Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee (JAFRC) was a nonprofit organization to provide humanitarian aid to refugees of the Spanish Civil War .
116-767: In 1941, the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee was formed by Lincoln Battalion veterans of the Spanish Civil War to provide aid to refugees Who were Spanish Loyalists from Francoist Spain . It superseded previous groups, including the North American Committee to Aid Spanish Democracy and the American Medical Bureau , the latter of which Barsky had founded in 1936. Specifically, the JAFRC
232-416: A corporatist state. The guards shot Calvo Sotelo without trial. The killing of Calvo Sotelo , a prominent member of Parliament, and the involvement of the police aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government's opponents on the right. Massive reprisals followed. Although the conservative Nationalist generals had already been in the advanced stages of a planned uprising, the event provided
348-557: A catalyst and a convenient public justification for their coup, particularly that Spain had to be saved from anarchy by military, rather than democratic, means. The socialists and communists, led by Prieto, demanded for arms to be distributed to the people before the military took over, but the prime minister was hesitant. Franco's plane landed in Gran Canaria on July 14, but since he was based in Tenerife , he would not have made
464-526: A coup was imminent, leftists barricaded the roads on the Canary Islands on 17 July, but Franco avoided capture by taking a tugboat to the airport. On 18 July, Casares Quiroga refused an offer of help from the CNT and UGT and proclaimed that only Spanish Morocco had joined the rebels and that the populace should trust legal methods to deal with the uprising. Handing out weapons would be illegal. The CNT and
580-439: A famous farewell speech, Dolores Ibárruri , "La Pasionaria", declared: "You are history. You are legend. You are the heroic example of democracy's solidarity and universality in the face of the vile and accommodating spirit of those who interpret democratic principles with their eyes on hoards of wealth or corporate shares which they want to safeguard from all risk." Surviving Americans from across Spain were sent to Ripoll, where
696-699: A firm position. Eventually, Barba and González Carrasco fled to the Nationalist zone. Martínez Monje was reassigned to non-combat positions, and Machinandiarena was detained and tried, and later tried also by the Nationalists. The district commander, Francisco Llano de la Encomienda , was entirely loyal to the Republic. His chief of staff, Manuel Moxó Marcaida, was aware of the plot, and it is likely that he supported it. The key man of Mola's in Barcelona
812-704: A full-scale propaganda campaign supporting the Popular Front. The Communist International soon joined the activity, sending to Spain its leader Georgi Dimitrov , as well as Palmiro Togliatti , the chief of the Communist Party of Italy . The Soviet Union began supplying aid to the Republicans in August 1936. Over one ship per day arrived at Spain's Mediterranean ports carrying munitions, rifles, machine guns, hand grenades, artillery, and trucks. With
928-490: A high-ranking member of the divisional staff. On July 18 and 19, the conspiracy network remained relatively disorganised, and no resolute action had been taken. Suspicious of his staff, in the early hours of July 20, Salcedo ordered the detention of both Tovar and Gutiérrez. It was the rapid counteraction of Gutiérrez and coronel Martin Alonso that produced the detention of Salcedo, who was later tried and executed. Tovar adhered to
1044-410: A new government under prime minister Alejandro Lerroux saw CEDA increasing its share of ministries to five, with Gil-Roble becoming minister of war. The military was purged of left-wing members and reformed. Those loyal to Gil-Robles were promoted, and Franco was made chief of staff. Contested under violent circumstances, the 1936 general election was narrowly won by a grouping of left-wing parties,
1160-515: A time. Efforts to remove local councils from socialist control prompted a general strike, which was brutally put down, with the arrest of four deputies and other significant breaches of Articles 55 and 56 of the constitution. On 26 September 1934, the minority government was replaced by a cabinet including the RRP and three CEDA members. A UGT general strike in early October 1934 was quickly put down throughout most of Spain. General Francisco Franco
1276-484: A veteran of the battalion, recalled in 2006, "Some men were running away from bad marital or love situations, but what united all of us was that we hated fascism." Anti-fascism, more than any other single factor, is what motivated and united the volunteers of the Lincoln Battalion. An American company served in the 20th International Battalion that was attached to the 86th Mixed Brigade . This unit fought on
SECTION 10
#17327903463661392-760: The American Peace Mobilization in protesting American support for Britain and France against Nazi Germany. Others persisted with the anti-Fascist line which they had followed to Spain. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the VALB changed its stance and fully backed the war. Former Lincoln-Washington commander Milton Wolff volunteered in 1940 for the British Special Operations Executive and arranged
1508-604: The Basque Country in the north. Mola was keen to create a sense of fear within Nationalist-controlled areas. There was a massive purge of Freemasons and a large part of the left, including some moderate socialists. When proclaiming martial law in Pamplona, Mola declared: "Re-establishing the principle of authority demands unavoidably that punishments be exemplary in terms of both their severity and
1624-961: The Internal Revenue Service ) revoked the JAFRC's tax-exempt status. Following this, the Subversive Activities Control Board (SACB) attempted to compel the JAFRC to register as a communist front organization.n. In April 1951, Allan Rosenberg successfully argued for the committee in Anti-Fascist Committee v. McGrath before the US Supreme Court . In 1955, the committee's board voted to disband. According to letterhead dated March 17, 1944, leaders included: National Sponsors included: Appeal Officers: National Sponsors included: Lincoln Battalion The Lincoln Battalion ( Spanish : Batallón Abraham Lincoln ),
1740-485: The Ku Klux Klan ." Though the Lincoln Battalion was predominantly white, it was integrated. Most of the original volunteers in the Lincoln Battalion were communists or Soviet sympathizers. It is difficult to list exactly how many members of the battalion were communists because political ideology was not a litmus test for serving in the war. Historians and veterans of the battalion estimate that between 50 and 80% of
1856-585: The Popular Front , which defeated the Nationalist group by less than 1% of the vote. As a consequence, the Nationalists began to conspire to overthrow the Republic, rather than take control of it. The government was weak, Manuel Azaña led a minority government, and reconciliation would have been an enormous task. Acts of violence and reprisals spiralled. In April, the Cortes (parliament) replaced Niceto Alcalá-Zamora with Azaña as president, who however
1972-461: The Spanish Army , which totalled about 66,000 men, including large numbers who were on leave, as well as the 30,000-strong army of Africa . The army of Africa was Spain's most professional and capable military force. The government retained less than half the supply of rifles, heavy and light machine guns and artillery pieces. Both sides had few tanks and outdated aircraft, while naval capacity
2088-620: The 129th International Brigade. The battery commander was Nathan Budish, and his Commissar was Sid Kaufman. Organized by Dr. Edward K. Barsky , the American Medical Bureau (AMB) recruited doctors, dentists, nurses, administrators, and ambulance drivers to support the Spanish Republic. In its fundraising events, the names 'American Medical Bureau to Save Spanish Democracy' and 'Medical Bureau & North American Committee to Aid Spanish Democracy' were also used. In
2204-952: The Abraham Lincoln Battalion, the George Washington Battalion, and the John Brown Battery. Other countries used similar patriotic names, e.g., the Garibaldi Battalion from Italy. Besides the Americans who volunteered as soldiers, another 125 men and women served with the American Medical Bureau as nurses, doctors, and ambulance drivers. Seeking help to defeat the armed rebellion, the Republicans asked for volunteer fighters worldwide. The American volunteers, many of them Communists, started arriving in Spain in late 1936. Utilizing
2320-699: The Assault Guards, the Civil Guards and the Carabineers . 50,000 members of the latter stayed loyal to the government. The distribution of weapons brought into sharp focus the challenge faced by the Republican government at the time of the coup. Of 500,000 government-controlled rifles, around 200,000 were retained by the government; 65,000 were issued to the Madrid populace in the days following
2436-587: The Battalion gathered on the far side of the Ebro River , where they were slowly reconstituted with a limited number of international volunteers from the hospitals and rear areas. Spanish troops, many young conscripts, were drafted into the XVth Brigade's battalions to bring them fully up to strength. Spaniards were integrated into the Lincoln Battalion as early as Jarama. Spanish companies were added to
SECTION 20
#17327903463662552-530: The Bell Tolls ), was the chairwoman of the extensive San Francisco branch of the organization. She and Fredericka Martin were the only women to receive officer commissions from the Spanish Republic. Evelyn Hutchins, an active member of the AMB, agitated for years to be a hospital driver on the front-lines. Still, Spanish Republican policies prevented women from serving on the front-lines until 1938, when Hutchins won
2668-677: The Cordoba Front. Most of the American volunteers were transferred from the unit to the XVth Brigade before the Brunete Offensive. The Washington Battalion was the second American battalion. The unit was merged with the Lincoln Battalion during the Brunete Campaign. It was commanded by Mirko Marković, and its commissar was Dave Mates. The Mac Paps, as they were known, formed as the number of Canadiens fighting in
2784-497: The International Brigades were no longer of military value, Although he maintained a vain hope that the Nationalists would withdraw their German and Italian troops, Franco kept his German and Italian forces until the war's end. On 1 November 1938, International Brigadists received a warm farewell from the people in Barcelona, where 250,000 people gathered to say goodbye to the international brigades for freedom. In
2900-544: The International Red Cross and the US government verified their nationality before repatriating them. Many were able to participate in the farewell activities, including a parade in Barcelona where the International Brigades were officially disbanded. Most American volunteers returned to the US between December 1938 and January 1939. American POWs were released after the fall of the Republican government, although
3016-532: The Lincoln and Washington battalions grew. Established on July 1, 1937 (Canada Day) at first there were more American soldiers in the ranks than Canadiens, but that 3-1 ratio soon shifted and the Mac Paps ended with a roll call of over 1500 Canadiens. Its first commander was Robert Thompson, an American veteran of the Lincoln Battalion. Joseph Dallet , also American, was the first Commissar. The Regiment de Tren
3132-459: The Lincolns suffered 136 deaths. The battalion remained in combat and was slowly rebuilt while maintaining its front-line positions. The unit was finally pulled out of the lines for a brief rest before the offensive at Brunete . Joined by the newly trained George Washington Battalion, the XVth Brigade took action at Villanueva de la Cañada on the second day of the Brunete Offensive and secured
3248-480: The Mediterranean area, but it allowed the anarchists to arm themselves and take control of Barcelona and large swathes of Aragon and Catalonia . In Barcelona, the official government lost control of security, essential services and welfare. However, the anarchists held back from demanding too much political power, which could have had even more severe consequences. General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and
3364-532: The Nationalist forces quickly rallied, and the offensive stalled. The Republican troops returned to the defensive, contesting the area captured in the offensive. On 21 September 1938, Juan Negrín , the Spanish prime minister , announced to the League of Nations the unilateral withdrawal of the International Brigades from battle. Juan Negrín was trying to negotiate peace as his only hope. He had been informed that
3480-462: The Nationalists attempted to overthrow the elected Republican government. On 26 July, less than ten days after the coup started, an international Communist conference was held in Prague to formulate plans to assist the Republicans. The conference attendees decided to raise a multinational brigade of 5,000 men and a fund of one billion francs. At the same time, Communist parties worldwide launched
3596-415: The Republic. Mola held a meeting between garrison commanders in northern Spain on 15 June, and local authorities, on hearing of that meeting, surrounded it with civil guards. However, Casares ordered their removal and said that he trusted Mola. Mola began serious planning in the spring, but Franco hesitated until early July, which inspired other plotters to refer to him as "Miss Canary Islands 1936". Franco
Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee - Misplaced Pages Continue
3712-513: The Republicans had retained control of 10. In regards to the navy, the Nationalists had seized control of just 17 warships, leaving the Republicans with 27. However, the two most modern (both cruisers of the Canarias class ) were in Nationalist hands. Although not ready for service when the war broke out, the quality of Nationalist ships compensated for their lack in numbers. The Spanish Republican Navy in terms of personnel also suffered from
3828-618: The U.S. Government was not issuing visas to Spain as part of a non-intervention policy regarding the Spanish Civil War. Few American volunteers arrived after September 1937. Battalion members fought for many different reasons. For the 85 African-American members of the battalion, the Nationalist forces represented some of the same injustices they faced back in the U.S. The Nationalist army primarily consisted of colonial troops from Spain's African colonies or of conscripted blacks who were desperate to escape poverty. Furthermore, Franco
3944-486: The UGT proclaimed a general strike, which was in effect a mobilisation. They opened weapons caches, some buried since the 1934 risings. The paramilitary forces were better trained than the army but often waited to see the outcome of militia action before either joining or suppressing the rebellion. Quick action by either the rebels or anarchist militias was often enough to decide the fate of a town. In mid-1936, Peninsular Spain
4060-853: The United States, the AMB staged events to shift public opinion away from supporting the aid boycott to the Spanish Republic imposed by the American government following the agreements of the Non-intervention Committee . In Spain, the AMB was assigned to hospitals and medical centers of the Spanish Military Medical Services ( Cuerpo de Sanidad ), such as the Gómez Ulla Military Hospital in Madrid, and also to front-line locations. AMB members, who also included women, treated both international as well as Spanish combatants. By
4176-553: The XVth Brigade attacked a series of Nationalist fortifications at Segura de los Baños . While the attack succeeded, the Nationalist forces did not transfer any forces away from Teruel. March found the Lincoln-Washington in reserve positions in Aragon . Their rest proved short-lived as the XVth Brigade was swept up in the disaster known as "The Retreats". Nationalist forces punched through the Republican lines and drove to
4292-485: The XVth Brigade out of Teruel. The XV BDE, including the Lincoln-Washington Battalion, were pulled out of the line for rest after three weeks in the lines. But before the units could get to the rest areas, their trains and trucks were stopped, and they were redeployed to the front, where they participated in an offensive that was expected to relieve some of the pressure on Teruel. In a dawn attack,
4408-463: The XVth Brigade was pulled back to a reserve position, receiving its first extended period of rest and relaxation since going into combat at Jarama . In late December, the Lincoln-Washington Battalion was alerted for service at Teruel . The XVth Brigade was deployed to hold the recently captured city of Teruel against the expected Nationalist counterattack. The winter of 1937/38 was among the coldest on record, and many troops suffered frostbite during
4524-651: The age of 100. Members of the XV International Brigade adapted a song by Alex McDade to reflect the losses at the Battle of Jarama . Sung to the tune of the traditional country song Red River Valley , it became their anthem. In 2007, the exhibit Facing Fascism: New York and the Spanish Civil War at the Museum of the City of New York examined the role that New Yorkers played in the conflict, as well as
4640-595: The armed forces. After World War II ended, veterans of the Lincoln Battalion were denied military enlistment and government jobs. The House Un-American Activities Committee blacklisted the names of all veterans of the Lincoln Battalion. The Brigade was also included in the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations on April 29, 1953. Veterans were fired, spied upon, harassed, labeled communists to employers, denied housing, and refused passports for decades. The FBI has denied that it maintained any files on
4756-477: The assault guards arrested José Calvo Sotelo , a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative; the original target had been Gil Robles, but he could not be found. Calvo Sotelo had protested against agricultural reforms, expropriations and restrictions on the authority of the Catholic Church , which he considered to be Bolshevist and anarchist. He instead advocated the creation of
Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee - Misplaced Pages Continue
4872-477: The battalion were actively communist. It is certain, though, that the vast majority of the commanding officers were communists. Unlike most of their European counterparts, the Americans in the International Brigade were more likely to be students who had never seen military service before the Spanish Civil War. Not all combatants were motivated by ideological or political concerns. As Mo Fishman,
4988-406: The cabinet headed by the newly appointed prime minister José Giral ordered the distribution of weapons to the unions. With the defeat of the rebels in Madrid, Barcelona , and Valencia , anarchists took control of large parts of Aragon and Catalonia . The rebel General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later sentenced to death and executed. The rebels secured the support of around half of
5104-512: The campaign. The Lincoln-Washington's initially held positions overlooking Teruel that they called the North Pole. Later, they moved down into the city. During January, the Nationalists launched coordinated attacks against the Republican defenses. The XVth Brigade's British Battalion and MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion both lost an entire company attempting to hold the territory. Nationalist superiority in both numbers and materiel eventually pushed
5220-543: The cargo came Soviet agents, technicians, instructors, and propagandists. The Communist International quickly started to organize the International Brigades , taking care to conceal or minimize the Communist character of the enterprise. In keeping with Popular Front culture, the Republican cause was portrayed as a struggle for progressive democracy, and the American soldiers in Spain named their units
5336-465: The chief of staff. As had been planned, Cabanellas remained in command of the Zaragoza military district after the successful coup. The district commander, Domingo Batet Mestres , did not take part in the conspiracy and actively tried to prevent any unrest. The interim chief of staff, José Aizpuru Martín-Pinillos ceded his post in early July 1936, to Fernando Moreno Calderón , who was not involved in
5452-541: The coup was a polarization of Spain. The Nationalist area of control contained roughly 11 million of Spain's population of 25 million. The rebels had secured the support of around half of Spain's territorial army, some 60,000 men. In Republican units, however, up to 90% of officers rebelled, defected or merely disappeared, and the loyalty to the Republic of those remaining was put into doubt. Some who disappeared would later turn up in Nationalist ranks. Collectively, this loss of trained officers considerably reduced
5568-468: The coup, until he was detained by units loyal to Goded; his captivity lasted only a few hours. Once the military was overwhelmed by the crowd, Goded and Moxó were arrested and tried, the former executed by firing squad and the latter murdered by the militia. Mut Ramón escaped and made it to the Nationalist zone. Both the district commander, Miguel Cabanellas Ferrer , and his chief of staff, Federico Montaner , were active conspirators. The conspiracy network
5684-487: The coup. Given the sketchy insurgency scheme in La Coruña, Mola's plan did not envision any specific individual as local commander following the coup, a role that was temporarily assumed by Enrique Cánovas Lacruz , who had refused to take the rebel command a few times before he eventually accepted it. Despite the ruthlessness and determination of the supporters of the coup, the rebels failed to take any major cities, with
5800-465: The coup. On July 18, a few conspirators tried to persuade Martínez Monje to join the insurgency, but the commander remained ambiguous, which was the position also adopted by Machinandiarena. Engulfed by doubts, González Carrasco remained rather passive. Many conspiring officers were ready to join the coup once orders were given by divisional command. For about two weeks, the Valencia garrison did not take
5916-527: The critical exception of Seville , which provided a landing point for Franco's African troops. The conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and León fell quickly, and in Pamplona , the uprising was celebrated as if it were a festival. The government retained control of Málaga , Jaén and Almería . Cadiz was taken for the rebels with the help of the first troops from the Army of Africa. In Madrid ,
SECTION 50
#17327903463666032-441: The effectiveness of those regular military units still controlled by the government, as a new command structure had to be fashioned within these units. No such problem occurred in Nationalist units. In terms of raw numbers, the Army of Africa, which was entirely under Nationalist control, had 30,000 men and was considered Spain's top fighting force. The rebels were also joined by 30,000 members of Spain's militarized police forces,
6148-640: The end of the war, a majority of both the Spanish aid committees and the leadership councils of the AMB were women. Many women leaders in the aid movement were wives of prominent American leftists or soldiers in the Lincoln Battalion. Katherine Duncan, wife to Governor La Follette's secretary, and Peggy Dennis, a communist party leader, were leaders in the active Madison, Wisconsin chapter. Marion Merriman, wife to Abraham Lincoln Battalion commander Robert Merriman (the supposed inspiration of Hemingway's hero in For Whom
6264-512: The establishment of a nationalist regime under Francisco Franco , who became ruler of Spain as caudillo . The rising was intended to be swift, but the government retained control of most of the country including Málaga , Jaén and Almería . Cádiz was taken by the rebels, and General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano managed to secure Seville . In Madrid , the rebels were hemmed into the Montaña barracks, which fell with much bloodshed. On 19 July,
6380-494: The garrison. Villa-Abrille was incapacitated and detained, and later tried by the Nationalists and sentenced to prison. At the time of the coup, Cantero was on leave in Algeciras , where he assumed a wait-and-see attitude. He returned to Seville early August; the victorious Nationalists released him from all functions. Neither the district commander, Fernando Martínez Monje , nor his chief of staff, Adolfo Machinandiarena Berga,
6496-478: The government. The conspiracy network was headed by the staff officer comandante José Cuesta Monereo , who built an efficient structure, described by some as a "parallel staff". A few days before the coup, Villa-Abrille was invited to join. He declined, but nothing is known of him taking action against the plotters. According to Emilio Mola's plan, Queipo de Llano was to assume command of the rebel Seville troops. On July 18, Cuesta organised Queipo de Llano's takeover of
6612-485: The greatest determination, we will not win. Anyone who helps or hides a communist or a supporter of the Popular Front will be shot. Orders such as these, to instill fear through systematic executions in captured cities, provoked a widespread hostile response. Acts of spontaneous revenge flared up in Loyalist areas with the random murders of perceived fascists, conservatives and Nationalists by excited mobs. The result of
6728-481: The high rate of casualties, the Lincoln and Washington Battalions were merged. Thereafter, the unit was officially known as the Lincoln-Washington Battalion, though it was more commonly referred to as the Lincoln Battalion. From August–October 1937, the Lincoln-Washington Battalion fought in a series of battles in the Aragon Offensive . It fought well at both Quinto and Belchite . The engagement at Quinto
6844-663: The international battalions as the flow of volunteers from North America decreased. After the Retreats, Spanish troops were integrated across all battalions and comprised most of the XVth Brigade's strength in its last action. In July 1938, the rebuilt Lincoln-Washington Battalion participated in the Ebro offensive . The XVth Brigade crossed the Ebro and rapidly advanced across the territory they had retreated through in March and April. However,
6960-455: The last POWs did not arrive in the United States until September 1939. 3,015 Americans manned the Lincoln Battalion and its successor, the Lincoln-Washington Battalion. While several of these volunteers also held citizenship in other countries, they identified primarily as Americans. Approximately 1,681 also served in the Mackenzie-Papineau ("Mac-Pap") Battalion once massive losses in both battalions led to mergers and transfers of men. Many of
7076-467: The leading role. Pérez-Peñamaria pretended to be loyal. Once the troops of Fanjul had been defeated, the 1st Division was officially dissolved. Cabanellas and Pérez-Peñamaria were detained; Pérez-Peñamaria was tried for negligence and later tried also by the Nationalists. Villegas was also arrested and was soon executed by the Republican militia. The district commander, José Fernández Villa-Abrille , and his chief of staff, Juan Cantero Ortega, were loyal to
SECTION 60
#17327903463667192-405: The main cities of Asturias were retaken. About 1,000 workers and about 250 government soldiers were killed, which marked the effective end of the republic. Months of retaliation and repression by both sides followed, and torture was used on political prisoners. Bombings, shootings and political and religious killings were frequent in the streets. Political parties created armed militias. In 1935,
7308-435: The major component of what came to be known as the Abraham Lincoln Brigade , was the 17th (later the 58th) battalion of the XV International Brigade which fought in the Spanish Civil War . Named after United States President Abraham Lincoln , the battalion was organized by the Communist International . The XVth Brigade was one of many mixed brigades that comprised the International Brigades . The Lincoln Battalion
7424-461: The moderate-right Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights (CEDA), supported a centrist Radical Republican Party minority government and controlled his party's more radical youth wing . Monarchists, however, turned their attention to the fascist Falange Española , led by José Antonio Primo de Rivera . Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities. Gil-Robles successfully used an anti-strike law to provoke and to break up unions, one at
7540-440: The name of Abraham Lincoln, they formed the Lincoln Battalion in January 1937 as part of the XV International Brigade . The battalion initially fielded three companies: two infantry and one machine gun. Sections of Latin American and Irish volunteers were also included, organized as the Centuria Guttieras and the Connolly Column , respectively. After less than two months of training, the Lincolns took action in February 1937. Many of
7656-410: The officer who certified his death as an accident was not a conspirator and remained loyal to the Republic during the Civil War. The uprising was intended for 18 July, at 5 a.m. in Morocco; most garrisons in Spain were supposed to rise one day later. The rising was intended to be a swift coup d'état , but the government retained control of most of the country. Rebel control in Spanish Morocco
7772-424: The plane without the death of General Amado Balmes , the military commander in Gran Canaria, who was killed in a shooting on July 16. Whether his death was an accident, suicide or murder is unknown: Balmes reportedly shot himself in the stomach by accident and died shortly after. Some conspiracy theories suggest that he was murdered, but he would have had enough time to denounce his murderers if they had existed, and
7888-464: The plot, but Aizpuru went on as the chief plotter. His network was so extensive that Mola, formally Batet's subordinate as commander of the Pamplona military region, was confident the 6th Division would be firmly with the rebels. On July 19, they took over critical posts of command. Batet firmly refused to join and was detained, tried and executed. Moreno joined in at the last minute after he faced resolute action of junior officers. As planned by Mola, after
8004-401: The plotters took into account a possible failure. The district commander General Virgilio Cabanellas Ferrer was aware of the conspiracy but did not intend to join the coup. He was dismissed in the early hours of July 18 and imprisoned until 1939, replaced with Luis Castello Pantoja , at the time in Badajoz . Initially, José Miaja acted as a caretaker, but early in the morning of July 19 he
8120-497: The political and social ideologies that motivated them to participate in activities ranging from rallying support, fundraising, and relief aid, to fighting—and sometimes dying—on the front lines in Spain. Spanish coup of July 1936 Start of the Spanish Civil War [REDACTED] José Sanjurjo † [REDACTED] Emilio Mola [REDACTED] Francisco Franco [REDACTED] Manuel Goded [REDACTED] The Spanish coup of July 1936
8236-437: The provision of arms for the European resistance organizations . During the Second World War , the U.S. government considered former members of the brigade to be security risks. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover requested that President Roosevelt ensure that former ALB members fighting in U.S. Forces in World War II not be considered for commissioning as officers or to have any positive distinction conferred upon them. In 1947,
8352-410: The ranks of socialist organisations, which frightened the middle classes. Several generals decided that the government had to be replaced to prevent the dissolution of Spain, as they held professional politicians in contempt. Following the election of 18 January, 1936, the Republican government in the winter and spring that year faced numerous challenges, not least of which was balancing itself between
8468-458: The rebels were hemmed into the Montaña barracks . The barracks fell the next day with much bloodshed. Republican leader Santiago Casares Quiroga was replaced by José Giral , who ordered the distribution of weapons among the civilian population. This facilitated the defeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres, including Madrid, Barcelona , Valencia and the other main cities in
8584-478: The rebels. In line with initial planning, the command of the Valladolid district was assumed by Andrés Saliquet . The district commander, Enrique Salcedo Molinuevo , was not aware of the conspiracy. The chief of staff, Luis Tovar Figueras, maintained sporadic and loose contacts with UME, but he neither took part in the conspiracy nor took any action against it. Key among the plotters was Fermín Gutiérrez Soto,
8700-738: The right to serve as a driver. During and after the Spanish Civil War, members of the brigade were generally viewed as supporters of the Soviet Union . After returning to the United States, many joined the Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade (VALB). However, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact caused a division among the Lincoln Brigade veterans. Some of them, adopting the official Communist line, joined with
8816-442: The scheduled time, Spanish Morocco had already been secured, as legionnaires moved into working-class areas and shot trade unionists. The army commander in eastern Morocco, General Manuel Romerales, and other senior officers loyal to the Republic were executed. Little resistance was encountered; in total, 189 people were shot by the rebels. Goded and Franco immediately took control of the islands to which they were assigned. Warned that
8932-456: The sea, cutting the Republic in two. The Lincoln-Washington Battalion was dispersed, reformed, and dispersed again in a confused series of holding actions and retreats in which it lost most of its personnel killed, captured, or missing. Robert Merriman and Dave Doran, two of the highest-ranking American officers in the XVth Brigade, were presumed captured and executed as Nationalist forces normally executed all international prisoners. The remnants of
9048-403: The speed with which they will be carried out, without doubt or hesitation. In a subsequent meeting with mayors of the province of Navarre, he went even further: It is necessary to spread terror. We have to create the impression of mastery, eliminating without scruples or hesitation all those who do not think as we do. There can be no cowardice. If we vacillate one moment and fail to proceed with
9164-498: The successful coup the command of Burgos military district and the 6. Division was assumed by Fidel Dávila Arrondo . The district commander General Nicolás Molero Lobo was not involved in the plot. The key person among the conspirators was the chief of staff, Anselmo López-Maristany, but in June he was posted to Madrid, and he kept co-ordinating the plot in Valladolid from the capital. His successor as chief of staff, Juan Quero Orozco,
9280-613: The support of Leonard Bernstein , Albert Einstein , Lillian Hellman , Langston Hughes , and Orson Welles . In 1942, the committee was licensed to do so in Vichy France by President Franklin Roosevelt 's wartime administration and was then granted tax-exempt status. In 1946, the committee began to face relentless criticism and scrutiny from federal government organizations. In 1948, the Bureau of Internal Revenue (now known as
9396-550: The threat posed by leftist unions, the counter for which might prove to be the continued support of the right-leaning military. As a consequence, Azana had undertaken reassignment rather than dismissal of suspect generals from their posts. Franco was relieved as chief of staff and transferred to command the Canary Islands . Goded was replaced as Inspector General and made general of the Balearic islands . Emilio Mola
9512-583: The town after hard fighting. The Washingtons attacked the north end of the village, while the British and Dimitrov battalions attacked from the south. The XVth Brigade then deployed against "Mosquito Ridge", but despite repeated assaults, they could not dislodge the Nationalist troops holding that critical piece of terrain. The Lincoln Battalion's commander Oliver Law —the first black commander of an integrated American army unit —was killed during this action. The XVth Brigade again sustained severe losses. Due to
9628-415: The unfolding rebellion. The conspiracy relied mostly on mid-range staff and line officers; they were expected to take control of the garrisons and either overpower their seniors or persuade them to join. In some districts, like Zaragoza or Valladolid, the conspiracy network was well developed, and Emilio Mola was confident of success. In other districts, like Valencia or La Coruña, the network was sketchy, and
9744-410: The unit lost two-thirds of its forces, including commander Robert Hale Merriman (who was badly wounded) in a futile assault on Nationalist positions. Merriman had begged Lieutenant Colonel Vladimir Ćopić (described as "rather inept") not to launch the attack, fearing slaughter. Ćopić insisted it proceed and promised air and armored support, which never came. Merriman was almost immediately wounded, and
9860-411: The uprising. Of these, only 7,000 were usable; worse, 70,000 or so rifles were lost following early Nationalist advances in the war. Republicans controlled only about a third of both heavy and light machine guns; of 1,007 artillery pieces, 387 were in Republican hands, the remainder in those of the rebel Nationalists. The Spanish Army had, before the coup, just 18 tanks of sufficiently modern design; here
9976-573: The veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade were placed on the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations. The veterans would be one of only five groups that would stay intact to at least 1970 after receiving this designation. Once the United States entered World War II, the Federal Bureau of Investigation recommended that all veterans of the Lincoln Battalion be denied military promotion to prevent communists from rising in
10092-439: The veterans of the Lincoln Battalion, but veterans groups claim that the federal government is merely covering up its crimes. In 1985, in an interview with Scripps-Howard editors, President Ronald Reagan said that most Americans believed that their fellow Americans who fought with the Loyalist forces were on the wrong side. The last known surviving member of the Lincoln Battalion, Delmer Berg , died on February 28, 2016, at
10208-444: The volunteers in the "Mac-Paps" were Americans. On 13 October 1937, the XVth Brigade fought at Fuentes de Ebro . Men from the brigade's 24th (Spanish) Battalion rode Russian tanks into the attack. The remaining battalions were supposed to follow the tanks, but the attack fell apart because they did not coordinate their advance with the infantry. Casualties were especially heavy in the 24th and MacKenzie-Papineau Battalions. After Fuentes,
10324-399: The volunteers recalled that training was rudimentary: "They give me a gun, and they give me 100 bullets, and they send me to fight." The International Brigades were usually deployed as shock troops , resulting in high casualties. As an example, the Lincoln Battalion lost 22.5% of its strength by war's end. The Lincolns were especially depleted by the Battle of Jarama . On 27 February 1937,
10440-417: The volunteers were either first or second-generation immigrants, and the battalion was overwhelmingly white. The average age of Americans who served in Spain was 27. Still, there were volunteers as young as age 16. The volunteers came from 46 out of 48 states in the U.S. New York City provided the single largest number of recruits, with 1/5th to 1/3rd being of or formerly from the city before going to Spain. Of
10556-596: The volunteers who could speak Spanish, most were from either New York City or Ybor City located in Tampa, Florida . Americans who applied were screened by the Communist Party USA with an in-person interview by a special committee. The committee tried to filter out "adventurers" and those who "lacked a political understanding of the anti-fascist struggle." In the Communist Party, joining the brigade
10672-580: Was "dedicated to the rescue and relief of thousands of anti-fascist fighters trapped in Vichy, France , and North Africa ' so that they might "return to the active fight against the Axis ." The JAFRC established a fundraising organization, the Spanish Refugee Appeal of the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee. Dorothy Parker took charge of the fundraising of the committee, which soon attracted
10788-474: Was Francisco Mut Ramón, a top member of the divisional staff who was supported by some local commanders. Mola's plan envisioned that the command of the rebellious Barcelona troops be assumed by Manuel González Carrasco, but shortly before the coup, he was reassigned to Valencia and replaced by Manuel Goded . The latter arrived in Barcelona when the rebellion was already underway; Moxó immediately accepted his command. Llano de la Encomienda actively worked to suppress
10904-441: Was a combined arms action as the Lincoln-Washington Battalion was led into their second assault on the town by Soviet tanks, T-26 tanks, and Soviet crews. Belchite was a hard battle with house-to-house fighting that produced heavy casualties. After Belchite, the XVth Brigade was again reorganized. The newly formed Canadian MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion joined the brigade, and the veteran Dimitrov Battalion departed. A majority of
11020-522: Was a key player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy, and as the man who suppressed the socialist uprising of 1934. He was well respected in the Spanish Moroccan army , Spain's strongest military force. He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June which suggested that the military was disloyal but could be restrained if he were put in charge. Casares did nothing, and failed to arrest or to buy off Franco. Franco
11136-603: Was a military uprising that was intended to overthrow the Spanish Second Republic but precipitated the Spanish Civil War ; Nationalists fought against Republicans for control of Spain. The coup was organized for 18 July 1936, although it started the previous day in Spanish Morocco . Instead of resulting in a prompt transfer of power, the coup split control of the Spanish military and territory roughly in half. The resulting civil war ultimately led to
11252-458: Was a transportation unit supporting the Republican forces. The Second Squadron was predominately American. The commander was Durward Clark. This unit's official title was the 14th Battery, 2nd Group, 11th Regiment. It was a heavy artillery unit operating 155mm guns. The battery commander was Arthur Timpson, with Jack Waters as Commissar. Initially, this unit operated 155mm guns but was later equipped with 45mm anti-tank guns, which were included in
11368-566: Was all but certain. The 30,000-strong Army of Africa was the professional elite of the Spanish Army. Many of its soldiers acted as mercenaries, and the vast majority of officers backed the rebel cause. The regulares , troops recruited from the local tribes, were predominantly Muslim and were told that the Republic wished to abolish Allah . The plan was discovered in Morocco during 17 July, which prompted it to be enacted immediately. By
11484-521: Was appointed the minister of war in the Martínez Barrio government, and his caretaker role was taken over by Manuel Cardenal Dominicis . Castello arrived in Madrid on July 19 but discovered he had just been appointed minister of war in the new Giral government. The same day Celestino García Antúnez was nominated the new district commander; by this time fighting was already in full swing. The divisional chief of staff, Colonel Luis Pérez-Peñamaría,
11600-426: Was divided into eight military districts, each home to one division. Most senior staff forming the local command layer were not involved in the conspiracy. Out of eight district commanders and commanders of respective divisions at the same time, there was only one engaged in the plot and adhered to the coup. Out of eight district chiefs of staff, there were three officers involved in the conspiracy, and three more joined
11716-531: Was due to be assigned control of Morocco in the new regime and largely sidelined. On July 5, an aircraft was chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco; it arrived on July 14. On 12 July 1936 in Madrid, a member of the Falange, Jorge Bardina, murdered lieutenant José Castillo of the assault guards police force. Castillo was a member of the Socialist Party. The next day, members of
11832-413: Was firm, and Mola was confident that the Zaragoza troops would help the coup. Though the conspiracy network was not extensive, the fact that both key military men were involved in the plot led to almost all troops in the district obeying the orders of the rebellious command. A few loyalist officers were quickly overwhelmed by the rebels. Despite his age Cabanellas led the action, and Montaner supported him as
11948-632: Was formed by American volunteers who served as soldiers, technicians, medical personnel, and aviators alongside the Spanish Republican forces against the Nazi -supported forces of General Francisco Franco and his Nationalist faction . Unlike the segregated U.S. Army in the 1930s, the Lincoln Battalion integrated white and black soldiers on an equal basis. Of the approximately 3,000 American volunteers who went to Spain, 681 were killed in action or died of wounds or sickness. The Spanish Civil War
12064-723: Was fought from 17 July 1936 to 28 March 1939. The combatants were the Republicans—a political alliance referred to as the Popular Front , which was loyal to the Spanish Republic (hence, also referred to as the Loyalists)—and the Nationalists , a rebel movement led by General Francisco Franco, which was backed by the fascist countries in Europe . The Spanish Civil War's triggering event was the coup of July 1936 in which
12180-482: Was increasingly isolated from everyday politics, and his replacement as prime minister, Casares Quiroga , was weak. This watershed event inspired the right-wing to give up on parliamentary politics. The monarchist José Calvo Sotelo replaced CEDA's Gil-Robles as the leader of the right in the Cortes. CEDA turned its campaign chest over to the army plotter Emilio Mola . At the same time, communists quickly took over
12296-417: Was involved in the plot. The local conspiracy junta missed officers serving in critical positions. The most important of these officers was Bartolomé Barba Hernández , but he excelled in ensuring civilian, rather than military, support. General Manuel González Carrasco , who was initially marked to lead the rebels, was reassigned by Mola to lead the Barcelona rising and was reassigned to Valencia shortly before
12412-615: Was later condemned to death, although he had broadcast a message explaining his captivity over the radio, at the request of the authorities. Meanwhile, the Army of Africa crossed the Gibraltar Strait , using Junkers Ju 52 transport planes provided by Nazi Germany , without any loyalist Air Force interference owing to the confusion on the Spanish Republican side. The massive airlift of troops from Spanish Morocco
12528-542: Was moved from leading the Army of Africa to the post of military commander of Pamplona in Navarre . This allowed Mola to direct the mainland uprising, although the relationship between him and Carlist leaders was problematic. General José Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation and helped to come to an agreement with the Carlists. Mola was the chief planner and second in command. José Antonio Primo de Rivera
12644-414: Was never mandatory. Secrecy was a high priority, and volunteers were given minimal information by Party leaders and only obtained information regarding their passports when they had passed their examination. The committee recommended that volunteers supply false information to customs and border officials about where they were travelling. Americans usually entered Spain by first emigrating to France because
12760-431: Was not involved in the plot and was not aware of it unfolding. On the evening of July 18, a group of senior officers from Madrid, including Saliquet, Uzquiano, López-Maristany and Martín-Montalvo, led the takeover of the military structures, which involved a shootout with men of Molero, who was eventually detained. Later, Molero was tried by the Nationalists and sentenced to prison. Quero remained passive and eventually joined
12876-458: Was put in informal command of the military effort against the Asturian miners' revolt of 1934 during which striking labourers had occupied several towns and the provincial capital. Around 30,000 workers had been called to arms in ten days. Franco's men, some brought in from Spain's army of Africa , acted horrifically by killing men, women and children and carrying out summary executions when
12992-458: Was reasonably even. The defection of many regular officers weakened Republican units of all types. Following elections in November 1933, Spain entered what was called by the left-wing parties the " black biennium " ( Spanish : bienio negro ). Both Carlists and Alfonsist monarchists continued to prepare and received the backing of Benito Mussolini . José-María Gil-Robles , the leader of
13108-535: Was released from prison in mid-March to restrict the Falange . However, government actions were not as thorough as they might have been since warnings by the director of security and others were not acted upon. On 12 June, Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yagüe , who was accused of masterminding the growing conspiracy in North Africa. Yagüe managed, falsely, to convince Casares of his loyalty to
13224-590: Was supported by the Italian army and air force, which had only recently conquered the African nation of Ethiopia. Several leaders characterized the war as a crusade against the "Africanization" of Spain, although it was the Nationalists who relied on African fighters. Langston Hughes , a journalist for the Baltimore Afro-American at the time, wrote, "Give Franco a hood, and he would be a member of
13340-431: Was supportive of the plot but did not organise it. The rebel scheme was managed by other Madrid-based generals, especially Rafael Villegas who featured as head of the rebellious Madrid troops, and Joaquín Fanjul . Miaja was probably sounded on his access, but he either declined or remained ambiguous. On July 18 Villegas cited some difficulties and remained passive; it was Fanjul who moved to the Montaña barracks and assumed
13456-659: Was the world's first long-range combat airlift and allowed Franco's troops to join General Queipo de Llano's forces in Seville. Their quick movement allowed them to meet General Emilio Mola 's Northern Army and secure most of northern and northwestern Spain, as well as central and western Andalusia . The Republican Government was left controlling almost all of the Eastern Spanish coast and the central area around Madrid, as well as Asturias , Cantabria and part of
#365634