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94-512: Prior to the beginning of destruction operations at JACADS, the atoll held about 6.6% of the entire U.S. stockpile of chemical weapons . Chemical weapons were stockpiled on Johnston Atoll beginning in 1971, including weapons transferred from Okinawa during the 1971 Operation Red Hat . Some of the other weapons stored at the site, including Sarin (GB) and VX Nerve Agent , were shipped from U.S. stockpiles in Germany in 1990. The shipments followed

188-464: A turbine in order to produce electricity. The typical amount of net energy that can be produced per tonne municipal waste is about 2/3 MWh of electricity and 2 MWh of district heating. Thus, incinerating about 600 metric tons (660 short tons) per day of waste will produce about 400 MWh of electrical energy per day (17  MW of electrical power continuously for 24 hours) and 1200 MWh of district heating energy each day. Incineration has

282-504: A 1986 agreement between the U.S. and Germany to move the munitions. The remainder of the chemical weapons were a small number of World War II era weapons shipped from the Solomon Islands . In 1985, the U.S. Congress mandated that all chemical weapons stockpiles at Johnston Atoll, mostly mustard and nerve agents , be destroyed. Planning for JACADS began in 1981 and initial construction started in 1985–1986. In August 1985,

376-698: A built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator. Alternatively, at landfills, the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately 70% by using a stationary steel compressor, albeit with a significant energy cost. In many countries, simpler waste compaction is a common practice for compaction at landfills. Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types in niche areas such as clinical wastes and certain hazardous wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures. Examples include chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams, which cannot be routed to

470-448: A class of hazardous chemical weapons that have been stockpiled by many nations. Unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing with other agents. The most dangerous of these are nerve agents ( GA , GB , GD , and VX ) and vesicant (blister) agents, which include formulations of sulfur mustard such as H, HT, and HD. They all are liquids at normal room temperature, but become gaseous when released. Widely used during

564-482: A conventional wastewater treatment plant. Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan, Singapore and the Netherlands, where land is a scarce resource. Denmark and Sweden have been leaders by using the energy generated from incineration for more than a century, in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district heating schemes. In 2005, waste incineration produced 4.8% of

658-479: A daily capacity of less than 250 tons) processed only 9% of the total waste combusted, these produced 83% of the dioxins and furans emitted by municipal waste combustion. The breakdown of dioxin requires exposure of the molecular ring to a sufficiently high temperature so as to trigger thermal breakdown of the strong molecular bonds holding it together. Small pieces of fly ash may be somewhat thick, and too brief an exposure to high temperature may only degrade dioxin on

752-499: A fluid-like state. This allows all of the mass of waste, fuel and sand to be fully circulated through the furnace. Furniture factory sawdust incinerators need much attention as these have to handle resin powder and many flammable substances. Controlled combustion, burn back prevention systems are essential as dust when suspended resembles the fire catch phenomenon of any liquid petroleum gas. The heat produced by an incinerator can be used to generate steam which may then be used to drive

846-449: A great deal of treatment plant space. A side effect of breaking the strong molecular bonds of dioxin is the potential for breaking the bonds of nitrogen gas ( N 2 ) and oxygen gas ( O 2 ) in the supply air. As the exhaust flow cools, these highly reactive detached atoms spontaneously reform bonds into reactive oxides such as NO x in the flue gas, which can result in smog formation and acid rain if they were released directly into

940-453: A later date may be neglected or given less weight, or biodegradable waste may not be considered CO 2 neutral. A study by Eunomia Research and Consulting in 2008 on potential waste treatment technologies in London demonstrated that by applying several of these (according to the authors) unusual assumptions the average existing incineration plants performed poorly for CO 2 balance compared to

1034-700: A number of outputs such as the ash and the emission to the atmosphere of flue gas . Before the flue gas cleaning system , if installed, the flue gases may contain particulate matter , heavy metals , dioxins , furans , sulfur dioxide , and hydrochloric acid . If plants have inadequate flue gas cleaning, these outputs may add a significant pollution component to stack emissions. In a study from 1997, Delaware Solid Waste Authority found that, for same amount of produced energy, incineration plants emitted fewer particles, hydrocarbons and less SO 2 , HCl, CO and NO x than coal-fired power plants, but more than natural gas–fired power plants. According to Germany's Ministry of

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1128-491: A plaque was dedicated to JACADS personnel. JACADS workers utilized incineration to destroy the chemical agents at Johnston Atoll. After workers loaded the weapons onto a conveyor, automated equipment would take over the process. The equipment removed the explosive component of the weapon and drained the chemical agent. The explosive and chemical agent were then incinerated at high temperature. The metal weapons casings were then thermally decontaminated and scrapped. By early 1996,

1222-544: A primary chamber and secondary chamber. The primary chamber in a rotary kiln incinerator consists of an inclined refractory lined cylindrical tube. The inner refractory lining serves as sacrificial layer to protect the kiln structure. This refractory layer needs to be replaced from time to time. Movement of the cylinder on its axis facilitates movement of waste. In the primary chamber, there is conversion of solid fraction to gases, through volatilization, destructive distillation and partial combustion reactions. The secondary chamber

1316-514: A process known as 'de novo synthesis' as the emission gases cool is a probable source of the dioxins measured in emission stack tests from plants that have high combustion temperatures held at long residence times. As for other complete combustion processes, nearly all of the carbon content in the waste is emitted as CO 2 to the atmosphere. MSW contains approximately the same mass fraction of carbon as CO 2 itself (27%), so incineration of 1 ton of MSW produces approximately 1 ton of CO 2 . If

1410-711: A state agency in advance to check current fire risk and conditions, and to alert officials of the controlled fire that will occur. The typical incineration plant for municipal solid waste is a moving grate incinerator. The moving grate enables the movement of waste through the combustion chamber to be optimized to allow a more efficient and complete combustion. A single moving grate boiler can handle up to 35 metric tons (39 short tons) of waste per hour, and can operate 8,000 hours per year with only one scheduled stop for inspection and maintenance of about one month's duration. Moving grate incinerators are sometimes referred to as municipal solid waste incinerators (MSWIs). The waste

1504-464: A study to assess capabilities and costs for protecting civilian populations during related emergencies, and the effectiveness of expedient, in-place shelters . At the end of World War II , the Allies occupied Germany and found large stockpiles of chemical weapons that they did not know how to dispose of or deal with. Ultimately, the Allies disposed large quantities of these chemical weapons into

1598-477: A total of 628 casualties. The U.S. Government was highly criticized for exposing American service members to chemical agents while testing the effects of exposure. These tests were often performed without the consent or prior knowledge of the soldiers affected. Australian service personnel were also exposed as a result of the "Brook Island trials" carried out by the British Government to determine

1692-544: A toxic result in their existing state. The majority of the chemical weapon stockpile is unitary and most of it is stored in one-ton bulk containers. Incinerator Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of substances contained in waste materials. Industrial plants for waste incineration are commonly referred to as waste-to-energy facilities. Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as " thermal treatment ". Incineration of waste materials converts

1786-529: Is an independent organization based in The Hague . The OPCW administers the terms of the CWC to 192 signatories, which represents 98% of the global population. As of June 2016 , 66,368 of 72,525 metric tonnes, (92% of chemical weapon stockpiles), have been verified as destroyed. The OPCW has conducted 6,327 inspections at 235 chemical weapon-related sites and 2,255 industrial sites. These inspections have affected

1880-463: Is equivalent to 1.38 ton of CO 2 , which is more than the 1 ton of CO 2 which would have been produced by incineration. In some countries, large amounts of landfill gas are collected. Still the global warming potential of the landfill gas emitted to atmosphere is significant. In the US it was estimated that the global warming potential of the emitted landfill gas in 1999 was approximately 32% higher than

1974-420: Is introduced by a waste crane through the "throat" at one end of the grate, from where it moves down over the descending grate to the ash pit in the other end. Here the ash is removed through a water lock. Part of the combustion air (primary combustion air) is supplied through the grate from below. This air flow also has the purpose of cooling the grate itself. Cooling is important for the mechanical strength of

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2068-414: Is necessary to complete gas phase combustion reactions. The clinkers spill out at the end of the cylinder. A tall flue-gas stack, fan, or steam jet supplies the needed draft . Ash drops through the grate, but many particles are carried along with the hot gases. The particles and any combustible gases may be combusted in an "afterburner". A strong airflow is forced through a sandbed. The air seeps through

2162-508: Is one of several waste-to-energy technologies such as gasification , pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion . While incineration and gasification technologies are similar in principle, the energy produced from incineration is high-temperature heat whereas combustible gas is often the main energy product from gasification. Incineration and gasification may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery. In several countries, there are still concerns from experts and local communities about

2256-452: Is passed to the flue gas cleaning system . In Scandinavia , scheduled maintenance is always performed during summer, where the demand for district heating is low. Often, incineration plants consist of several separate 'boiler lines' (boilers and flue gas treatment plants), so that waste can continue to be received at one boiler line while the others are undergoing maintenance, repair, or upgrading. The older and simpler kind of incinerator

2350-651: Is the most recent arms control agreement with the force of International law . Its full name is the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction . That agreement outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons. It is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons  (OPCW), which

2444-534: Is the newest signatory, acceding August 7, 2003. This treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are "justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilised world". And while the treaty prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons, it does not address the production, storage, or transfer of these weapons. Treaties that followed the Geneva Protocol did address those omissions and have been enacted. The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)

2538-589: The Baltic Sea , including 32 000 tonnes of chemical munitions and chemical warfare agents dumped into the Bornholm Basin , and another 2000 tonnes of chemical weapons in the Gotland Basin . The majority of these chemical munitions were dumped into the sea while contained in simple wooden crates, leading to a rapid proliferation of chemicals. Chemical Weapons being disposed in the ocean during

2632-559: The Chemical Weapons Convention (1993), there is a legally binding, worldwide ban on the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons and their precursors. However, large stockpiles of chemical weapons continue to exist, usually justified as a precaution against possible use by an aggressor. Continued storage of these chemical weapons is a hazard, as many of the weapons are now more than 50 years old, raising risks significantly. Chemical warfare involves using

2726-636: The Iran–Iraq War . Iraq used mustard gas and nerve agents against its own civilians in the 1988 Halabja chemical attack . The Cuban intervention in Angola saw limited use of organophosphates . The Syrian government has used sarin , chlorine, and mustard gas in the Syrian civil war – generally against civilians. Terrorist groups have also used chemical weapons, notably in the Tokyo subway sarin attack and

2820-739: The Matsumoto incident . See also chemical terrorism . International law has prohibited the use of chemical weapons since 1899, under the Hague Convention : Article 23 of the Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land adopted by the First Hague Conference "especially" prohibited employing "poison and poisoned arms". A separate declaration stated that in any war between signatory powers,

2914-559: The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare , is an International treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons in international armed conflicts. It was signed at Geneva June 17, 1925, and entered into force on February 8, 1928. 133 nations are listed as state parties to the treaty. Ukraine

Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System - Misplaced Pages Continue

3008-627: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a 10-year permit to the Army allowing it to construct and operate JACADS. As JACADS was preparing to begin operations, the U.S. Congress passed Public Law 100-456, which required JACADS to complete operational verification testing (OVT) to ensure each type of munition could be disposed of safely. Operations began at JACADS in June 1990, commencing with operational verification testing. The first weapon disposal took place on June 30, 1990. That day, JACADS became

3102-732: The Vietnamese environment, causing disease , stunted growth , and deformities . The stockpiles, which have been maintained for more than 50 years, are now considered obsolete. Public Law 99-145 , contains section 1412, which directs the Department of Defense  (DOD) to dispose of the stockpiles. This directive fell upon the DOD with joint cooperation from the Federal Emergency Management Agency  (FEMA). The Congressional directive has resulted in

3196-706: The World War I , the effects of so-called mustard gas , phosgene gas , and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming. During World War II the Nazi regime used a commercial hydrogen cyanide blood agent trade-named Zyklon B to commit industrialised genocide against Jews and other targeted populations in large gas chambers . The Holocaust resulted in the largest death toll to chemical weapons in history. As of 2016 , CS gas and pepper spray remain in common use for policing and riot control; CS and pepper spray are considered non-lethal weapons . Under

3290-417: The burn pit is one of the simplest and earliest forms of waste disposal, essentially consisting of a mound of combustible materials piled on the open ground and set on fire, leading to pollution. Burn piles can and have spread uncontrolled fires, for example, if the wind blows burning material off the pile into surrounding combustible grasses or onto buildings. As interior structures of the pile are consumed,

3384-478: The toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare and biological warfare , which together make up NBC, the military initialism for Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (warfare or weapons). None of these fall under the term conventional weapons , which are primarily effective because of their destructive potential. Chemical warfare does not depend upon explosive force to achieve an objective. It depends upon

3478-592: The 1990 South Pacific Forum in Vanuatu , the island nations of the South Pacific indicated that their concern was that the South Pacific would become a toxic waste dumping ground. Other concerns raised included the security of the shipments, which were refueled at sea and escorted by U.S. guided missile destroyers, while they were en route to Johnston Atoll. In Australia, Prime Minister Bob Hawke drew criticism from some of these island nations for his support of

3572-544: The 20th century is not unique to the Baltic Sea , and other heavily contaminated areas where disposal occurred are the European, Japanese, Russian, and United States coasts. These chemical weapons dumped in the ocean pose a continual environmental and human health risk, and chemical agents and breakdown products from said agents have been recently been identified in ocean sediment near historical dumping sites. When chemical weapons are dumped or otherwise improperly disposed of,

3666-940: The Allied powers never did, and the Axis used them only very sparingly. The reason for the lack of use by the Nazis, despite the considerable efforts that had gone into developing new varieties, might have been a lack of technical ability or fears that the Allies would retaliate with their own chemical weapons. Those fears were not unfounded: the Allies made comprehensive plans for defensive and retaliatory use of chemical weapons, and stockpiled large quantities. Japanese forces used them more widely, though only against their Asian enemies, as they also feared that using it on Western powers would result in retaliation. Chemical weapons were frequently used against Kuomintang and Chinese communist troops. However,

3760-490: The Army to evaluate alternative disposal approaches that might be "significantly safer", more cost effective, and which could be completed within the established time frame. The Army was directed to report to Congress on potential alternative technologies by the end of 1993, and to include in that report: "any recommendations that the National Academy of Sciences makes ..." In June 2007, the disposal program achieved

3854-490: The CO 2 footprint of incineration can be reached with different assumptions. Local conditions (such as limited local district heating demand, no fossil fuel generated electricity to replace or high levels of aluminium in the waste stream) can decrease the CO 2 benefits of incineration. The methodology and other assumptions may also influence the results significantly. For example, the methane emissions from landfills occurring at

Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System - Misplaced Pages Continue

3948-513: The Environment , waste incinerators reduce the amount of some atmospheric pollutants by substituting power produced by coal-fired plants with power from waste-fired plants. The most publicized concerns about the incineration of municipal solid wastes (MSW) involve the fear that it produces significant amounts of dioxin and furan emissions. Dioxins and furans are considered by many to be serious health hazards. The EPA announced in 2012 that

4042-567: The Industrial age. It was not until the 19th century that the modern conception of chemical warfare emerged, as various scientists and nations proposed the use of asphyxiating or poisonous gases. So alarmed were nations that multiple international treaties, discussed below, were passed – banning chemical weapons. This however did not prevent the extensive use of chemical weapons in World War I . The development of chlorine gas , among others,

4136-539: The Nazis did extensively use poison gas against civilians in the Holocaust . Vast quantities of Zyklon B gas and carbon monoxide were used in the gas chambers of Nazi extermination camps , resulting in the overwhelming majority of some three million deaths. This remains the deadliest use of poison gas in history. The post-war era has seen limited, though devastating, use of chemical weapons. Some 100,000 Iranian troops were casualties of Iraqi chemical weapons during

4230-548: The US-EPA demonstrated that one family using a burn barrel produced more emissions than an incineration plant disposing of 200 metric tons (220 short tons) of waste per day by 1997 and five times that by 2007 due to increased chemicals in household trash and decreased emission by municipal incinerators using better technology. Most of the improvement in U.S. dioxin emissions has been for large-scale municipal waste incinerators. As of 2000, although small-scale incinerators (those with

4324-563: The United States, private rural household or farm waste incineration of small quantities was typically permitted so long as it is not a nuisance to others, does not pose a risk of fire such as in dry conditions, and the fire does not produce dense, noxious smoke. A handful of states, such as New York, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, have laws or regulations either banning or strictly regulating open burning due to health and nuisance effects. People intending to burn waste may be required to contact

4418-439: The amount of CO 2 that would have been emitted by incineration. Since this study, the global warming potential estimate for methane has been increased from 21 to 35, which alone would increase this estimate to almost the triple GWP effect compared to incineration of the same waste. In addition, nearly all biodegradable waste has biological origin. This material has been formed by plants using atmospheric CO 2 typically within

4512-735: The base for air intake. Over time, the very high heat of incineration causes the metal to oxidize and rust, and eventually the barrel itself is consumed by the heat and must be replaced. The private burning of dry cellulosic/paper products is generally clean-burning, producing no visible smoke, but plastics in the household waste can cause private burning to create a public nuisance, generating acrid odors and fumes that make eyes burn and water. A two-layered design enables secondary combustion, reducing smoke. Most urban communities ban burn barrels and certain rural communities may have prohibitions on open burning, especially those home to many residents not familiar with this common rural practice. As of 2006 in

4606-435: The boiler in case the heating value of the waste becomes too low to reach this temperature alone. The flue gases are then cooled in the superheaters , where the heat is transferred to steam, heating the steam to typically 400 °C (752 °F) at a pressure of 40 bars (580  psi ) for the electricity generation in the turbine . At this point, the flue gas has a temperature of around 200 °C (392 °F), and

4700-416: The burning material inside a metal barrel, with a metal grating over the exhaust. The barrel prevents the spread of burning material in windy conditions, and as the combustibles are reduced they can only settle down into the barrel. The exhaust grating helps to prevent the spread of burning embers. Typically steel 55-US-gallon (210 L) drums are used as burn barrels, with air vent holes cut or drilled around

4794-585: The chemical agents are quickly distributed over a wide range. The long term impacts of this wide-scale distribution are unknown, but known to be negative. In the Vietnam War of 1955–1975, a chemical weapon called agent orange was widely used by United States forces . The United States utilized agent orange as a type of 'tactical herbicide', aiming to destroy Vietnamese foliage and plant life to ease military access. This usage of agent orange has left lasting impacts that are still observable today in

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4888-830: The chemical weapons destruction at Johnston Atoll. Chemical weapon A chemical weapon ( CW ) is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans. According to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), this can be any chemical compound intended as a weapon "or its precursor that can cause death, injury, temporary incapacitation or sensory irritation through its chemical action. Munitions or other delivery devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves." Chemical weapons are classified as weapons of mass destruction (WMD), though they are distinct from nuclear weapons , biological weapons , and radiological weapons . All may be used in warfare and are known by

4982-582: The controlled combustion of waste accounted for 41.7% of the total dioxin inventory. In 1987, before the governmental regulations required the use of emission controls, there was a total of 8,905.1 grams (314.12 oz) Toxic Equivalence (TEQ) of dioxin emissions from US municipal waste combustors. Today, the total emissions from the plants are 83.8 grams (2.96 oz) TEQ annually, a reduction of 99%. Backyard barrel burning of household and garden wastes , still allowed in some rural areas, generates 580 grams (20 oz) of dioxins annually. Studies conducted by

5076-483: The dioxins remain after combustion and either float off into the atmosphere, or may remain in the ash where it can be leached down into groundwater when rain falls on the ash pile. Fortunately, dioxin and furan compounds bond very strongly to solid surfaces and are not dissolved by water, so leaching processes are limited to the first few millimeters below the ash pile. The gas-phase dioxins can be substantially destroyed using catalysts, some of which can be present as part of

5170-595: The electricity consumption and 13.7% of the total domestic heat consumption in Denmark. A number of other European countries rely heavily on incineration for handling municipal waste, in particular Luxembourg , the Netherlands, Germany, and France. The first UK incinerators for waste disposal were built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. in 1874 to a design patented by Alfred Fryer. They were originally known as destructors . The first US incinerator

5264-507: The environmental effect of incinerators (see arguments against incineration ). In some countries , incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include a materials separation to remove hazardous, bulky or recyclable materials before combustion. These facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control. Most of these facilities did not generate electricity. Incinerators reduce

5358-410: The fabric filter bag structure. Modern municipal incinerator designs include a high-temperature zone, where the flue gas is sustained at a temperature above 850 °C (1,560 °F) for at least 2 seconds before it is cooled down. They are equipped with auxiliary heaters to ensure this at all times. These are often fueled by oil or natural gas, and are normally only active for a very small fraction of

5452-529: The facility at Johnston Atoll had destroyed about 3.5% of the overall U.S. chemical weapons stockpile. Included in that amount, out of total stockpile of 31,000 tons, was two million pounds of mustard and nerve agents destroyed by JACADS. The disposal program was overseen by Project Manager Gary McCloskey, and during the ten years from 1990–2000 was responsible for the destruction of over 400,000 chemical rockets, projectiles, bombs, mortars, ton containers, and mines. Also destroyed at JACADS were over 2,000 tons of

5546-501: The first U.S. chemical weapons disposal facility. The OVT phase of operations lasted until March 1993. Transition from the testing phase to full-scale operations began in May 1993 and, in August, full-scale operations began. Twice, in 1993 and 1994, the facility had to be evacuated because of hurricanes; operations were delayed for as long as 70 days during these periods. On November 29, 2000,

5640-448: The freezing point to −13 °F (−25.0 °C). Higher temperatures are a bigger concern because the possibility of an explosion increases as the temperatures rise. A fire at one of these facilities would endanger the surrounding community as well as the personnel at the installations. Perhaps more so for the community having much less access to protective equipment and specialized training. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory conducted

5734-611: The fuse, but no leaks were reported. On December 9, 1993, a spill of about 500 pounds (226 kg) of Sarin (Agent GB) occurred inside the Munitions Demilitarization Building (MDB). There was no agent migration outside the building and the contingency plan was not activated. The facility suspended processing of munitions until investigation of the incident was satisfactorily completed. The U.S. National Research Council 's Committee on Evaluation of Chemical Events at Army Chemical Agent Disposal Facilities

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5828-421: The grate, and many moving grates are also water-cooled internally. Secondary combustion air is supplied into the boiler at high speed through nozzles over the grate. It facilitates complete combustion of the flue gases by introducing turbulence for better mixing and by ensuring a surplus of oxygen. In multiple/stepped hearth incinerators, the secondary combustion air is introduced in a separate chamber downstream

5922-512: The incident resulted in no injuries. A later incident on March 23, 1994, resulted in the accidental release of sarin gas after a chemical agent line was opened for maintenance without properly purging the line with fuel oil . The incident led to a $ 122,000 fine against the Army from the EPA. Another incident in November 1994 led to the explosion of a drained chemical rocket during mechanical removal of

6016-415: The last growing season. If these plants are regrown the CO 2 emitted from their combustion will be taken out from the atmosphere once more. Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate incineration of biodegradable waste as renewable energy . The rest – mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products – is generally treated as non-renewables . Different results for

6110-540: The last of the chemical weapons at JACADS were disposed of. The last disposal operation destroyed more than 13,000 VX filled land mines. Two years after the last chemical weapons at JACADS were destroyed, the Army submitted the plan to dismantle the facility to the EPA; it was approved in September 2002. Demolition on the 80,000-square-foot (7,400 m) facility, home to the incinerators, laboratories and control rooms, took place from August to October 2003. In November 2003

6204-599: The likely consequences of chemical warfare in tropical conditions; little was known of such possibilities at that time. Some chemical agents are designed to produce mind-altering changes, rendering the victim unable to perform their assigned mission. These are classified as incapacitating agents, and lethality is not a factor of their effectiveness. Binary munitions contain two, unmixed and isolated chemicals that do not react to produce lethal effects until mixed. This usually happens just prior to battlefield use. In contrast, unitary weapons are lethal chemical munitions that produce

6298-407: The local environment. These reactive oxides must be further neutralized with selective catalytic reduction (SCR) or selective non-catalytic reduction (see below). The temperatures needed to break down dioxin are typically not reached when burning plastics outdoors in a burn barrel or garbage pit, causing high dioxin emissions as mentioned above. While plastic does usually burn in an open-air fire,

6392-414: The milestone of reaching 45% destruction of the chemical weapon stockpile. The Chemical Materials Agency  (CMA) releases regular updates to the public regarding the status of the disposal program. On July 7, 2023, the program completed destruction of all declared chemical weapons. Chemical weapons are said to "make deliberate use of the toxic properties of chemical substances to inflict death". At

6486-551: The military acronym NBC (for nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare). Weapons of mass destruction are distinct from conventional weapons , which are primarily effective due to their explosive , kinetic , or incendiary potential. Chemical weapons can be widely dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms, and may easily afflict others than the intended targets. Nerve gas , tear gas , and pepper spray are three modern examples of chemical weapons. Lethal unitary chemical agents and munitions are extremely volatile and they constitute

6580-427: The molecular breakdown temperature is higher, the exposure time for heating can be shorter, but excessively high temperatures can also cause wear and damage to other parts of the incineration equipment. Likewise the breakdown temperature can be lowered to some degree but then the exhaust gases would require a greater lingering period of perhaps several minutes, which would require large/long treatment chambers that take up

6674-415: The nerve agents sarin and VX, as well as the blister agent HD . In total, the program at Johnston Atoll destroyed 412,000 individual chemical munitions. There were a few chemical weapons related accidents during the period JACADS was in operation. In January 1993, the burster charge on a 105 mm artillery shell ignited. The shell contained World War II -era mustard gas, though none was released and

6768-525: The parties would abstain from using projectiles "the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases". The Washington Naval Treaty , signed February 6, 1922, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, aimed at banning chemical warfare but did not succeed because France rejected it. The subsequent failure to include chemical warfare has contributed to the resultant increase in stockpiles. The Geneva Protocol , officially known as

6862-435: The pile can shift and collapse, spreading the burn area. Even in a situation of no wind, small lightweight ignited embers can lift off the pile via convection , and waft through the air into grasses or onto buildings, igniting them. Burn piles often do not result in full combustion of waste and therefore produce particulate pollution. The burn barrel is a somewhat more controlled form of private waste incineration, containing

6956-550: The present Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program. Historically, chemical munitions have been disposed of by land burial, open burning, and ocean dumping (referred to as Operation CHASE ). However, in 1969, the National Research Council  (NRC) recommended that ocean dumping be discontinued. The Army then began a study of disposal technologies, including the assessment of incineration as well as chemical neutralization methods. In 1982, that study culminated in

7050-537: The primary combustion chamber. According to the European Waste Incineration Directive , incineration plants must be designed to ensure that the flue gases reach a temperature of at least 850 °C (1,560 °F) for 2 seconds in order to ensure proper breakdown of toxic organic substances. In order to comply with this at all times, it is required to install backup auxiliary burners (often fueled by oil), which are fired into

7144-467: The safe limit for human oral consumption is 0.7 picograms Toxic Equivalence (TEQ) per kilogram bodyweight per day, which works out to 17 billionths of a gram for a 150 lb person per year. In 2005, the Ministry of the Environment of Germany, where there were 66 incinerators at that time, estimated that "...whereas in 1990 one third of all dioxin emissions in Germany came from incineration plants, for

7238-413: The sand until a point is reached where the sand particles separate to let the air through and mixing and churning occurs, thus a fluidized bed is created and fuel and waste can now be introduced. The sand with the pre-treated waste and/or fuel is kept suspended on pumped air currents and takes on a fluid-like character. The bed is thereby violently mixed and agitated keeping small inert particles and air in

7332-557: The selection of incineration technology, which is now incorporated into what is known as the baseline system. Construction of the Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System  (JACADS) began in 1985. This was to be a full-scale prototype facility using the baseline system. The prototype was a success but there were still many concerns about CONUS operations. To address growing public concern over incineration, Congress, in 1992, directed

7426-416: The solid mass of the original waste by 80–85% and the volume (already compressed somewhat in garbage trucks ) by 95–96%, depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling. This means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling , it significantly reduces the necessary volume for disposal. Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of waste in

7520-487: The sovereign territory of 86 States Parties since April 1997. Worldwide, 4,732 industrial facilities are subject to inspection under provisions of the CWC. In 1985, the United States Congress passed legislation requiring the disposal of the stockpile chemical agents and munitions consisting of over 3 million chemical weapons, adding up to 31,000 tons of chemical weapons needing to be disposed of. This

7614-447: The start of World War II it was widely reported in newspapers that "entire regions of Europe" would be turned into "lifeless wastelands". However, chemical weapons were not used to the extent predicted by the press. An unintended chemical weapon release occurred at the port of Bari . A German attack on the evening of December 2, 1943, damaged U.S. vessels in the harbour and the resultant release from their hulls of mustard gas inflicted

7708-437: The surface of the ash. For a large volume air chamber, too brief an exposure may also result in only some of the exhaust gases reaching the full breakdown temperature. For this reason there is also a time element to the temperature exposure to ensure heating completely through the thickness of the fly ash and the volume of waste gases. There are trade-offs between increasing either the temperature or exposure time. Generally where

7802-497: The time. Further, most modern incinerators utilize fabric filters (often with Teflon membranes to enhance collection of sub-micron particles) which can capture dioxins present in or on solid particles. For very small municipal incinerators, the required temperature for thermal breakdown of dioxin may be reached using a high-temperature electrical heating element, plus a selective catalytic reduction stage. Although dioxins and furans may be destroyed by combustion, their reformation by

7896-490: The two forms that have been weaponized and are ready for their intended use. The U.S. stockpile consisted of 39% of these weapon ready munitions. The final of the three forms is raw agent housed in bulk containers. The remaining 61% of the US stockpile was stored in this manner. Whereas these chemicals exist in liquid form at normal room temperature, the sulfur mustards H and HD freeze in temperatures below 55 °F (12.8 °C). Mixing lewisite with distilled mustard lowers

7990-472: The types of organisms present in the soil, making it difficult to assess and predict safety. Spills of persistent agents, such as sulfur mustards , can remain harmful for decades. There are three basic configurations in which these agents are stored. The first are self-contained munitions like projectiles, cartridges, mines, and rockets; these can contain propellant or explosive components. The next form are aircraft-delivered munitions. Together they constitute

8084-667: The unique properties of the chemical agent weaponized . A lethal agent is designed to injure, incapacitate, or kill an opposing force, or deny unhindered use of a particular area of terrain. Defoliants are used to quickly kill vegetation and deny its use for cover and concealment. Chemical warfare can also be used against agriculture and livestock to promote hunger and starvation. Chemical payloads can be delivered by remote controlled container release, aircraft, or rocket. Protection against chemical weapons includes proper equipment, training, and decontamination measures. Simple chemical weapons were used sporadically throughout antiquity and into

8178-447: The waste into ash , flue gas and heat. The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas. The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere . In some cases, the heat that is generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power . Incineration with energy recovery

8272-403: The waste was landfilled without prior stabilization (typically via anaerobic digestion ), 1 ton of MSW would produce approximately 62 cubic metres (2,200 cu ft) methane via the anaerobic decomposition of the biodegradable part of the waste. Since the global warming potential of methane is 34 and the weight of 62 cubic meters of methane at 25 degrees Celsius is 40.7 kg, this

8366-715: The year 2000 the figure was less than 1%. Chimneys and tiled stoves in private households alone discharge approximately 20 times more dioxin into the environment than incineration plants." According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency , the combustion percentages of the total dioxin and furan inventory from all known and estimated sources in the U.S. (not only incineration) for each type of incineration are as follows: 35.1% backyard barrels; 26.6% medical waste; 6.3% municipal wastewater treatment sludge ; 5.9% municipal waste combustion; 2.9% industrial wood combustion. Thus,

8460-445: Was a brick-lined cell with a fixed metal grate over a lower ash pit, with one opening in the top or side for loading and another opening in the side for removing incombustible solids called clinkers . Many small incinerators formerly found in apartment houses have now been replaced by waste compactors . The rotary-kiln incinerator is used by municipalities and by large industrial plants. This design of incinerator has two chambers:

8554-570: Was built in 1885 on Governors Island in New York, NY. The first facility in Austria-Hungary was built in 1905 in Brunn . An incinerator is a furnace for burning waste . Modern incinerators include pollution mitigation equipment such as flue gas cleaning. There are various types of incinerator plant design: moving grate, fixed grate, rotary-kiln, and fluidised bed. The burn pile or

8648-677: Was ordered because a timely and safe disposal of chemical weapons is far safer than chemical weapon storage. Between the years of 1982 and 1992, the United States army reported approximately 1,500 leaking chemical weapons munitions, and in 1993 a 100-gallon chemical spill was reported at the Tooele Army Depot in Utah consisting of mustard agents . Chemical decomposition in soil is affected by many factors, such as temperature , acidity , alkalinity , meteorological conditions, and

8742-498: Was provided, by the Army, with a list of 39 incidents that occurred at JACADS from its opening until its closure. Of those 39 events, 24 were classified as chemical in nature. For example, five days after the last chemical weapons were destroyed at JACADS, VX was detected in ash from the incinerator . The committee's evaluation of JACADS incidents was published in 2002. The 1990 shipments of nerve agents from West Germany to JACADS caused several South Pacific nations to express unease. At

8836-935: Was used by both sides to try to break the stalemate of trench warfare . Though largely ineffective over the long run, it decidedly changed the nature of the war. In most cases the gases used did not kill, but instead horribly maimed, injured, or disfigured casualties. Estimates for military gas casualties range from 500k to 1.3 million, with a few thousand additional civilian casualties as collateral damage or production accidents. The interwar period saw occasional use of chemical weapons, mainly by multiple European colonial forces to put down rebellions. The Italians also used poison gas during their 1936 invasion of Ethiopia . In Nazi Germany, much research went into developing new chemical weapons, such as potent nerve agents . However, chemical weapons saw little battlefield use in World War II. Both sides were prepared to use such weapons, but

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