance to moisture borne decay. Timber members in this type of framing system were connected with ferrous timber connectors of various types. Loads between timber members were transmitted using split-rings (larger loads), toothed rings (lighter loads), or spiked grid connectors. Split-ring connectors were metal rings sandwiched between adjacent timber members to connect them together. The rings were fit into circular grooves on in both timber members then

2695-495: The structure), dead loads (loads which are permanent and immovable excepting redesign or renovation) and wind load, as described below. In some cases structures may be subject to other loads, such as those due to earthquakes or pressures from retained material. The expected maximum magnitude of each is referred to as the characteristic load. Dead loads are static forces that are relatively constant for an extended time. They can be in tension or compression . The term can refer to

2750-557: The term: was used informally to mean timber-framed construction in the Middle Ages. For economy, cylindrical logs were cut in half, so one log could be used for two (or more) posts. The shaved side was traditionally on the exterior and everyone knew it to be half the timber. The term half-timbering is not as old as the German name Fachwerk or the French name colombage , but it is the standard English name for this style. One of

2805-600: The timber structure entirely in manufactured panels such as structural insulated panels (SIPs). Although the timbers can only be seen from inside the building when so enclosed, construction is less complex and insulation is greater than in traditional timber building. SIPs are "an insulating foam core sandwiched between two structural facings, typically oriented strand board" according to the Structural Insulated Panel Association. SIPs reduce dependency on bracing and auxiliary members, because

SECTION 50

#1732779985489

2860-576: The weight of the structure, and a live load factor may be 1.6 times the maximum expected live load. These two "factored loads" are combined (added) to determine the "required strength" of the staircase. The size of the load factor is based on the probability of exceeding any specified design load. Dead loads have small load factors, such as 1.2, because weight is mostly known and accounted for, such as structural members, architectural elements and finishes, large pieces of mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) equipment, and for buildings, it's common to include

2915-616: The world during various periods such as ancient Japan, continental Europe, and Neolithic Denmark, England, France, Germany, Spain, parts of the Roman Empire , and Scotland. The timber-framing technique has historically been popular in climate zones which favour deciduous hardwood trees, such as oak . Its northernmost areas are Baltic countries and southern Sweden. Timber framing is rare in Russia, Finland, northern Sweden, and Norway, where tall and straight lumber, such as pine and spruce,

2970-502: Was the Timber Engineering Company, or TECO, of Washington, DC. The proprietary name of their split-ring connectors was the "TECO Wedge-Fit". Timber-framed structures differ from conventional wood-framed buildings in several ways. Timber framing uses fewer, larger wooden members, commonly timbers in the range of 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in), while common wood framing uses many more timbers with dimensions usually in

3025-482: Was used for various building types including warehouses, factories, garages, barns, stores/markets, recreational buildings, barracks, bridges, and trestles. The use of these structures was promoted because of their low construction costs, easy adaptability, and performance in fire as compared to unprotected steel truss construction. During World War II, the United States Army Corps of Engineers and

#488511