A commando is a combatant, or operative of an elite light infantry or special operations force , specially trained for carrying out raids and operating in small teams behind enemy lines.
169-749: Nicolae Iorga (17 January 1871 – 27 November 1940) was a Romanian politician who held top posts, including prime minister and president of the Senate . He was also a historian, literary critic, memoirist, albanologist, poet and playwright. Co-founder (in 1910) of the Democratic Nationalist Party (PND), he served as a member of Parliament , President of the Deputies' Assembly , and cabinet minister. A child prodigy , polymath and polyglot , Iorga produced an unusually large body of scholarly works, establishing his international reputation as
338-487: A University of Leipzig PhD: his text, once reviewed by a commission grouping three prominent German scholars ( Adolf Birch-Hirschfeld , Karl Gotthard Lamprecht , Charles Wachsmuth ), earned him the needed diploma in August. On 25 July, Iorga had also received his École pratique diploma for the earlier work on de Mézières, following its review by Gaston Paris and Charles Bémont . He spent his time further investigating
507-625: A medievalist , Byzantinist , Latinist , Slavist , art historian and philosopher of history . Holding teaching positions at the University of Bucharest , the University of Paris and several other academic institutions, Iorga was founder of the International Congress of Byzantine Studies and the Institute of South-East European Studies (ISSEE). His activity also included the transformation of Vălenii de Munte town into
676-503: A socialist poet (in Contemporanul ) and critic (in both Lupta and Literatură și Știință ). Also in 1890, Iorga married Maria Tasu, whom he was to divorce in 1900. He had previously been in love with an Ecaterina C. Botez, but, after some hesitation, decided to marry into the family of Junimea man Vasile Tasu, much better situated in the social circles. Xenopol, who was Iorga's matchmaker, also tried to obtain for Iorga
845-465: A "miserable pension of pittance"). Aged thirteen, while on extended visit to his maternal uncle Emanuel "Manole" Arghiropol, he also made his press debut with paid contributions to Arghiropol's Romanul newspaper, including anecdotes and editorial pieces on European politics. The year 1886 was described by Iorga as "the catastrophe of my school life in Botoșani": on temporary suspension for not having greeted
1014-599: A 7 average which only entitled him to a substitute professor's position. The achievement, at age 23, was still remarkable in its context. The first of his lectures came later that year as personal insight on the historical method , Despre concepția actuală a istoriei și geneza ei ("On the Present-day Concept of History and Its Genesis"). He was again out of the country in 1895, visiting the Netherlands and, again, Italy, in search of documents, publishing
1183-452: A Bad Patriot"). His scholarly activities resulted in a second trip into Transylvania, a second portion of his Bistrița archives collection, the 11th Hurmuzachi volume, and two works on Early Modern Romanian history: Acte din secolul al XVI-lea relative la Petru Șchiopul ("16th Century Acts Relating to Peter the Lame") and Scurtă istorie a lui Mihai Viteazul ("A Short History of Michael
1352-582: A National Liberal one. The bloody outcome prompted the historian to author and make public a piece of social critique, the Neamul Românesc pamphlet Dumnezeu să-i ierte ("God Forgive Them"). The text, together with his program of agrarian conferences and his subscription lists for the benefit of victims' relatives again made him an adversary of the National Liberals, who referred to Iorga as an instigator. The historian did however struck
1521-468: A better moment to strike. In the end, his "Ententist" efforts were closely supported by public figures such as Alexandru I. Lapedatu and Ion Petrovici , as well as by Take Ionescu 's National Action advocacy group. Iorga was also introduced to the private circle of Romania's young King , Ferdinand I , whom he found well-intentioned but weak-willed. Iorga is sometimes credited as a tutor to Crown Prince Carol (future King Carol II), who reportedly attended
1690-595: A chord with Stere, who had been made prefect of Iași County , and who, going against his party's wishes, inaugurated an informal collaboration between Iorga and the Poporanists. The political class as a whole was particularly apprehensive of Iorga's contacts with the League for the Cultural Unity of All Romanians [ ro ] and their common irredentist agenda, which risked undermining relations with
1859-613: A commando unit, the unit is occasionally capitalized. The term commando originally derives from Latin commendare , to recommend, via the Dutch word kommando , which translates as "a command or order" and also roughly to "mobile infantry regiment ". This term originally referred to units of Boer mounted infantry , who fought during the Xhosa Wars and the First and Second Boer Wars . The Dutch word kommando , in turn, originated from
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#17327973069722028-444: A commercial organization. The term of a prime minister ends with the individual's resignation, dismissal following a motion of no confidence, loss of electoral rights (following a conviction), incompatibility with the office, death or expiration of the term of the legislature. The prime minister, together with the minister tasked with the particular field of government, can sign resolutions and ordinances to take effect as executive orders
2197-522: A cultural and academic center. In parallel with his academic contributions, Nicolae Iorga was a prominent right-of-centre activist, whose political theory bridged conservatism, Romanian nationalism , and agrarianism . From Marxist beginnings, he switched sides and became a maverick disciple of the Junimea movement. Iorga later became a leadership figure at Sămănătorul , the influential literary magazine with populist leanings, and militated within
2366-813: A few paratroopers to several companies. Due to the balance of forces concerned, these raids achieved little in the way of damage or casualties, and resulted in the destruction of the Japanese units concerned. Considering that there were no plans to extract these forces, and the reluctance to surrender by Japanese personnel during that era, they are often seen in the same light as kamikaze pilots of 1944–45. Nakano School trained intelligence and commando officers and organized commando teams for sabotage and guerrilla warfare. The navy had commando units "S-toku" (Submarine special attack units, see Kure 101st JSNLF(in Japanese) ) for infiltrating enemy areas by submarine . It
2535-576: A historical source. He published several new books in 1899: Manuscrise din biblioteci străine ("Manuscripts from Foreign Libraries", 2 vols.), Documente românești din arhivele Bistriței ("Romanian Documents from the Bistrița Archives") and a French-language book on the Crusades , titled Notes et extraits pour servir à l'histoire des croisades ("Notes and Excerpts Covering the History of
2704-773: A hub of student activity, self-financed through the sale of postcards. Its success caused alarm in Austria-Hungary: Budapesti Hírlap newspaper described Iorga's school as an instrument for radicalizing Romanian Transylvanians. Iorga also alienated the main Romanian organizations in Transylvania: the Romanian National Party (PNR) dreaded his proposal to boycott the Diet of Hungary , particularly since PNR leaders were contemplating
2873-544: A leading characteristic of his biography during World War I . In 1915, while Romania was still keeping neutral, he sided with the dominant nationalist, Francophile and pro- Entente camp, urging for Romania to wage war on the Central Powers as a means of obtaining Transylvania, Bukovina and other regions held by Austria-Hungary; to this goal, he became an active member of the League for the Cultural Unity of All Romanians [ ro ] , and personally organized
3042-582: A lengthy scandal. The pieces often targeted senior scholars who, as favorites or activists of the National Liberal Party , opposed both Junimea and the Maiorescu-endorsed Conservative Party : his estranged friends Hasdeu and Tocilescu, as well as V. A. Urechia and Dimitrie Sturdza . The episode, described by Iorga himself as a stormy but patriotic debut in public affairs, prompted his adversaries at
3211-484: A literary club with conservative leanings, whose informal leader was literary and political theorist Titu Maiorescu . In 1890, literary critic Ștefan Vârgolici and cultural promoter Iacob Negruzzi published Iorga's essay on poet Veronica Micle in the Junimist tribune Convorbiri Literare . Having earlier attended the funeral of writer Ion Creangă , a dissident Junimist and Romanian literature classic, he took
3380-700: A loyalist "Greater Austria" devolution project . The consequences hit Iorga in May 1909, when he was stopped from visiting Bukovina, officially branded a persona non grata , and expelled from Austrian soil (in June, it was made illegal for Bukovinian schoolteachers to attend Iorga's lectures). A month later, Iorga greeted in Bucharest the English scholar R.W. Seton-Watson . This noted critic of Austria-Hungary became Iorga's admiring friend, and helped popularize his ideas in
3549-594: A number of brochures dedicated to maintaining morale among soldiers and civilians: Războiul actual și urmările lui în viața morală a omenirii ("The Current War and Its Effects on the Moral Life of Mankind"), Rolul inițiativei private în viața publică ("The Role of Private Initiative in Public Life"), Sfaturi și învățături pentru ostașii României ("Advices and Teachings for Romania's Soldiers") etc. He also translated from English and printed My Country ,
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#17327973069723718-462: A patriotic essay by Ferdinand's wife Marie of Edinburgh . The heightened sense of crisis prompted Iorga to issue appeals against defeatism and reissue Neamul Românesc from Iași, explaining: "I realized at once what moral use could come out of this for the thousands of discouraged and disillusioned people and against the traitors who were creeping up all over the place." The goal was again reflected in his complementary lectures (where he discussed
3887-548: A piece named Ceasul ("The Hour"): "the hour we have been expecting for over two centuries, for which we have been living our entire national life, for which we have been working and writing, fighting and thinking, has at long last arrived." The Romanian campaign initially went well, as the Romanian Army penetrated deep into Transylvania, defeated the Austro-Hungarian Army and briefly occupied much of
4056-509: A public stand against the defamation of another such figure, the dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale , groundlessly accused of plagiarism by journalist Constantin Al. Ionescu-Caion . He expanded his contribution as an opinion journalist, publishing with some regularity in various local or national periodicals of various leanings, from the socialist Contemporanul and Era Nouă to Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu 's Revista Nouă . This period saw his debut as
4225-730: A quarter of deputies and senators and for it to pass, a majority of deputies and senators must vote in favour of it. After a motion of no confidence is adopted, the prime minister and his Cabinet are officially dismissed and the President must designate an individual to form a new government. Since 1989, five prime ministers have been dismissed following the adoption of a motion of no confidence: Emil Boc (2009), Mihai Răzvan Ungureanu (2012), Sorin Grindeanu (2017), Viorica Dăncilă (2019), and Florin Cîțu (2021). Originally styled President of
4394-533: A regular basis, until ca. 1936. He was reelected to the lower chamber in the June 1918 election , becoming President of the body and, due to the rapid political developments, the first person to hold this office in the history of Greater Romania . The year also brought his participation alongside Allied envoys in the 360th anniversary of Michael the Brave's birth. On 1 December, later celebrated as Great Union Day , Iorga
4563-563: A source of "darkness and slavery", whereas the more liberal regime of Bukovina offered its subjects "golden chains". Nicolae Iorga ran in the 1905 election and won a seat in Parliament 's lower chamber . He remained politically independent until 1906, when he attached himself to the Conservative Party, making one final attempt to change the course of Junimism . His move was contrasted by the group of left-nationalists from
4732-553: A special unit with amphibious He 115 planes was founded to support the battalion. The total strength of the battalion was 678 men and 76 women (see Lotta Svärd ). In the Battle of Ilomantsi , soldiers of the 4th disrupted the supply lines of the Soviet artillery, preventing effective fire support. The battalion made over 50 missions in 1943 and just under 100 in 1944, and was disbanded on November 30 of that same year. Sissiosasto/5.D
4901-581: A teacher, Iorga opted to leave the city and apply for the National High School of Iași , being received into the scholarship program and praised by his new principal, the philologist Vasile Burlă . Iorga was already fluent in French, Italian, Latin and Greek; he later referred to Greek studies as "the most refined form of human reasoning". By age seventeen, Iorga was becoming more rebellious. He first grew interested in political activities for
5070-623: A teaching position at Iași University. The attempt was opposed by other professors, on grounds of Iorga's youth and politics. Instead, Iorga was briefly a high school professor of Latin in the southern city of Ploiești , following a public competition overseen by writer Alexandru Odobescu . The time he spent there allowed him to expand his circle of acquaintances and personal friends, meeting writers Caragiale and Alexandru Vlahuță , historians Hasdeu and Grigore Tocilescu , and Marxist theorist Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea . Having received
5239-587: Is another Finnish Commando unit of the World War Two era. The Detachment was founded on August 20, 1941, under the Lynx Division (5th Division, Finnish VI Corps). It was a self-contained unit for reconnaissance patrolling , sabotage and guerrilla warfare operations behind enemy lines. In December 1939, following the success of German infiltration and sabotage operations in the Polish campaign ,
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5408-735: Is evidence of selection for the Otdelnly Gwardieskij Batalion Minerow, predecessors of the modern Russian spetsnaz . Soldiers had to be younger than 30 years, were mostly athletes or hunters and had to show the highest motivation. During training and selection some participants died since they were exhausted and left to their devices. The German Kommando Spezialkräfte (KSK) demands from their applicants high levels of physical resilience, teamwork, willingness to learn, mental resilience, willpower, sense of responsibility, flexibility, secrecy and adaptation. These skills are proved during assessment. The fitness test of
5577-645: Is the opposite of military tradition but necessary to work in small and smallest groups, avoiding enemies' reconnaissance. After the Dutch Cape Colony was established in 1652, the word was used to describe bands of militia. The first "Commando Law" was instated by the original Dutch East India Company chartered settlements and similar laws were maintained through the independent Boer Orange Free State and South African Republic . The law compelled burghers to equip themselves with horses and firearms when required in defense. The implementation of these laws
5746-538: The 474th Regimental Combat Team . Ironically they were sent to serve in Norway in 1945, the country they were formed to raid. The Finns fielded the Erillinen Pataljoona 4 and about 150 men were trained before the beginning of summer 1941. At first, the units had as few as 15 men, but during the war this was increased to 60. On July 1, 1943, the units were organised in the 4th Detached Battalion. In 1944,
5915-702: The Alpine battles of World War I. These teams were called " Arditi " (meaning "daring, brave ones"); they were almost always men under 25 in top physical condition and, possibly at first, bachelors (due to fear of very high casualty rates). Actually the Arditi (who were led to the lines just a few hours before the assault, having been familiarised with the terrain via photo-reconnaissance and trained on trench systems re-created ad hoc for them) suffered fewer casualties than regular line infantry and were highly successful in their tasks. Many volunteered for extreme-right formations in
6084-676: The Borneo campaign . Z Force , an Australian-British-New Zealand military intelligence commando unit, formed by the Australian Services Reconnaissance Department , also carried out many raiding and reconnaissance operations in the South West Pacific theatre, most notably Operation Jaywick , in which they destroyed tonnes of Japanese shipping at Singapore Harbour. An attempt to replicate this success, with Operation Rimau , resulted in
6253-634: The Bucharest Treaty , an effective armistice. The conditions were judged humiliating by Iorga ("Our ancestors would have preferred death"); he refused to regain his University of Bucharest chair. The German authorities in Bucharest reacted by blacklisting the historian. Iorga only returned to Bucharest as Romania resumed its contacts with the Allies and the Deutsches Heer left the country. The political uncertainty ended by late autumn, when
6422-565: The Byzantine Empire . At home, he and pupil Vasile Pârvan were involved in a conflict with fellow historian Orest Tafrali , officially over archeological theory, but also because of a regional conflict in academia: Bucharest and Transylvania against Tafrali's Iași. A seminal moment in Iorga's political career took place during the 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt , erupting under a Conservative cabinet and repressed with much violence by
6591-555: The Cantacuzinos and the Craiovești is questioned by other researchers. Iorga is generally believed to have been born on 17 January 1871, although his birth certificate provides a date of 6 June. In 1876, aged thirty-seven or thirty-eight, Nicu Sr. died of an unknown illness, orphaning Nicolae and his younger brother George. Nicolae would later write that the loss of his father dominated the image he had of his childhood. In 1878, he
6760-639: The Cantacuzinos "), Istoriile domnilor Țării Românești ("The Histories of Wallachian Princes"). Iorga was by then making known his newly found interest in cultural nationalism and national didacticism , as expressed by him in an open letter to Goga's Budapest-based Luceafărul magazine. After further interventions from Goga and linguist Sextil Pușcariu , Luceafărul became Iorga's main mouthpiece outside Romania. Returning to Bucharest in 1903, Iorga followed Lamprecht's suggestion and focused on writing his first overview of Romanian national history, known in Romanian as Istoria românilor ("The History of
6929-458: The Chamber of Deputies , Senate , or parliamentary committees as part of the parliamentary control of government. The members of government are allowed to attend the works of Parliament and they must do so at the request of the presidents of the chambers. The prime minister and the members of his Cabinet must answer all questions or interpellations brought forward by deputies or senators as under
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7098-499: The First Special Service Force , formed under British Combined Operations . The First Special Service Force was a joint American-Canadian unit and modern Canadian special operations forces also trace their lineage to this unit and through it to British Commandos, despite existing in their modern incarnation only since 2006. Malaysian green beret special forces PASKAL and Grup Gerak Khas (who still wear
7267-613: The Hurmuzachi brothers collection of historical documents, the position being granted to him by the Romanian Academy . The appointment, first proposed to the institution by Xenopol, overlapped with disputes over the Hurmuzachi inheritance, and came only after Iorga's formal pledge that he would renounce all potential copyrights resulting from his contribution. He also published the second part of Acte și fragmente and
7436-581: The Italian campaign and in southern France. Its most famous raid, which was documented in the film Devil's Brigade , was the battle of Monte la Difensa . In 1945, the unit was disbanded; some of the Canadian members were sent to the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion as replacements, and the American members were sent to either the 101st Airborne Division or the 82nd Airborne Division as replacements or
7605-469: The Kingdom of Romania 's Education Ministry , and, as a result, applied for and passed his third term examinations, effectively graduating one year ahead of his class. Before the end of the year, he also passed his license examination magna cum laude , with a thesis on Greek literature , an achievement which consecrated his reputation inside both academia and the public sphere. Hailed as a "morning star" by
7774-468: The League for the Cultural Unity of All Romanians [ ro ] , founding vocally conservative publications such as Neamul Românesc , Drum Drept , Cuget Clar and Floarea Darurilor . His support for the cause of ethnic Romanians in Austria-Hungary made him a prominent figure in the pro- Entente camp by the time of World War I , and ensured him a special political role during
7943-907: The Moldavian Prince Peter the Lame , his son Ștefăniță, and Romania's national hero, the Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave . He also met, befriended and often collaborated with fellow historians from European countries other than Romania: the editors of Revue de l'Orient Latin , who first published studies Iorga later grouped in the six volumes of Notes et extraits ("Notices and Excerpts") and Frantz Funck-Brentano , who enlisted his parallel contribution for Revue Critique . Iorga's articles were also featured in two magazines for ethnic Romanian communities in Austria-Hungary : Familia and Vatra . Making his comeback to Romania in October 1894, Iorga settled in
8112-559: The National Theater , punishing its staff for staging a play entirely in French, and disturbing public order. According to one of Iorga's young disciples, the future journalist Pamfil Șeicaru , the mood was such that Iorga could have led a successful coup d'état . These events had several political consequences. The Siguranța Statului intelligence agency soon opened a file on the historian, informing Romanian Premier Sturdza about nationalist agitation. The perception that Iorga
8281-686: The Poporanist faction, who were allied to the National Liberals and, soon after, in open conflict with Iorga. Although from the same cultural family as Sămănătorul , the Poporanist theorist Constantin Stere was dismissed by Iorga's articles, despite Sadoveanu's attempts to settle the matter. A peak in Nicolae Iorga's own nationalist campaigning occurred that year: profiting from a wave of Francophobia among young urbanites, Iorga boycotted
8450-526: The Russian Empire with the acquiescence of other Entente powers. Poporanist theorist Garabet Ibrăileanu , editor of Viața Românească review, later accused Iorga of not ever speaking in support of the Bessarabians. Political themes were again reflected in Nicolae Iorga's 1915 report to the academy ( Dreptul la viață al statelor mici , "The Small States' Right to Exist") and in various of
8619-749: The Second Balkan War , during which Romania fought alongside Serbia and against the Kingdom of Bulgaria . The subsequent taking of Southern Dobruja , supported by Maiorescu and the Conservatives, was seen by Iorga as callous and imperialistic . Iorga's interest in the Balkan crisis was illustrated by two of the forty books he put out that year: Istoria statelor balcanice ("The History of Balkan States") and Notele unui istoric cu privire la evenimentele din Balcani ("A Historian's Notes on
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#17327973069728788-541: The Treaty of Trianon . The new constitution limited the powers of the King, vesting the executive power entirely in the prime minister and his Cabinet who now governed in the King's name after the latter appointed him. The new constitution also made the first steps towards a parliamentary control of the government, stipulating that either of the chambers may put ministers under accusation to stand trial. The current residence of
8957-676: The U.S. Navy SEALs tests swimming speed over 500 yards, number of push-ups and sit-ups within 2 minutes, pull-ups and running 1.5 miles. Long Range Desert Group hired their personnel after a very long interrogation. First SAS members had to complete a march of 50km, and the Royal Marine commandos tested their applicants' motivation during an obstacle course using real explosives and machine gun fire close to Achnacary in Scotland. The French Foreign Legion assesses their applicants through medical, intelligence, logic, and fitness tests as well as interrogations, small drills and solving small tasks. Commando soldiers shall think independently. This
9126-494: The Xhosa and the Zulu caused the Boers to retain the commando system despite being free of colonial laws. Also, the word became used to describe any armed raid. During this period, the Boers also developed guerrilla techniques for use against numerically superior but less mobile bands of natives such as the Zulu, who fought in large, complex formations. In the First Boer War , Boer commandos were able to use superior marksmanship, fieldcraft, camouflage and mobility to expel
9295-436: The prime minister of the Government of Romania (Romanian: Prim-ministrul Guvernului României ), is the head of the Government of Romania . Initially, the office was styled President of the Council of Ministers (Romanian: Președintele Consiliului de Miniștri ), when the term "Government" included more than the Cabinet, and the Cabinet was called the Council of Ministers ( Romanian : Consiliul de Miniștri ). The title
9464-494: The "national principle") and a new set of works; these featured musings on the Allied commitment ( Relations des Roumains avec les Alliès , "The Romanians' Relations with the Allies"; Histoire des relations entre la France et les roumains , "The History of Relations between France and the Romanians"), the national character ( Sufletul românesc , "The Romanian Soul") or columns against the loss of morale ( Armistițiul , "The Armistice"). His ideal of moral regeneration through
9633-421: The "old" historians and the Junimists , Iorga was still active at the forefront of historical research. In 1904, he published the historical geography work Drumuri și orașe din România ("Roads and Towns of Romania") and, upon the special request of National Liberal Education Minister Spiru Haret , a work dedicated to the celebrated Moldavian Prince Stephen the Great , published upon the 400th anniversary of
9802-414: The 181st Special Reconnaissance Detachment. They began conducting sabotage missions and raids to snatch prisoners for interrogation. They would also destroy German ammunition and supply depots, communication centers, and harass enemy troop concentrations along the Finnish and Russian coasts. After the European conflict ended, Leonov and his men were sent to the Pacific theatre to conduct operations against
9971-503: The 18th Century"). It was presented to the academy's consideration, but rejected, prompting the scholar to resign in protest. To receive his imprimatur later in the year, Iorga appealed to fellow intellectuals, earning pledges and a sizable grant from the aristocratic Callimachi family . Before the end of that year, the Iorgas were in the Austro-Hungarian city of Budapest . While there, the historian set up tight contacts with Romanian intellectuals who originated from Transylvania and who, in
10140-423: The 2/6th, 2/7th and 2/9th Cavalry Commando Regiments. Later in the war the Royal Australian Navy also formed commando units along the lines of the Royal Naval Commandos to go ashore with the first waves of major amphibious assaults, to signpost the beaches and carry out other naval tasks. These were known as RAN Commandos . Four were formed—lettered A, B, C and D like their British counterparts—and they took part in
10309-569: The 300th commemoration of Prince Michael's death, which ethnic Romanian students transformed into a rally against Austro-Hungarian educational restrictions, Iorga addressed the crowds and was openly greeted by the protest's leaders, poet Octavian Goga and Orthodox priest Ioan Lupaș . In 1902, he published new tracts on Transylvanian or Wallachian topics: Legăturile Principatelor române cu Ardealul ("The Romanian Principalities' Links with Transylvania"), Sate și preoți din Ardeal ("Priests and Villages of Transylvania"), Despre Cantacuzini ("On
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#173279730697210478-530: The 37 books he published that year: Istoria românilor din Ardeal și Ungaria ("The History of the Romanians in Transylvania and Hungary"), Politica austriacă față de Serbia ("The Austrian Policy on Serbia") etc. Also in 1915, Iorga completed his economic history treatise, Istoria comerțului la români ("The History of Commerce among the Romanians"), as well as a volume on literary history and Romanian philosophy , Faze sufletești și cărți reprezentative la români ("Spiritual Phases and Relevant Books of
10647-616: The Age of Reforms"), a book on the 1859 Moldo–Wallachian Union ( Unirea principatelor , "The Principalities' Union"), and a critical edition of poems by Eminescu. Visiting Iași for the Union Jubilee, Iorga issued a public and emotional apology to Xenopol for having criticized him in the previous decade. At that stage in his life, Iorga became an honorary member of the Romanian Writers' Society . He had militated for its creation in both Sămănătorul and Neamul Românesc , but also wrote against its system of fees. Once liberated from government restriction in 1909, his Vălenii school grew into
10816-424: The Allied victory on the Western Front sealed Germany's defeat. Celebrating the Compiègne Armistice , Iorga wrote: "There can be no greater day for the entire world". Iorga however found that Bucharest had become "a filthy hell under lead skies." His celebrated return also included the premiere of Învierea lui Ștefan cel Mare at the National Theater , which continued to host productions of his dramatic texts on
10985-486: The Australian Special Air Service Regiment , the New Zealand Special Air Service , and the Rhodesian Special Air Service , all of whom share (or used to) the same insignia and motto as their British counterparts. During the Second World War, the British SAS quickly adopted sand-coloured berets, since they were almost entirely based in the North African theatre; they used these rather than green berets to distinguish themselves from other British Commando units. (See History of
11154-442: The Austrians over Transylvania and Bukovina. However, Iorga's popularity was still increasing, and, carried by this sentiment, he was first elected to Chamber during the elections of that same year . Iorga and his new family had relocated several times, renting a home in Bucharest's Gara de Nord (Buzești) quarter. After renewed but failed attempts to become an Iași University professor, he decided, in 1908, to set his base away from
11323-452: The Balkan Events"). Noted among the others is the study focusing on the early 18th century reign of Wallachian Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu ( Viața și domnia lui Constantin vodă Brâncoveanu , "The Life and Rule of Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu"). That same year, Iorga issued the first series of his Drum Drept monthly, later merged with the Sămănătorist magazine Ramuri . Iorga managed to publish roughly as many new titles in 1914,
11492-466: The Belgian 5th Special Air Service , or Greek Sacred Band . In 1944 the SAS Brigade was formed from the British 1st and 2nd SAS, the French 3rd and 4th SAS, and the Belgian 5th SAS. The French Army special forces ( 1er RPIMa ) still use the motto Qui Ose Gagne , a translation of the SAS motto "Who Dares Wins". In addition, many Commonwealth nations were part of the original British Commando units. They developed their own national traditions, including
11661-453: The Belgian border was captured in 1940 by Fallschirmjäger troops as part of the German invasion and occupation of Belgium. A report written by Major-General Robert Laycock in 1947 claimed that there was a German raid on a radar station on the Isle of Wight in 1941. The Sacred band ( Greek : Ιερός Λόχος ) was a Greek special forces unit formed in 1942 in the Middle East , composed entirely of Greek officers and officer cadets under
11830-426: The Blue Lanyard of the Royal Marines ) were originally trained by British Commandos.The Portuguese Marine Corps Fuzileiros were originally trained by British Commandos in 1961. Other British units, such as the SAS , led to the development of many international special operations units that are now typically referred to as commandos, including the Bangladeshi Para-Commando Brigade , Pakistani Special Services Group ,
11999-434: The Boer War, and decided that it would require a 10:1 numerical advantage to defeat the Allies. The campaign occupied the attention of an entire Japanese division for almost a year. The independent companies were later renamed commando squadrons, and they saw widespread action in the South West Pacific Area , especially in New Guinea and Borneo . In 1943, all the commando squadrons except the 2/2nd and 2/8th were grouped into
12168-432: The Brave"). His controversial public attitude had nevertheless attracted an official ban on his Academy reports, and also meant that he was ruled out from the national Academy prize (for which distinction he had submitted Documente românești din arhivele Bistriței ). The period also witnessed a chill in the Iorga's relationship with Xenopol. In 1901, shortly after his divorce from Maria, Iorga married Ecaterina (Catinca),
12337-580: The British (wearing red uniforms, poorly trained in marksmanship and unmounted) from the Transvaal . These tactics were continued throughout the Second Boer War . In the final phase of the war, 25,000 Boers carried out asymmetric warfare against the 450,000-strong British Imperial forces for two years after the British had captured the capitals of the two Boer republics. During these conflicts
12506-494: The Council of Ministers, the office was first created in 1862 during the reign of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza . Cuza, unlike other monarchs of his time, was not a hereditary ruler. In 1859 he was elected Prince of Wallachia and Prince of Moldavia in two separate elections, thus de facto uniting the two principalities. By 1862, he had completely fused the two administrations into a single government with its capital at Bucharest ,
12675-551: The Crusades", 2 vols.). Xenopol proposed his pupil for a Romanian Academy membership, to replace the suicidal Odobescu, but his proposition could not gather support. Also in 1899, Nicolae Iorga inaugurated his contribution to the Bucharest-based French-language newspaper L'Indépendance Roumaine , publishing polemical articles on the activity of his various colleagues and, as a consequence, provoking
12844-630: The English-speaking world. In 1910, the year when he toured the Old Kingdom 's conference circuit, Nicolae Iorga again rallied with Cuza to establish the explicitly antisemitic Democratic Nationalist Party . Partly building on the antisemitic component of the 1907 revolts, its doctrines depicted the Jewish-Romanian community and Jews in general as a danger for Romania's development. During its early decades, it used as its symbol
13013-1133: The German Office for Foreign and Counter-Intelligence (OKW Amt Ausland/Abwehr) formed the Brandenburger Regiment (known officially as the 800th Special Purpose Training and Construction Company). The Brandenburgers conducted a mixture of covert and conventional operations but became increasingly involved in ordinary infantry actions and were eventually converted into a Panzer-Grenadier Division, suffering heavy losses in Russia . Otto Skorzeny (most famed for his rescue of Benito Mussolini ) conducted many special operations for Adolf Hitler . Skorzeny commanded Sonderlehrgang z.b.V. Oranienburg , Sonderverband z.b.V. Friedenthal, and SS-Jäger-Bataillon 502 , 500th SS Parachute Battalion , SS-Jagdverband Mitte and all other SS commando units. The German Fallschirmjäger were famous for their elite skills and their use in rapid commando style raids and as elite "fire brigade" infantrymen. Fort Eben-Emael on
13182-551: The German training area in Beuville (near the village of Doncourt ) to be the main cadre of the newly raised Austro-Hungarian army assault battalions. The former Jagdkommandos were incorporated into these battalions. The first country to establish commando troops was Italy, in the summer 1917, shortly before Germany. Italy used specialist trench-raiding teams to break the stalemate of static fighting against Austria-Hungary , in
13351-633: The Great's Resurrection") and Un domn pribeag ("An Outcast Prince"). Additionally, Iorga produced the first of several studies dealing with Balkan geopolitics in the charged context leading up to the Balkan Wars ( România, vecinii săi și chestia Orientală , "Romania, Her Neighbors and the Eastern Question "). He also made a noted contribution to ethnography , with Portul popular românesc (" Romanian Folk Dress "). In 1913, Iorga
13520-533: The Guard inaugurated its own National Legionary dictatorship, but was ultimately assassinated by a Guardist commando . Nicolae Iorga was born in Botoșani into a family of Greek origin. His father, Nicu Iorga, was a practicing lawyer; he ultimately descended from a Greek merchant who had settled in Botoșani in the 18th century five generations before Nicolae Iorga's birth. His mother, Zulnia Iorga ( née Arghiropol),
13689-582: The Hungarian Land"), Negoțul și meșteșugurile în trecutul românesc ("Trade and Crafts of the Romanian Past") etc. In 1907, he began issuing a second periodical, the cultural magazine Floarea Darurilor , and published with Editura Minerva an early installment of his companion to Romanian literature (second volume 1908, third volume 1909). His published scientific contributions for that year include, among others, an English-language study on
13858-558: The Indian MARCOS , Jordanian Special Operation Forces and Philippine National Police Special Action Force . A Dutch study found that a sampling of Dutch male special forces operators were more emotionally stable, conscientious, but also more closed minded than matched civilian controls and other types of soldiers. During the winter of 1914–1915 large parts of the Eastern Front switched to trench warfare. To cope with
14027-584: The Italian marine commandos were re-organised as the " Comsubin " (an abbreviation of Comando Subacqueo Incursori , or Underwater Raiders Command). They wear the green Commando beret. In 1944–45, Japanese Teishin Shudan ("Raiding Group") and Giretsu ("heroic") detachments made airborne assaults on Allied airfields in the Philippines , Marianas and Okinawa . The attacking forces varied in size from
14196-588: The Japanese. In 1940, the British Army formed "independent companies ", later reformed as battalion sized "commandos", thereby reviving the word. The British intended that their commandos be small, highly mobile surprise raiding and military reconnaissance forces. They intended them to carry all they needed and not remain in field operations for more than 36 hours. Army Commandos were all volunteers selected from existing soldiers still in Britain. During
14365-685: The Mediterranean. After Italy surrendered in 1943, some of the Decima Flottiglia MAS were on the Allied side of the battle line and fought with the Allies, renaming themselves the Mariassalto . The others fought on the German side and kept their original name but did not operate at sea after 1943, being mostly employed against Italian partisans ; some of its men were involved in atrocities against civilians. In post-war years
14534-591: The Portuguese term comando , used in India in the sense of a group of troops under an autonomous command that performed special missions during a battle or siege. The word was adopted into Afrikaans from interactions with the Portuguese in their nearby African colonies, in whose language the word comando means "command". In South Africa similar troops operated in small detachments, usually traveling on horseback, and launched rapid attacks against British troops. During
14703-503: The Romanian Military") and Stephen the Great's Orthodox profile ( Ștefan cel Mare și mănăstirea Neamțului , "Stephen the Great and Neamț Monastery "). His academic activity also resulted in a lengthy conflict with art historian Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș , his godfather and former friend, sparked when Iorga, defending his own academic postings, objected to making Art History a separate subject at University. Reinstated into
14872-539: The Romanians"). Before spring 1916, he was commuting between Bucharest and Iași, substituting the ailing Xenopol at Iași University. He also gave a final touch to the collection Studii și documente ("Studies and Documents"), comprising his commentary on 30,000 individual documents and spread over 31 tomes. In late summer 1916, as Brătianu's government sealed an alliance with the Entente , Iorga expressed his joy in
15041-485: The Romanians"). He was also involved in a new project of researching the content of archives throughout Moldavia and Wallachia, and, having reassessed the nationalist politics of Junimist poet Mihai Eminescu , helped collect and publish a companion to Eminescu's work. Also in 1903, Nicolae Iorga became one of the managers of Sămănătorul review. The moment brought Iorga's emancipation from Maiorescu's influence, his break with mainstream Junimism , and his affiliation to
15210-630: The Second World War, both the British and the Germans decided to reuse this term to designate the new special operations troops they had formed (the British designated commandos and the German Kommandos ). Later the term was used by other countries to designate some of their elite forces. Less likely, it is a High German loan word, which was borrowed from Italian in the 17th century, from the sizable minority of German settlers in
15379-708: The Special Air Service ). Other Commonwealth commando units were formed after the Second World War directly based on the British Commando units, such as the Australian Army Reserve 1st Commando Regiment (Australia) , distinct from the Regular Army 2nd Commando Regiment (Australia) , who originated from the 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment in 1997 . The US Rangers were founded by Major General Lucian Truscott of
15548-655: The Statute expanding the Paris Convention ( Romanian : Statutul dezvoltător al Convenției de la Paris ). The new constitution created the Senate for serving Cuza's legislative purposes and vested the office of the Prince with full executive authority, while the prime minister remained his subordinate. Even though Cuza now had plenary powers, the office the prime minister remained influential, and Mihail Kogălniceanu ,
15717-703: The US Army, a liaison officer with the British General Staff. In 1942, he submitted a proposal to General George Marshall that an American unit be set up "along the lines of the British Commandos". The original US Rangers trained at the British Commandos centre at Achnacarry Castle . The US Navy SEALs ' original formation, the Observer Group , was also trained and influenced by British Commandos. The US Special Forces originated with
15886-594: The Vălenii school. In his October 1915 polemic with Vasile Sion , a Germanophile physician, Iorga at once justified suspicion of the German Romanians and praised those Romanians who were deserting the Austrian Army . The Ententists' focus on Transylvania pitted them against the Poporanists, who deplored the Romanians of Bessarabia. That region, the Poporanist lobby argued, was being actively oppressed by
16055-558: The academy and made a full member, he gave his May 1911 reception speech with a philosophy of history subject ( Două concepții istorice , "Two Historical Outlooks") and was introduced on the occasion by Xenopol. In August of that year, he was again in Transylvania, at Blaj , where he paid homage to the Romanian-run ASTRA Cultural Society . He made his first contribution to Romanian drama with
16224-604: The academy to demand the termination of his membership for undignified behavior. Tocilescu felt insulted by the allegations, challenged Iorga to a duel, but his friends intervened to mediate. Another scientist who encountered Iorga's wrath was George Ionescu-Gion , against whom Iorga enlisted negative arguments that, as he later admitted, were exaggerated. Among Iorga's main defenders were academics Dimitrie Onciul , N. Petrașcu , and, outside Romania, Gustav Weigand . The young polemicist persevered in supporting this anti-establishment cause, moving on from L'Indépendance Roumaine to
16393-589: The attempt rekindled the feud between him and Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș , who had served in the German-appointed administration. The two scholars later took their battle to court and, until Iorga's death, presented mutually exclusive takes on recent political history. Although very much opposed to the imprisoned Germanophile poet Tudor Arghezi , Iorga intervened on his behalf with Ferdinand. Prime Minister of Romania The prime minister of Romania ( Romanian : Prim-ministrul României ), officially
16562-585: The awarding of green berets which originated with British Commandos . The British Commandos were instrumental in founding many other international commando units during World War II. Some international commando units were formed from members who served as part of or alongside British Commandos, such as the Dutch Korps Commandotroepen (who still wear the recognition flash insignia of the British Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife ),
16731-588: The cabinet membership are debated by the Parliament in a joint session of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The proposal is accepted only if a majority of all deputies and senators approves. Once the vote of confidence is obtained, the candidate becomes the prime minister and all cabinet members become ministers. The prime minister, the ministers, and other members of the Government take an oath before
16900-707: The capital city of Bucharest . He changed residence several times, until eventually settling in Grădina Icoanei area. He agreed to compete in a sort of debating society, with lectures which only saw print in 1944. He applied for the Medieval History Chair at the University of Bucharest , submitting a dissertation in front of an examination commission comprising historians and philosophers (Caragiani, Odobescu, Xenopol, alongside Aron Densușianu , Constantin Leonardescu and Petre Râșcanu ), but totaled
17069-704: The command of Col. Christodoulos Tsigantes . It fought alongside the SAS in the Libyan Desert and with the SBS in the Aegean , as well as with General Leclerc 's Free French Forces in Tunisia . It was disbanded in August 1945. Italy's most renowned commando unit of World War II was Decima Flottiglia MAS ("10th Assault Vehicle Flotilla"), which, from mid-1940, sank or damaged a considerable tonnage of Allied ships in
17238-479: The country a political government, Cuza created the office of prime minister and brought into power the leader of the Conservative faction, Barbu Catargiu . During the first years after its creation the office held considerable authority, being able to challenge the will of the Prince and together with a Legislative Assembly composed mainly of conservatives and reactionaries, Catargiu's conservative government
17407-444: The creation of Greater Romania, Iorga was focusing his public activity on exposing collaborators of the wartime occupiers. The subject was central to a 1919 speech he held in front of the academy, where he obtained the public condemnation of actively Germanophile academicians, having earlier vetoed the membership of Poporanist Constantin Stere . He failed at enlisting support for the purge of Germanophile professors from University, but
17576-605: The death of almost all those involved. However, Z Force and other SRD units continued operations until the war's end. A joint Canadian -American Commando unit, the 1st Special Service Force, nicknamed the Devil's Brigade , was formed in 1942 under the command of Colonel Robert Frederick. The unit initially saw service in the Pacific, in August 1943 at Kiska in the Aleutians campaign . However most of its operations occurred during
17745-471: The division, reconnaissance company in the brigade, a reconnaissance platoon in the regiment. Soviet Naval Frogmen The legendary Soviet Naval Scout Viktor Leonov commanded an elite unit of Naval Commandos. The 4th Special Volunteer Detachment was a unit of 70 veterans. Initially they were confined to performing small scale reconnaissance missions, platoon sized insertions by sea and on occasion on land into Finland and later Norway. Later they were renamed
17914-467: The early stages of World War II. They first saw action in early 1942 during the Japanese assault on New Ireland , and in the Battle of Timor . Part of the 2/1st Independent Company was wiped out on New Ireland , but on Timor , the 2/2nd Independent Company formed the heart of an Allied force that engaged Japanese forces in a guerrilla campaign. The Japanese commander on the island drew parallels with
18083-584: The effectiveness and tactics of the Boer commandos. During World War II, American and British publications, confused over the use of the plural "commandos" for that type of British military units, gave rise to the modern common habit of using "a commando" to mean one member of such a unit, or one man engaged on a raiding-type operation. Since the 20th century and World War II in particular, commandos have been set apart from other military units by virtue of their extreme training regimes; these are usually associated with
18252-565: The essay Gânduri și sfaturi ale unui om ca oricare altul ("Thoughts and Advices from a Man Just like Any Other"). He also paid a visit to the Romanians of Bukovina region, in Austrian territory, as well as to those of Bessarabia, who were subjects of the Russian Empire , and wrote about their cultural struggles in his 1905 accounts Neamul romănesc în Bucovina ("The Romanian People of Bukovina"), Neamul romănesc în Basarabia ("...of Bessarabia"). These referred to Tsarist autocracy as
18421-501: The first section of his extended historical records' collection Acte și fragmente cu privire la istoria românilor ("Acts and Excerpts Regarding the History of Romanians"), his Romanian Atheneum conference on Michael the Brave's rivalry with condottiero Giorgio Basta , and his debut in travel literature ( Amintiri din Italia , "Recollections from Italy"). The next year came Iorga's official appointment as curator and publisher of
18590-563: The first time but displayed convictions which he later strongly disavowed; a self-described Marxist , Iorga promoted the left-wing magazine Viața Socială and lectured on Das Kapital . Seeing himself confined in the National College's "ugly and disgusting" boarding school, he defied its rules and was suspended a second time, losing scholarship privileges. Before readmission, he decided not to fall back on his family's financial support and instead returned to tutoring others. Iorga
18759-463: The four-year engagement of his scholarship still applicable, Nicolae Iorga decided to spend his remaining time abroad, researching more city archives in Germany (Munich), Austria (Innsbruck) and Italy (Florence, Milan, Naples, Rome, Venice etc.) In this instance, his primordial focus was on historical figures from his Romanian homeland, the defunct Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia :
18928-536: The gazette. An emergency ordinance cannot modify a constitutional law, concern the functioning of the fundamental institutions, rights, or liberties. Unlike in the president-parliamentary semi-presidential systems , such as Russia , the Romanian prime minister is not a subordinate of the president , as he cannot outright dismiss the prime minister. The president can attend the government meetings debating upon matters of national interest with regard to foreign policy, country's defense, maintenance of public order, and, at
19097-417: The government, the prime minister is charged with directing the internal policy of the country and leads the public administration. In this regard, the government cooperates with other interested social actors. As with any other office of public authority, the office of prime minister is incompatible with any other office, except that of deputy or senator and is also incompatible with a professional position in
19266-657: The historical sources, at archives in Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden. Between 1890 and the end of 1893, he had published three works: his debut in poetry ( Poezii , "Poems"), the first volume of Schițe din literatura română ("Sketches on Romanian Literature", 1893; second volume 1894), and his Leipzig thesis, printed in Paris as Thomas III, marquis �de Saluces. Étude historique et littéraire ("Thomas, Margrave of Saluzzo. Historical and Literary Study"). Living in poor conditions (as reported by visiting scholar Teohari Antonescu ),
19435-658: The hostile foreigner." He did however allow some of his notebooks to be stored in Moscow, along with the Romanian Treasure , and sheltered his own family in Odessa. Iorga, who reissued Neamul Românesc in Iași, resumed his activity at Iași University and began working on the war propaganda daily România , while contributing to R.W. Seton-Watson's international sheet The New Europe . His contribution for that year included
19604-458: The initial European colonization of South Africa. The Oxford English Dictionary ties the English use of the word meaning "[a] member of a body of picked men ..." directly into its Afrikaans' origins: 1943 Combined Operations ( Min. of Information ) i. Lt. Lieutenant-Colonel D. W. Clarke... produced the outline of a scheme.... The men for this type of irregular warfare should, he suggested, be formed into units to be known as Commandos.... Nor
19773-426: The interwar existence of Greater Romania . Initiator of large-scale campaigns to defend Romanian culture in front of perceived threats, Iorga sparked most controversy with his antisemitic rhetoric, and was for long an associate of the far-right ideologue A. C. Cuza . He was an adversary of the dominant National Liberals , later involved with the opposition Romanian National Party . Later in his life, Iorga opposed
19942-534: The introductory volumes for his German-language companion to Ottoman history ( Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches , "History of the Ottoman Empire"), a study on Romanian Orthodox institutions ( Istoria bisericii românești , "The History of the Romanian Church"), and an anthology on Romanian Romanticism . He followed up in 1909 with a volume of parliamentary speeches, În era reformelor ("In
20111-455: The invitation of the prime minister, in other instances as well. The president will always chair the government meetings he attends. In addition to his constitutional roles, the prime minister is, generally, the leader of the major party in the majority coalition that supports the government, although this is not always the case. The Government and the other bodies of administration must submit all information, reports or documents requested by
20280-533: The large pro-Entente rallies in Bucharest. A prudent anti-Austrian, Iorga adopted the interventionist agenda with noted delay. His hesitation was ridiculed by hawkish Eugen Lovinescu as pro-Transylvanian but anti-war , costing Iorga his office in the Cultural League. The historian later confessed that, like Premier Ion I. C. Brătianu and the National Liberal cabinet, he had been waiting for
20449-499: The local press and deemed a "wonder of a man" by his teacher A. D. Xenopol , Iorga was honored by the faculty with a special banquet. Three academics (Xenopol, Nicolae Culianu , Ioan Caragiani ) formally brought Iorga to the attention of the Education Ministry, proposing him for the state-sponsored program which allowed academic achievers to study abroad. The interval witnessed Iorga's brief affiliation with Junimea ,
20618-489: The moment they are published in the Monitorul Oficial , the official gazette of the Romanian state. Such ordinances must be sent to the appropriate chamber of Parliament where they are discussed in an urgent manner and they are then sent to the official gazette. In case the noticed chamber does not discuss or approve said ordinance after 30 days of its arrival, the ordinance is officially adopted and published in
20787-431: The monarch's death as Istoria lui Ștefan cel Mare ("The History of Stephen the Great"). Iorga later confessed that the book was an integral part of his and Haret's didacticist agenda, supposed to be "spread to the very bottom of the country in thousands of copies". During those months, Iorga also helped discover novelist Mihail Sadoveanu , who was for a while the leading figure of Sămănătorist literature. In 1905,
20956-434: The new country bearing the name Romania, but the union was in danger of being dissolved after the end of his rule. A liberal, in favour of the two great reform projects envisioned by the liberals of the time (the electoral and agrarian reforms), Cuza did not publicly espouse his political preferences or position himself as the leader of a faction, preferring to keep the office of the Prince politically neutral. In order to give
21125-602: The new situation many Austro-Hungarian regiments spontaneously formed infantry squads called Jagdkommandos . These squads were named after the specially trained forces of Russian army formed in 1886 and were used to protect against ambushes, to perform reconnaissance and for low intensity fights in no-man's-land. Austro-Hungarian High army command ( Armeeoberkommando , AOK) realized the need for special forces and decided to draw on German experience. Starting in September–October 1916 about 120 officers and 300 NCOs were trained in
21294-496: The newly established publication România Jună , interrupting himself for trips to Italy, the Netherlands and Galicia-Lodomeria . In 1900, he collected the scattered polemical articles into the French-language books Opinions sincères. La vie intellectuelle des roumains en 1899 ("Honest Opinions. The Romanians' Intellectual Life in 1899") and Opinions pérnicieuses d'un mauvais patriote ("The Pernicious Opinions of
21463-408: The office of prime minister. The president must consult with the party that has the majority in the Parliament or, if no such majority exists, with the parties represented in Parliament. Once designated, the candidate assembles a proposal for the governing program and the cabinet. The proposal must be approved by the Parliament within ten days, through a motion of no confidence . Both the program and
21632-426: The play centered on, and named after, Michael the Brave ( Mihai Viteazul ), one of around twenty new titles for that year—alongside his collected aphorisms ( Cugetări , "Musings") and a memoir of his life in culture ( Oameni cari au fost , "People Who Are Gone"). In 1912, he published, among other works, Trei drame ("Three Dramatic Plays"), grouping Mihai Viteazul, Învierea lui Ștefan cel Mare ("Stephen
21801-443: The plural led to readers thinking that the singular meant one man rather than one military unit, and this new usage became established. Due to the special mental and physiological requirements made of the applicants, there are restrictions entering "commando" units. Applicants have to fulfil special requirements. Selecting applicants with the highest motivation, modern special forces run special selection processes. Historically there
21970-475: The president, as stipulated under Article 82 of the Constitution. The Government as a whole and each of its members exercise their mandate from the date of the oath. The prime minister directs the actions of the government and co-ordinates the activities of its members. The prime minister submits to the Chamber of Deputies or the Senate reports and statements on Government policy, to be debated. As head of
22139-594: The prime minister is the Victoria Palace. Initially designed to be headquarters of the Foreign Ministry, Victoria Palace was the headquarters of Foreign Ministry and Council of Ministers during the Communist period and became, in 1990, headquarters of the first government of post-communist Romania . The palace was declared a historical monument in 2004. Commando Originally "a commando"
22308-412: The prime minister served at the pleasure of the Prince, the latter being able to appoint and dismiss the former at any time and for any reason. Nevertheless, the prime minister still held considerable influence. After World War I led to the creation of Greater Romania another constitution was drafted in 1923 to reflect the changes the Romanian state had undergone since the Treaty of Versailles and
22477-561: The printed rendition of the de Mézières study ( Philippe de Mézières, 1337–1405 ). Following an October 1895 reexamination, he was granted full professorship with a 9.19 average. 1895 was also the year when Iorga began his collaboration with the Iași-based academic and political agitator A. C. Cuza, making his earliest steps in antisemitic politics, founding with him a group known as the Universal ()and Romanian Antisemitic Alliance. In 1897,
22646-406: The radically fascist Iron Guard , and, after much oscillation, came to endorse its rival King Carol II . Involved in a personal dispute with the Guard's leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , and indirectly contributing to his killing, Iorga was also a prominent figure in Carol's corporatist and authoritarian party, the National Renaissance Front . He remained an independent voice of opposition after
22815-417: The region. However, following a massive counterattack on multiple fronts by the Central Powers, the campaign ended in massive defeat, forcing the Romanian Army and the entire administration to evacuate the southern areas, Bucharest included, in front of a German-led invasion. Iorga's home in Vălenii de Munte was among the property items left behind and seized by the occupiers, and, according to Iorga's own claim,
22984-430: The results as reports for the academy, Iorga was in Transylvania , the largely Romanian-inhabited subregion of Austria-Hungary. Concentrating his efforts on the city archives of Bistrița , Brașov and Sibiu , he made a major breakthrough by establishing that Stolnic Cantacuzino , a 17th-century man of letters and political intriguer, was the real author of an unsigned Wallachian chronicle that had for long been used as
23153-523: The right-facing swastika (卐), promoted by Cuza as the symbol of worldwide antisemitism and, later, of the " Aryans ". Also known as PND, this was Romania's first political group to represent the petty bourgeoisie , using its votes to challenge the tri-decennial two-party system . Also in 1910, Iorga published some thirty new works, covering gender history ( Viața femeilor în trecutul românesc , "The Early Life of Romanian Women"), Romanian military history ( Istoria armatei românești , "The History of
23322-703: The scholarship early in the year, he made his first study trips to Italy (April and June 1890), and subsequently left for a longer stay in France, enlisting at the École pratique des hautes études . He was a contributor for the Encyclopédie française , personally recommended there by Slavist Louis Léger . Reflecting back on this time, he stated: "I never had as much time at my disposal, as much freedom of spirit, as much joy of learning from those great figures of mankind ... than back then, in that summer of 1890". While preparing for his second diploma, Iorga also pursued his interest in philology, learning English, German, and rudiments of other Germanic languages. In 1892, he
23491-587: The sister of his friend and colleague Ioan Bogdan . Her other brother was cultural historian Gheorghe Bogdan-Duică , whose son, painter Catul Bogdan , Iorga would help achieve recognition. Soon after their wedding, the couple were in Venice, where Iorga received Karl Gotthard Lamprecht's offer to write a history of the Romanians to be featured as a section in a collective treatise of world history. Iorga, who had convinced Lamprecht not to assign this task to Xenopol, also completed Istoria literaturii române în secolul al XVIII-lea ("The History of Romanian Literature in
23660-406: The terms laid down in the statutes of Parliament. After such interpellations, the Chamber or the Senate can adopt a simple motion to express their position towards an issue of internal or external politics. Parliament can dismiss an outgoing prime minister and his cabinet by adopting a motion of no confidence against the government. In order for a motion to be initiated, it must be signed by at least
23829-423: The third prime minister, a liberal and former ally of Cuza often clashed with him. After Cuza's removal by coup d'état in 1866 by a coalition formed by both members of the liberal and conservative factions, the political forces of the time settled on two objectives: bringing a foreign prince from a European noble family on the country's throne and drafting a liberal constitution. The 1866 Constitution confirmed that
23998-684: The traditionalist, ethno-nationalist and neoromantic current encouraged by the magazine. The Sămănătorist school was by then also grouping other former or active Junimists , and Maiorescu's progressive withdrawal from literary life also created a bridge with Convorbiri Literare : its new editor, Simion Mehedinți , was himself a theorist of traditionalism. A circle of Junimists more sympathetic to Maiorescu's version of conservatism reacted against this realignment by founding its own venue, Convorbiri Critice , edited by Mihail Dragomirescu . In tandem with his full return to cultural and political journalism, which included prolonged debates with both
24167-461: The turbulent years after the war and (the Fascist Party took pride in this and adopted the style and the mannerism of Arditi), but some of left-wing political persuasions created the " Arditi del Popolo " (People's Arditi) and for some years held the fascist raids in check, defending Socialist and Communist Party sections, buildings, rallies and meeting places. The Australian Army formed commando units, known as Australian independent companies in
24336-491: The urban centers, at a villa in Vălenii de Munte town (nestled in the remote hilly area of Prahova County ). Although branded an agitator by Sturdza, he received support in this venture from Education Minister Haret. Once settled, Iorga set up a specialized summer school, his own publishing house, a printing press and the literary supplement of Neamul Românesc , as well as an asylum managed by writer Constanța Marino-Moscu . He published some 25 new works for that year, such as
24505-484: The wake of the Transylvanian Memorandum affair, supported ethnic nationalism while objecting to the intermediary Cisleithanian ( Hungarian Crown ) rule and the threat of Magyarization . Interested in recovering the Romanian contributions to Transylvanian history , in particular Michael the Brave's precursory role in Romanian unionism, Iorga spent his time reviewing, copying and translating Hungarian-language historical texts with much assistance from his wife. During
24674-403: The war effort came with an endorsement of land reform projects . Brătianu did not object to the idea, being however concerned that landowners would rebel. Iorga purportedly gave him a sarcastic reply: "just like you've been shooting the peasants to benefit the landowners, you'll then be shooting the landowners to benefit the peasants." In May 1918, Romania yielded to German demands and negotiated
24843-419: The word entered the English language , retaining its general Afrikaans meaning of a "militia unit" or a "raid". Robert Baden-Powell recognised the importance of fieldcraft and was inspired to form the scouting movement. In 1941, Lieutenant-Colonel D. W. Clarke of the British Imperial General Staff, suggested the name commando for specialized raiding units of the British Army Special Service in evocation of
25012-403: The year when he received a Romanian Bene Merenti distinction, and inaugurated the international Institute of South-East European Studies or ISSEE (founded through his efforts), with a lecture on Albanian history . Again invited to Italy, he spoke at the Ateneo Veneto on the relations between the Republic of Venice and the Balkans, and again about Settecento culture. His attention
25181-500: The year when he was elected a corresponding member of the academy, Iorga traveled back to Italy and spent time researching more documents in the Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia , at Dubrovnik . He also oversaw the publication of the 10th Hurmuzachi volume, grouping diplomatic reports authored by Kingdom of Prussia diplomats in the two Danubian Principalities (covering the interval between 1703 and 1844). After spending most of 1898 on researching various subjects and presenting
25350-502: The year when historian Onisifor Ghibu became his close friend and disciple, he followed up with over 23 individual titles, among them the two German-language volumes of Geschichte des Rümanischen Volkes im Rahmen seiner Staatsbildungen ("A History of the Romanian People within the Context of Its National Formation"), Istoria românilor în chipuri și icoane ("The History of the Romanians in Faces and Icons"), Sate și mănăstiri din România ("Villages and Monasteries of Romania") and
25519-401: Was a xenophobe also drew condemnation from more moderate traditionalist circles, in particular the Viața Literară weekly. Its panelists, Ilarie Chendi and young Eugen Lovinescu , ridiculed Iorga's claim of superiority; Chendi in particular criticized the rejection of writers based on their ethnic origin and not their ultimate merit (while alleging, to Iorga's annoyance, that Iorga himself
25688-400: Was a Greek). Iorga eventually parted with Sămănătorul in late 1906, moving on to set up his own tribune, Neamul Românesc . The schism was allegedly a direct result of his conflicts with other literary venues, and inaugurated a brief collaboration between Iorga and Făt Frumos journalist Emil Gârleanu . The newer magazine, illustrated with idealized portraits of the Romanian peasant,
25857-425: Was a type of combat unit, as opposed to an individual in that unit. In other languages, commando and kommando denote a " command ", including the sense of a military or an elite special operations unit. In the militaries and governments of most countries, commandos are distinctive in that they specialize in unconventional assault on high-value targets . In English, to distinguish between an individual commando and
26026-426: Was a woman of Phanariote Greek descent. Iorga claimed direct descent from the noble Mavrocordatos and Argyros families. He credited the five-generation- boyar status received from his father's side (e.g. the Miclescu and Catargi families) and the "old boyar " roots of his mother (e.g. the Mavrocordatos family) with having turned him into a politician. His parallel claim of being related to noble families such as
26195-419: Was able to delay the adoption of several reforms. Frustrated by the government's opposition to reforms, and unable to work with an Assembly dominated by reactionary forces due to the censitary nature of the electoral system, Cuza launched a coup d'etat , followed by a constitutional referendum that replaced the Convention of Paris, an act that served as the constitution of the country, with his own version named
26364-655: Was called the Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces of Kure 101st, Sasebo 101st and 102nd. New Zealand formed the Southern Independent Commando in Fiji 1942. Cichociemni ( Polish pronunciation: [t͡ɕixɔˈt͡ɕɛmɲi] ; the "Silent Unseen") were elite special-operations paratroopers of the Polish Army in exile , created in Great Britain during World War II to operate in occupied Poland ( Cichociemni Spadochroniarze Armii Krajowej ). Voyennaya Razvyedka (Razvedchiki Scouts) are "Military intelligence" personnel/units within larger formations in ground troops, airborne troops and marines. Intelligence battalion in
26533-445: Was called the "Commando System". A group of mounted militiamen was organized in a unit known as a commando and headed by a commandant , who was normally elected from inside the unit. Men called up to serve were said to be "on commando". British experience with this system led to the widespread adoption of the word " commandeer " into English in the 1880s. During the Great Trek , conflicts with Southern African peoples such as
26702-491: Was enlisted at the Marchian Folescu School, where he discovered a love for intellectual pursuits and took pride in excelling in most academic areas. At age nine, he was allowed by his teachers to lecture his schoolmates on Romanian history. His history teacher, a refugee Pole , sparked his interest in research and his lifelong polonophilia . Iorga also credited this period with having shaped his lifelong views on Romanian language and local culture: "I learned Romanian ... as it
26871-439: Was focused on the Albanians and Arbëreshë —Iorga soon discovered the oldest record of written Albanian , the 1462 Formula e pagëzimit . In 1916, he founded the Bucharest-based academic journal Revista Istorică ("The Historical Review"), a Romanian equivalent for Historische Zeitschrift and The English Historical Review . Nicolae Iorga's involvement in political disputes and the cause of Romanian irredentism became
27040-487: Was in England and in Italy, researching historical sources for his French-language thesis on Philippe de Mézières , a Frenchman in the Crusade of 1365 . In tandem, he became a contributor to Revue Historique , a leading French academic journal. Somewhat dissatisfied with French education, Iorga presented his dissertation and, in 1893, left for the German Empire , attempting to enlist in the University of Berlin 's PhD program. His working paper, on Thomas III of Saluzzo ,
27209-418: Was in London for an International Congress of History, presenting a proposal for a new approach to medievalism and a paper discussing the sociocultural effects of the fall of Constantinople on Moldavia and Wallachia. He was later in the Kingdom of Serbia , invited by the Belgrade Academy and presenting dissertations on Romania–Serbia relations and the Ottoman decline . Iorga was even called under arms in
27378-413: Was not received, because Iorga had not spent three years in training, as required. As an alternative, he gave formal pledge that the paper in question was entirely his own work, but his statement was invalidated by technicality: Iorga's work had been redacted by a more proficient speaker of German, whose intervention did not touch the substance of Iorga's research. The ensuing controversy led him to apply for
27547-408: Was officially changed to Prime Minister by the 1965 Constitution of Romania during the communist regime . The current prime minister is Marcel Ciolacu of the Social Democratic Party (PSD), who has been serving since 15 June 2023 onwards as the head of government of the National Coalition for Romania (CNR). One of the roles of the president of the republic is to designate a candidate for
27716-536: Was participant in a seminal event of the union with Transylvania , as one of several thousand Romanians who gathered in the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia to demand union on the basis of self-determination . Despite these successes, Iorga was reportedly snubbed by King Ferdinand, and only left to rely on Brătianu for support. Although he was not invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference , he supported Queen Marie in her role of informal negotiator for Romania, and cemented his friendship with her. Shortly after
27885-499: Was spoken back in the day: plainly, beautifully and above all resolutely and colorfully, without the intrusions of newspapers and best-selling books". He credited the 19th-century polymath Mihail Kogălniceanu , whose works he first read as a child, with having shaped this literary preference. Iorga enrolled in Botoșani's A. T. Laurian gymnasium in 1881, receiving top honors. In 1883, Iorga began tutoring some of his colleagues to supplement his family's main revenue (according to Iorga,
28054-425: Was suspended a third time for reading during a teacher's lesson but graduated in the top "first prize" category (with a 9.24 average) and subsequently took his Baccalaureate with honors. In 1888, Nicolae Iorga passed his entry examination for the University of Iași Faculty of Letters, becoming eligible for a scholarship soon after. Upon the completion of his second term, he also received a special dispensation from
28223-422: Was the historical parallel far-fetched. After the victories of Roberts and Kitchener had scattered the Boer army, the guerrilla tactics of its individual units (which were styled 'Commandos')... prevented decisive victory.... His [sc. Lt.-Col. D. W. Clarke's] ideas were accepted; so also, with some hesitation, was the name Commando. During World War II , newspaper reports of the deeds of "the commandos" only in
28392-473: Was vandalized by the Deutsches Heer . Still a member of Parliament, Iorga joined the authorities in the provisional capital of Iași, but opposed the plans of relocating government out of besieged Moldavia and into the Russian Republic . The argument was made in one of his parliamentary speeches, printed as a pamphlet and circulated among the military: "May the dogs of this world feast on us sooner than to find our happiness, tranquility and prosperity granted by
28561-486: Was widely popular with Romania's rural intelligentsia (among which it was freely distributed), promoting antisemitic theories and raising opprobrium from the authorities and the urban-oriented press. Also in 1906, Iorga traveled into the Ottoman Empire , visiting Istanbul , and published another set of volumes— Contribuții la istoria literară ("Contributions to Literary History"), Neamul românesc în Ardeal și Țara Ungurească ("The Romanian Nation in Transylvania and
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