Pathology is the study of disease . The word pathology also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when used in the context of modern medical treatment, the term is often used in a narrower fashion to refer to processes and tests that fall within the contemporary medical field of "general pathology", an area that includes a number of distinct but inter-related medical specialties that diagnose disease, mostly through analysis of tissue and human cell samples. Idiomatically, "a pathology" may also refer to the predicted or actual progression of particular diseases (as in the statement "the many different forms of cancer have diverse pathologies", in which case a more proper choice of word would be " pathophysiologies "). The suffix pathy is sometimes used to indicate a state of disease in cases of both physical ailment (as in cardiomyopathy ) and psychological conditions (such as psychopathy ). A physician practicing pathology is called a pathologist .
174-409: Murad Jacob " Jack " Kevorkian (May 26, 1928 – June 3, 2011) was an American pathologist and euthanasia proponent. He publicly championed a terminal patient's right to die by physician-assisted suicide , embodied in his quote, "Dying is not a crime". Kevorkian said that he assisted at least 130 patients to that end. He was convicted of murder in 1999 and was often portrayed in the media with
348-457: A mistrial . The trials helped Kevorkian gain public support for his cause. After Oakland County prosecutor Richard Thompson lost a primary election to a Republican challenger, Thompson attributed the loss in part to the declining public support for the prosecution of Kevorkian and its associated legal expenses. In the November 22, 1998, broadcast of CBS News ' 60 Minutes , Kevorkian allowed
522-729: A 2010 interview with Sanjay Gupta , Kevorkian stated an objection to the status of assisted suicide in Oregon , Washington , and Montana . At that time, only in those three states was assisted suicide legal in the United States, and then only for terminally ill patients. To Gupta, Kevorkian stated, "What difference does it make if someone is terminal? We are all terminal." In his view, a patient had to be suffering but did not have to be terminally ill to be assisted in committing suicide. However, he also said in that same interview that he declined four out of every five assisted suicide requests, on
696-457: A French physician and professor of medicine, and Michael Boudewijns (1601–1681), a physician and teacher. Other voices argued for euthanasia, such as John Donne in 1624, and euthanasia continued to be practised. In 1678, the publication of Caspar Questel's De pulvinari morientibus non-subtrahend , (" On the pillow of which the dying should not be deprived "), initiated debate on the topic. Questel described various customs which were employed at
870-408: A biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by medical imaging . With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD)
1044-504: A civilized and a nonviolent way of resolving our conflicts that weighs the law and adheres to the law. We have the means and the methods to protest the laws with which we disagree. You can criticize the law, you can write or lecture about the law, you can speak to the media or petition the voters. Kevorkian was sent to a prison in Coldwater, Michigan , to serve his sentence. After his conviction (and subsequent losses on appeal), Kevorkian
1218-401: A climate of anti-Catholic sentiment generally, regarding issues such as birth control, eugenics, and population control. However, the petition did not result in any legal changes. Historically, the euthanasia debate has tended to focus on a number of key concerns. According to euthanasia opponent Ezekiel Emanuel , proponents of euthanasia have presented four main arguments: a) that people have
1392-446: A combination known as general pathology. Cytopathology (sometimes referred to as "cytology") is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. It is usually used to aid in the diagnosis of cancer, but also helps in the diagnosis of certain infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions as well as thyroid lesions, diseases involving sterile body cavities (peritoneal, pleural, and cerebrospinal), and
1566-649: A complete medical record for his patients, with at least three autopsies of suicides Kevorkian had assisted with showing the person who committed suicide to have no physical sign of disease. Rebecca Badger, a patient of Kevorkian's and a mentally troubled drug abuser, had been mistakenly diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. The report also stated that Janet Adkins, Kevorkian's first euthanasia patient, had been chosen without Kevorkian ever speaking to her, only with her husband, and that when Kevorkian first met Adkins two days before her assisted suicide he "made no real effort to discover whether Ms. Adkins wished to end her life," as
1740-438: A conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. In some cases, additional specialized testing needs to be performed on biopsies, including immunofluorescence , immunohistochemistry , electron microscopy , flow cytometry , and molecular-pathologic analysis. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope. More than 1500 different disorders of
1914-513: A crucial part of arguments for euthanasia, because it must be in the best interests of the person on the receiving end." Definitions such as those offered by the House of Lords Select committee on Medical Ethics take this path, where euthanasia is defined as "a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering." Beauchamp and Davidson also highlight Baruch Brody 's "an act of euthanasia
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#17327832569942088-541: A desire to artificially hasten their death. In addition, it allowed for infants to be euthanised if they were sufficiently deformed, and permitted guardians to request euthanasia on behalf of their wards. The proposed legislation also imposed penalties on physicians who refused to perform euthanasia when requested: a 6–12-month prison term and a fine of between $ 200 and $ 1,000. The proposal proved to be controversial. It engendered considerable debate and failed to pass, having been withdrawn from consideration after being passed to
2262-652: A discussion of euthanasia presented in 2003 by the European Association of Palliative Care (EPAC) Ethics Task Force, the authors offered: "Medicalized killing of a person without the person's consent, whether nonvoluntary (where the person is unable to consent) or involuntary (against the person's will), is not euthanasia: it is murder. Hence, euthanasia can be voluntary only." Although the EPAC Ethics Task Force argued that both non-voluntary and involuntary euthanasia could not be included in
2436-493: A fatal dose of morphine and cocaine to hasten his death. At the time he was suffering from cardio-respiratory failure, and the decision to end his life was made by his physician, Lord Dawson . Although this event was kept a secret for over 50 years, the death of George V coincided with proposed legislation in the House of Lords to legalise euthanasia. A 24 July 1939 killing of a severely disabled infant in Nazi Germany
2610-525: A fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin , although frozen section fixing is also common. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and
2784-549: A formal area of specialty was not fully developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the advent of detailed study of microbiology . In the 19th century, physicians had begun to understand that disease-causing pathogens, or "germs" (a catch-all for disease-causing, or pathogenic, microbes, such as bacteria , viruses , fungi , amoebae , molds , protists , and prions ) existed and were capable of reproduction and multiplication, replacing earlier beliefs in humors or even spiritual agents, that had dominated for much of
2958-471: A general examination or an autopsy ). Anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being surgical pathology , cytopathology , and forensic pathology . Anatomical pathology is one of two main divisions of the medical practice of pathology, the other being clinical pathology, the diagnosis of disease through the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids and tissues. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology,
3132-525: A genuine euthanasia. He explains that the Nazi version of "euthanasia" was based on the work of Adolf Jost , who published The Right to Death (Das Recht auf den Tod) in 1895. Lifton writes: Jost argued that control over the death of the individual must ultimately belong to the social organism, the state. This concept is in direct opposition to the Anglo-American concept of euthanasia, which emphasizes
3306-531: A medical historian at the University of Michigan , said that Kevorkian "was a major historical figure in modern medicine". The Catholic Church in Detroit said Kevorkian left behind a "deadly legacy" that denied scores of people their right to "dignified, natural" deaths. Philip Nitschke , founder and director of right-to-die organization Exit International , said that Kevorkian "moved the debate forward in ways
3480-519: A number of objections to the Christian doctrine of the sanctity of human life". The rise of the euthanasia movement in the United States coincided with the so-called Gilded Age , a time of social and technological change that encompassed an "individualistic conservatism that praised laissez-faire economics, scientific method , and rationalism ", along with major depressions , industrialisation and conflict between corporations and labour unions. It
3654-437: A number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures . Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology , the study of an organism's immune response to infection,
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#17327832569943828-480: A pathologist generally requires specialty -training after medical school , but individual nations vary some in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians ( D.O. or M.D. ) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency . Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by
4002-399: A patient's death, so long as the person is of lawful age and sound mind, and was suffering from a fatal injury, an irrevocable illness, or great physical pain. It also required that the case be heard by a physician, required informed consent in front of three witnesses, and required the attendance of three physicians who had to agree that the patient's recovery was impossible. A motion to reject
4176-405: A person gives informed consent : voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary. There is a debate within the medical and bioethics literature about whether or not the non-voluntary (and by extension, involuntary) killing of patients can be regarded as euthanasia, irrespective of intent or the patient's circumstances. In the definitions offered by Beauchamp and Davidson and, later, by Wreen, consent on
4350-546: A physician consultant for "death counseling". His first public assisted suicide, of Janet Adkins, a 54-year-old woman diagnosed in 1989 with Alzheimer's disease , took place in 1990. Charges of murder were dropped on December 13, 1990, as there were, at that time, no laws in Michigan regarding assisted suicide. In 1991, however, the State of Michigan revoked Kevorkian's medical license and made it clear that, given his actions, he
4524-400: A relief from suffering". Counterexamples can be given: such definitions may encompass killing a person suffering from an incurable disease for personal gain (such as to claim an inheritance), and commentators such as Tom Beauchamp and Arnold Davidson have argued that doing so would constitute "murder simpliciter" rather than euthanasia. The third element incorporated into many definitions
4698-505: A report by the Detroit Free Press , 60% of the patients who died with Kevorkian's help were not terminally ill, and at least 13 had not complained of pain. The report further asserted that Kevorkian's counseling was too brief (with at least 19 patients dying less than 24 hours after first meeting Kevorkian) and lacked a psychiatric exam in at least 19 cases, 5 of which involved people with histories of depression, though Kevorkian
4872-541: A right to self-determination , and thus should be allowed to choose their own fate; b) assisting a subject to die might be a better choice than requiring that they continue to suffer; c) the distinction between passive euthanasia, which is often permitted, and active euthanasia, which is not substantive (or that the underlying principle–the doctrine of double effect –is unreasonable or unsound); and d) permitting euthanasia will not necessarily lead to unacceptable consequences. Pro-euthanasia activists often point to countries like
5046-437: A secret Nazi decree that led to 'mercy killings' of almost 300,000 mentally and physically handicapped people". While Kretchmar's killing received parental consent, most of the 5,000 to 8,000 children killed afterwards were forcibly taken from their parents. The "euthanasia campaign" of mass murder gathered momentum on 14 January 1940 when the "handicapped" were killed with gas vans and at killing centres, eventually leading to
5220-416: A significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer , the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection , and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses . In a similar fashion,
5394-425: A suspicious lesion , whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining
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5568-459: A vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice , varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding
5742-459: A wide range of other body sites. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments (in contrast to histopathology, which studies whole tissues) and cytopathologic tests are sometimes called smear tests because the samples may be smeared across a glass microscope slide for subsequent staining and microscopic examination. However, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation . Dermatopathology
5916-418: A wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi , oomycetes , bacteria , viruses , viroids , virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas , protozoa , nematodes and parasitic plants . Damage caused by insects , mites , vertebrate , and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with
6090-465: Is Raised" as the cover art for their 1996 album Paegan Terrorism Tactics . In 2011, his paintings became the center of a legal entanglement between his sole heir and the Armenian Library and Museum of America . Kevorkian was tried four times for assisting suicides between May 1994 and June 1997. With the assistance of Fieger, Kevorkian was acquitted three times. The fourth trial ended in
6264-546: Is a burden or hindrance to the state. The Nazis followed this principle and compulsory Euthanasia was practiced as a part of their program during the recent war. We American citizens of New York State must ask ourselves this question: "Are we going to finish Hitler's job?" The petition brought tensions between the American Euthanasia Society and the Catholic Church to a head that contributed to
6438-496: Is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less invasive . Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of
6612-445: Is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound , CT scan , or magnetic resonance imaging . Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of
6786-428: Is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that focuses on the skin and the rest of the integumentary system as an organ. It is unique, in that there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. All general pathologists and general dermatologists train in the pathology of the skin, so the term dermatopathologist denotes either of these who has reached a certain level of accreditation and experience; in
6960-404: Is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences . Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar ). Although
7134-534: Is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology , and neuropathology. All postgraduate medical training and education in the UK is overseen by the General Medical Council. In France, pathology
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7308-411: Is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods,
7482-439: Is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the distinct but deeply interconnected aims of biological research and medical practice . Biomedical research into disease incorporates the work of a vast variety of life science specialists, whereas, in most parts of the world, to be licensed to practice pathology as a medical specialty, one has to complete medical school and secure a license to practice medicine. Structurally,
7656-595: Is named) having developed methods of diagnosis and prognosis for a number of diseases. The medical practices of the Romans and those of the Byzantines continued from these Greek roots, but, as with many areas of scientific inquiry, growth in understanding of medicine stagnated somewhat after the Classical Era , but continued to slowly develop throughout numerous cultures. Notably, many advances were made in
7830-456: Is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology
8004-497: Is one in which one person ... (A) kills another person (B) for the benefit of the second person, who actually does benefit from being killed". Draper argued that any definition of euthanasia must incorporate four elements: an agent and a subject; an intention; causal proximity, such that the actions of the agent lead to the outcome; and an outcome. Based on this, she offered a definition incorporating those elements, stating that euthanasia "must be defined as death that results from
8178-715: Is represented by a related field " molecular pathological epidemiology ". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR , DNA microarray , in situ hybridization , DNA sequencing , antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance . Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology
8352-411: Is separated into two distinct specialties, anatomical pathology, and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists . At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of
8526-427: Is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells , red blood cells , and platelets ) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow ,
8700-427: Is sufficient current evidence for either A or B that causal means to A's death will not produce any more suffering than would be produced for A if B were not to intervene; (4) the causal means to the event of A's death are chosen by A or B to be as painless as possible, unless either A or B has an overriding reason for a more painful causal means, where the reason for choosing the latter causal means does not conflict with
8874-466: Is sufficient current evidence related to A's present condition such that one or more known causal laws supports B's belief that A will be in a condition of acute suffering or irreversible comatoseness; (3) (a) B's primary reason for intending A's death is cessation of A's (actual or predicted future) suffering or irreversible comatoseness, where B does not intend A's death for a different primary reason, though there may be other relevant reasons, and (b) there
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#17327832569949048-447: Is that of intentionality: the death must be intended rather than accidental, and the intent of the action must be a "merciful death". Michael Wreen argued that "the principal thing that distinguishes euthanasia from intentional killing simpliciter is the agent's motive: it must be a good motive insofar as the good of the person killed is concerned." Similarly, Heather Draper speaks to the importance of motive, arguing that "the motive forms
9222-530: Is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy
9396-423: Is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase
9570-505: Is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy —the field
9744-463: Is when a person wishes to have their life ended and is legal in a growing number of countries. Non-voluntary euthanasia occurs when a patient's consent is unavailable and is legal in some countries under certain limited conditions, in both active and passive forms. Involuntary euthanasia, which is done without asking for consent or against the patient's will, is illegal in all countries and is usually considered murder . As of 2006 , euthanasia had become
9918-615: Is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association , and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on
10092-586: The American Journal of Forensic Psychiatry in 1992. Last year he got a committee of doctors, the Physicians of Mercy, to lay down new guidelines, which he scrupulously follows." However, Fieger stated that Kevorkian found it difficult to follow his "exacting guidelines" because of "persecution and prosecution", adding, "[H]e's proposed these guidelines saying this is what ought to be done. These are not to be done in times of war, and we're at war." In
10266-495: The Ancient Greek roots pathos ( πάθος ), meaning "experience" or "suffering", and -logia ( -λογία ), meaning "study of". The term is of early 16th-century origin, and became increasingly popularized after the 1530s. The study of pathology, including the detailed examination of the body, including dissection and inquiry into specific maladies, dates back to antiquity. Rudimentary understanding of many conditions
10440-667: The Armenian genocide of 1915, finding refuge with relatives in Paris and eventually reuniting with her brother in Pontiac. Levon and Satenig met through the Armenian community in their city, where they married and began their family. The couple had a daughter, Margaret, in 1926, followed by son Murad, and their third and last child, Flora. When Kevorkian was a child, his parents took him to an Orthodox church weekly. He started questioning
10614-528: The National Secular Society , considering it a duty to society to "die voluntarily and painlessly" when one reaches the point of becoming a 'burden'. Popular Science analyzed the issue in May 1873, assessing both sides of the argument. Kemp notes that at the time, medical doctors did not participate in the discussion; it was "essentially a philosophical enterprise ... tied inextricably to
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#173278325699410788-635: The horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. Euthanasia Note: Varies by jurisdiction Note: Varies by jurisdiction Euthanasia (from Greek : εὐθανασία , lit. 'good death': εὖ , eu , 'well, good' + θάνατος , thanatos , 'death') is the practice of intentionally ending life to eliminate pain and suffering . Different countries have different euthanasia laws . The British House of Lords select committee on medical ethics defines euthanasia as "a deliberate intervention undertaken with
10962-425: The individual's 'right to die' or 'right to death' or 'right to his or her own death,' as the ultimate human claim. In contrast, Jost was pointing to the state's right to kill. ... Ultimately the argument was biological: 'The rights to death [are] the key to the fitness of life.' The state must own death—must kill—in order to keep the social organism alive and healthy. In modern terms, the use of "euthanasia" in
11136-409: The kidneys . In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons , who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy , and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus ,
11310-416: The lungs and thoracic pleura . Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via bronchoscopic transbronchial biopsy, CT -guided percutaneous biopsy, or video-assisted thoracic surgery . These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, inflammation , or fibrotic conditions. Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of
11484-488: The lymph nodes , thymus , spleen , and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of
11658-475: The tubules and interstitium , the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists , medical subspecialists , dermatologists , and interventional radiologists . Often an excised tissue sample
11832-491: The "painless inducement of a quick death". However, it is argued that this approach fails to properly define euthanasia, as it leaves open a number of possible actions that would meet the requirements of the definition but would not be seen as euthanasia. In particular, these include situations where a person kills another, painlessly, but for no reason beyond that of personal gain, or accidental deaths that are quick and painless but not intentional. Another approach incorporated
12006-533: The 'Lucid Subjazz' label. It features Kevorkian on the flute and organ playing his own works with "The Morpheus Quintet". It was reviewed in Entertainment Weekly online as "weird" but "good-natured". As of 1997, 1,400 units had been sold. Kevorkian wrote all the songs but one; the album was reviewed in jazzreview.com as "very much grooviness" except for one tune, with "stuff in between that's worthy of multiple spins". The first public performance of
12180-488: The 17th century, the study of rudimentary microscopy was underway and examination of tissues had led British Royal Society member Robert Hooke to coin the word " cell ", setting the stage for later germ theory . Modern pathology began to develop as a distinct field of inquiry during the 19th Century through natural philosophers and physicians that studied disease and the informal study of what they termed "pathological anatomy" or "morbid anatomy". However, pathology as
12354-543: The 1960s, Kevorkian was expected to die within a year in May 2006. After applying for a pardon, parole, or commutation by the parole board and Governor Jennifer Granholm , he was paroled for good behavior on June 1, 2007. He had spent eight years and two and a half months in prison. Kevorkian was on parole for two years, under the conditions that he would not help anyone else die, or provide care for anyone older than 62 or disabled. Kevorkian said he would abstain from assisting any more terminal patients with death, and his role in
12528-487: The 1994 case was brought under "a badly written law" aimed at Kevorkian, but he attempted to give him "the best trial possible". Geoffrey Fieger , Kevorkian's lawyer during the 1990s, gave a speech at a press conference in which he stated: "Dr. Jack Kevorkian didn't seek out history, but he made history." Fieger said that Kevorkian revolutionized the concept of suicide by working to help people end their own suffering, because he believed physicians are responsible for alleviating
12702-534: The American Board of Pathology: [anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine . Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In
12876-541: The Birmingham Speculative Club in England, which was subsequently published in a one-off publication entitled Essays of the Birmingham Speculative Club , the collected works of a number of members of an amateur philosophical society. Williams' proposal was to use chloroform to deliberately hasten the death of terminally ill patients: That in all cases of hopeless and painful illness, it should be
13050-698: The Committee on Public Health. After 1906 the euthanasia debate reduced in intensity, resurfacing periodically, but not returning to the same level of debate until the 1930s in the United Kingdom. Euthanasia opponent Ian Dowbiggin argues that the early membership of the Euthanasia Society of America (ESA) reflected how many perceived euthanasia at the time, often seeing it as a eugenics matter rather than an issue concerning individual rights. Dowbiggin argues that not every eugenist joined
13224-565: The ESA "solely for eugenic reasons", but he postulates that there were clear ideological connections between the eugenics and euthanasia movements. The Voluntary Euthanasia Legalisation Society was founded in 1935 by Charles Killick Millard (now called Dignity in Dying). The movement campaigned for the legalisation of euthanasia in Great Britain. In January 1936, King George V was given
13398-627: The Euthanasia Society of America presented to the New York State Legislature a petition to legalize euthanasia, signed by 379 leading Protestant and Jewish ministers, the largest group of religious leaders ever to have taken this stance. A similar petition had been sent to the New York Legislature in 1947, signed by approximately 1,000 New York physicians. Roman Catholic religious leaders criticized
13572-697: The Michigan Court of Appeals put it in a 1995 ruling upholding an order against Kevorkian's activity. According to The Economist : "Studies of those who sought out Dr. Kevorkian, however, suggest that though many had a worsening illness... it was not usually terminal. Autopsies showed five people had no disease at all... Little over a third were in pain. Some presumably suffered from no more than hypochondria or depression." In response, Kevorkian's attorney Geoffrey Fieger published an essay stating, "I've never met any doctor who lived by such exacting guidelines as Kevorkian... [H]e published them in an article for
13746-555: The Netherlands under the Groningen Protocol . Passive forms of non-voluntary euthanasia (i.e. withholding treatment) are legal in a number of countries under specified conditions. Involuntary euthanasia is conducted against the will of the patient. Voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary types can be further divided into passive or active variants. Passive euthanasia entails the withholding treatment necessary for
13920-578: The Supreme Court's 1976 decision in Gregg v. Georgia reinstituted the death penalty . He advocated harvesting the organs from inmates after the death penalty was carried out for transplant into sick patients, but he failed to gain the cooperation of prison officials. As a pathologist at Pontiac General Hospital, Kevorkian experimented with transfusing blood from the recently deceased into live patients. He drew blood from corpses recently brought into
14094-487: The US, either a general pathologist or a dermatologist can undergo a 1 to 2 year fellowship in the field of dermatopathology. The completion of this fellowship allows one to take a subspecialty board examination, and becomes a board certified dermatopathologist. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, and behavior. Sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to
14268-632: The United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council . The training to become a pathologist is under the oversight of the Royal College of Pathologists . After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years and includes specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It
14442-979: The Ziegfeld Theater in New York City. Kevorkian walked the red carpet alongside Al Pacino , who portrayed him in the film. Pacino received Emmy and Golden Globe awards for his portrayal and personally thanked Kevorkian, who was in the audience, upon receiving both of these awards. Kevorkian stated that the film "brings tears to my eyes – and I lived through it". On March 12, 2008, Kevorkian announced plans to run for United States Congress to represent Michigan's 9th congressional district as an independent against eight-term congressman Joe Knollenberg ( R - Bloomfield Hills ), former Michigan Lottery commissioner and state senator Gary Peters ( D - Bloomfield Township ), Adam Goodman ( L - Royal Oak ) and Douglas Campbell ( G - Ferndale ). The race had already garnered national attention due to Democrats targeting
14616-429: The accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses
14790-675: The act of any type of euthanasia to any other person, nor that he promote or talk about the procedure of assisted suicide. Kevorkian was born in Pontiac, Michigan , on May 26, 1928, to Armenian immigrants from the Ottoman Empire (present-day Turkey ). His father, Levon (1891–1960), was born in the village of Passen , near Erzurum , and his mother, Satenig (1900–1968), was born in the village of Govdun, near Sivas . His father left Ottoman Armenia and made his way to Pontiac in 1912, where he found work at an automobile foundry. Satenig fled
14964-423: The action specified in (1) is more or less in accordance with A's plan of action; (5) A's killing of B is a voluntary action; (6) the motive for the action specified in (1), the motive standing behind the intention specified in (2), is the good of the person killed. Wreen also considered a seventh requirement: "(7) The good specified in (6) is, or at least includes, the avoidance of evil", although, as Wreen noted in
15138-429: The activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming
15312-592: The age of 17. In 1952, he graduated from the University of Michigan Medical School in Ann Arbor . Kevorkian completed residency training in anatomical and clinical pathology and briefly conducted research on blood transfusion. Over a period of decades, Kevorkian developed several controversial ideas related to death. In a 1959 journal article, he wrote: I propose that a prisoner condemned to death by due process of law be allowed to submit, by his own free choice, to medical experimentation under complete anaesthesia (at
15486-475: The airing of a videotape he made on September 17, 1998, which depicted the voluntary euthanasia of Thomas Youk, 52, who was in the final stages of Lou Gehrig's disease . After Youk provided his fully informed consent (a sometimes complex legal determination made in this case by editorial consensus) on September 17, 1998, Kevorkian himself administered Thomas Youk a lethal injection. This was highly significant, as all of his earlier clients had reportedly completed
15660-412: The approval of counsellors , doctors, or other specialists. In some countries—such as Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan—support for active euthanasia is almost nonexistent. As of 2024, dictionary definitions focus on euthanasia as the act of killing someone to prevent further suffering. There is no sense of whether the person agrees or is proactive in the situation. In 1974 euthanasia was defined as
15834-423: The basis of the involved sample types (comparing, for example, cytopathology , hematopathology , and histopathology ), organs (as in renal pathology ), and physiological systems ( oral pathology ), as well as on the basis of the focus of the examination (as with forensic pathology ). Pathology is a significant field in modern medical diagnosis and medical research . The Latin term pathology derives from
16008-637: The bill outright was voted down, but the bill failed to pass, 79 to 23. Along with the Ohio euthanasia proposal, in 1906 Assemblyman Ross Gregory introduced a proposal to permit euthanasia to the Iowa legislature . However, the Iowa legislation was broader in scope than that offered in Ohio. It allowed for the death of any person of at least ten years of age who suffered from an ailment that would prove fatal and cause extreme pain, should they be of sound mind and express
16182-619: The cold ground. Suicide and euthanasia became more accepted during the Age of Enlightenment . Thomas More wrote of euthanasia in Utopia , although it is not clear if More was intending to endorse the practice. Other cultures have taken different approaches: for example, in Japan suicide has not traditionally been viewed as a sin, as it is used in cases of honor, and accordingly, the perceptions of euthanasia are different from those in other parts of
16356-705: The complete classical organ works by Jack Kevorkian was by Craig Rifel in a live concert on April 30, 1996, at Central United Methodist Church in Waterford, Michigan, including Kevorkian's Prelude & Fugue in E-flat, Pipe Dream, Sonata in D, Passacaglia on B-A-C-H, Pastorale & Fugue in B-Flat, and Fantasy & Fugue in C. In 1999, the Geneva-based self-determination society EXIT commissioned David Woodard to orchestrate wind settings of Kevorkian's organ works. He
16530-399: The consequences of changes (clinical manifestations). In common medical practice, general pathology is mostly concerned with analyzing known clinical abnormalities that are markers or precursors for both infectious and non-infectious disease, and is conducted by experts in one of two major specialties, anatomical pathology and clinical pathology . Further divisions in specialty exist on
16704-401: The context of Aktion T4 is seen to be a euphemism to disguise a program of genocide , in which people were killed on the grounds of "disabilities, religious beliefs, and discordant individual values". Compared to the discussions of euthanasia that emerged post-war, the Nazi program may have been worded in terms that appear similar to the modern use of "euthanasia", but there was no "mercy" and
16878-417: The continuance of life. Active euthanasia entails the use of lethal substances or forces (such as administering a lethal injection ), and is more controversial. While some authors consider these terms to be misleading and unhelpful, they are nonetheless commonly used. In some cases, such as the administration of increasingly necessary, but toxic doses of painkillers , there is a debate whether or not to regard
17052-402: The death of a human being, A, is an instance of euthanasia if and only if (1) A's death is intended by at least one other human being, B, where B is either the cause of death or a causally relevant feature of the event resulting in death (whether by action or by omission); (2) there is either sufficient current evidence for B to believe that A is acutely suffering or irreversibly comatose, or there
17226-564: The deaths of 70,000 adult Germans. was a campaign of mass murder by involuntary euthanasia in Nazi Germany . Its code name Aktion T4 is derived from Tiergartenstraße 4, a street address of the Chancellery department which recruited and paid personnel associated with the program. Professor Robert Jay Lifton , author of The Nazi Doctors and a leading authority on the T4 program, contrasts this program with what he considers to be
17400-507: The definition of euthanasia, there is discussion in the literature about excluding one but not the other. "Euthanasia" has had different meanings depending on usage. The first apparent usage of the term "euthanasia" belongs to the historian Suetonius , who described how the Emperor Augustus , "dying quickly and without suffering in the arms of his wife, Livia, experienced the 'euthanasia' he had wished for." The word "euthanasia"
17574-585: The definition of euthanasia. The first attempt to legalise euthanasia took place in the United States, when Henry Hunt introduced legislation into the General Assembly of Ohio in 1906. Hunt did so at the behest of Anna Sophina Hall , a wealthy heiress who was a major figure in the euthanasia movement during the early 20th century in the United States. Hall had watched her mother die after an extended battle with liver cancer , and had dedicated herself to ensuring that others would not have to endure
17748-465: The device a " Thanatron " ("Death machine", from the Greek thanatos meaning "death"). Other people were assisted by a device which employed a gas mask fed by a canister of carbon monoxide , which Kevorkian called the " Mercitron " ("Mercy machine"). My aim in helping the patient was not to cause death. My aim was to end suffering. It's got to be decriminalized. — Jack Kevorkian According to
17922-525: The diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic , infectious, epithelial , salivary gland , bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology . Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists ,
18096-442: The disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As
18270-405: The evidence in 3b; (5) A is a nonfetal organism. Wreen, in part responding to Beauchamp and Davidson, offered a six-part definition: Person A committed an act of euthanasia if and only if (1) A killed B or let her die; (2) A intended to kill B; (3) the intention specified in (2) was at least partial cause of the action specified in (1); (4) the causal journey from the intention specified in (2) to
18444-420: The examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery , biopsy , or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in
18618-490: The existence of a God, as he believed an all-knowing God would have prevented the Armenian Genocide on his extended family. He stopped attending church by the time he was 12. Kevorkian was a child prodigy , teaching himself multiple languages (including German, Russian, Greek, and Japanese). As such, he was often alienated by his peers. Kevorkian graduated from Pontiac Central High School with honors in 1945, at
18792-565: The express intention of ending a life to relieve intractable suffering". In the Netherlands and Belgium , euthanasia is understood as "termination of life by a doctor at the request of a patient". The Dutch law, however, does not use the term 'euthanasia' but includes the concept under the broader definition of "assisted suicide and termination of life on request". Euthanasia is categorised in different ways, which include voluntary , non-voluntary , and involuntary . Voluntary euthanasia
18966-499: The first time by Marx. Marx also stressed the distinction of the theological care of the soul of sick people from the physical care and medical treatment by doctors. Euthanasia in its modern sense has always been strongly opposed in the Judeo-Christian tradition. Thomas Aquinas opposed both and argued that the practice of euthanasia contradicted our natural human instincts of survival, as did Francois Ranchin (1565–1641),
19140-514: The grounds that the patient needed more treatment or medical records had to be checked. In 2011, disability rights and anti-legalization of assisted suicide and euthanasia group Not Dead Yet spoke out against Kevorkian, citing potentially concerning sentiments he expressed in his published writing. On page 214 of Prescription: Medicide, the Goodness of Planned Death , Kevorkian wrote that assisting "suffering or doomed persons [to] kill themselves"
19314-504: The hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies. Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids . Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology , biochemistry , proteomics and genetics . It
19488-546: The historically Republican district based in Oakland County, which Knollenberg barely won in 2006 against a little-known opponent. The district would suffer some of the worst brunt of the Great Recession due to declines in Detroit's automotive industry . Upon Kevorkian's entry into the race, one analyst viewed him as a potential spoiler to Peters' candidacy. Ultimately, Kevorkian received 8,987 votes (2.6% of
19662-579: The hospital and transferred it successfully into the bodies of hospital staff members. Kevorkian thought that the U.S. military might be interested in using this technique to help wounded soldiers during a battle, but the Pentagon was not interested. In the 1980s, Kevorkian wrote a series of articles for the German journal Medicine and Law that laid out his thinking on the ethics of euthanasia . In 1987, Kevorkian started advertising in Detroit newspapers as
19836-425: The human host. To determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times, a general principle of approach that persists in modern medicine. Modern medicine was particularly advanced by further developments of the microscope to analyze tissues, to which Rudolf Virchow gave a significant contribution, leading to a slew of research developments. By
20010-431: The identity of a corpse. The requirements for becoming a licensed practitioner of forensic pathology varies from country to country (and even within a given nation ) but typically a minimal requirement is a medical doctorate with a specialty in general or anatomical pathology with subsequent study in forensic medicine. The methods forensic scientists use to determine death include examination of tissue specimens to identify
20184-490: The imaging technologies of X-ray radiography ) magnetic resonance imaging , medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy , elastography , tactile imaging , thermography , medical photography , nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography . Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography , magnetoencephalography , and electrocardiography often give hints as to
20358-441: The individuals themselves allegedly took the final action which resulted in their own deaths. Kevorkian allegedly assisted only by attaching the individual to a euthanasia device that he had devised and constructed. The individual then pushed a button which released the drugs or chemicals that would end their own life. Two deaths were assisted by means of a device which delivered the euthanizing drugs intravenously . Kevorkian called
20532-418: The intention of one person to kill another person, using the most gentle and painless means possible, that is motivated solely by the best interests of the person who dies." Prior to Draper, Beauchamp and Davidson had also offered a definition that included these elements. Their definition specifically discounts fetuses to distinguish between abortions and euthanasia: In summary, we have argued ... that
20706-435: The largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to
20880-431: The late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty. Combined with developments in the understanding of general physiology , by the beginning of the 20th century, the study of pathology had begun to split into a number of distinct fields, resulting in the development of a large number of modern specialties within pathology and related disciplines of diagnostic medicine . The modern practice of pathology
21054-435: The latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing . Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology. Becoming
21228-423: The matter would strictly be to persuade states to change their laws on assisted suicide. He was also forbidden by the rules of his parole from commenting about assisted suicide procedure. Kevorkian gave a number of lectures upon his release. He lectured at universities such as the University of Florida , Nova Southeastern University , and the University of California, Los Angeles . His lectures were not limited to
21402-448: The mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals , mammals generally have
21576-551: The medieval era of Islam (see Medicine in medieval Islam ), during which numerous texts of complex pathologies were developed, also based on the Greek tradition. Even so, growth in complex understanding of disease mostly languished until knowledge and experimentation again began to proliferate in the Renaissance , Enlightenment , and Baroque eras, following the resurgence of the empirical method at new centers of scholarship. By
21750-465: The most active area of research in bioethics . In some countries, divisive public controversy occurs over the moral, ethical, and legal issues associated with euthanasia. Passive euthanasia (known as "pulling the plug") is legal under some circumstances in many countries. Active euthanasia, however, is legal or de facto legal in only a handful of countries (for example, Belgium, Canada, and Switzerland), which limit it to specific circumstances and require
21924-404: The name of " Dr. Death ". In 1998, Kevorkian was arrested and tried for his role in the voluntary euthanasia of a man named Thomas Youk who had Lou Gehrig's disease, or ALS . He was convicted of second-degree murder and served eight years of a 10-to-25-year prison sentence. He was released on parole on June 1, 2007, on condition he would not offer advice about, participate in, or be present at
22098-548: The notion of suffering into the definition. The definition offered by the Oxford English Dictionary incorporates suffering as a necessary condition with "the painless killing of a patient suffering from an incurable and painful disease or in an irreversible coma", This approach is included in Marvin Khol and Paul Kurtz's definition of it as "a mode or act of inducing or permitting death painlessly as
22272-434: The organs of a disabled newborn as a token of "daring and highly imaginative research" that would be possible "beyond the constraints of traditional but outmoded, hopelessly inadequate, and essentially irrelevant ethical codes now sustained for the most part by vacuous sentimental reverence". Kevorkian was a jazz musician and composer. The Kevorkian Suite: A Very Still Life was a 1997 limited-release CD of 5,000 copies from
22446-432: The paper, he was not convinced that the restriction was required. In discussing his definition, Wreen noted the difficulty of justifying euthanasia when faced with the notion of the subject's " right to life ". In response, Wreen argued that euthanasia has to be voluntary and that "involuntary euthanasia is, as such, a great wrong". Other commentators incorporate consent more directly into their definitions. For example, in
22620-494: The part of the patient was not considered one of their criteria, although it may have been required to justify euthanasia. However, others see consent as essential. Voluntary euthanasia is conducted with the consent of the patient. Active voluntary euthanasia is legal in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Passive voluntary euthanasia is legal throughout the US per Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health . When
22794-517: The patient brings about their own death with the assistance of a physician, the term assisted suicide is often used instead. Assisted suicide is legal in Switzerland and the U.S. states of California, Oregon, Washington, Montana and Vermont. Non-voluntary euthanasia is conducted when the consent of the patient is unavailable. Examples include child euthanasia , which is illegal worldwide but decriminalised under certain specific circumstances in
22968-519: The patients were not necessarily terminally ill. Despite these differences, historian and euthanasia opponent Ian Dowbiggin writes that "the origins of Nazi euthanasia, like those of the American euthanasia movement, predate the Third Reich and were intertwined with the history of eugenics and Social Darwinism, and with efforts to discredit traditional morality and ethics." On 6 January 1949,
23142-468: The petition, saying that such a bill would "legalize a suicide-murder pact" and a "rationalization of the fifth commandment of God, 'Thou Shalt Not Kill. ' " The Right Reverend Robert E. McCormick stated that: The ultimate object of the Euthanasia Society is based on the Totalitarian principle that the state is supreme and that the individual does not have the right to live if his continuance in life
23316-494: The practice , writing "I will not prescribe a deadly drug to please someone, nor give advice that may cause his death" (noting there is some debate in the literature about whether or not this was intended to encompass euthanasia). The term euthanasia , in the earlier sense of supporting someone as they died, was used for the first time by Francis Bacon . In his work, Euthanasia medica , he chose this ancient Greek word and, in doing so, distinguished between euthanasia interior ,
23490-606: The practice as active or passive. Euthanasia was practiced in Ancient Greece and Rome : for example, hemlock was employed as a means of hastening death on the island of Kea , a technique also employed in Massalia . Euthanasia, in the sense of the deliberate hastening of a person's death, was supported by Socrates , Plato and Seneca the Elder in the ancient world, although Hippocrates appears to have spoken against
23664-539: The preparation of the soul for death, and euthanasia exterior , which was intended to make the end of life easier and painless, in exceptional circumstances by shortening life. That the ancient meaning of an easy death came to the fore again in the early modern period can be seen from its definition in the 18th century Zedlers Universallexikon : Euthanasia: a very gentle and quiet death, which happens without painful convulsions. The word comes from ευ, bene , well, and θανατος, mors , death. The concept of euthanasia in
23838-518: The presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings, interpretations of toxicology on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of overdoses, poisonings or other cases involving toxic agents, and examinations of physical trauma . Forensic pathology is a major component in the trans-disciplinary field of forensic science . Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of human tissue . Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to
24012-477: The previous 1,500 years in European medicine. With the new understanding of causative agents, physicians began to compare the characteristics of one germ's symptoms as they developed within an affected individual to another germ's characteristics and symptoms. This approach led to the foundational understanding that diseases are able to replicate themselves, and that they can have many profound and varied effects on
24186-485: The previous diagnosis. Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine , as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry , clinical microbiology , hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists , hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer
24360-478: The process themselves. During the videotape, Kevorkian dared the authorities to try to convict him or stop him from carrying out mercy killings. Youk's family described the lethal injection as humane, not murder. On November 25, 1998, Kevorkian was charged with second-degree murder and the delivery of a controlled substance (administering the lethal injection to Thomas Youk). Because Kevorkian's license to practice medicine had been revoked eight years previously, he
24534-433: The recognized duty of the medical attendant, whenever so desired by the patient, to administer chloroform or such other anaesthetic as may by-and-bye supersede chloroform – so as to destroy consciousness at once, and put the sufferer to a quick and painless death; all needful precautions being adopted to prevent any possible abuse of such duty; and means being taken to establish, beyond the possibility of doubt or question, that
24708-540: The remedy was applied at the express wish of the patient. The essay was favourably reviewed in The Saturday Review , but an editorial against the essay appeared in The Spectator . From there it proved to be influential, and other writers came out in support of such views: Lionel Tollemache wrote in favour of euthanasia, as did Annie Besant , the essayist and reformer who later became involved with
24882-406: The rest of us can only imagine. He started at a time when it was hardly talked about and got people thinking about the issue. He paid one hell of a price, and that is one of the hallmarks of true heroism." The epitaph on Kevorkian's tombstone reads, "He sacrificed himself for everyone's rights." In 2015, the 1968 Volkswagen Type 2 van in which Jack Kevorkian assisted some of his suicidal patients
25056-508: The resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology , and neurosurgery . In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology
25230-468: The right to commit suicide, and, furthermore, that it should be permissible for a doctor to assist – thus making Adler the first "prominent American" to argue for suicide in cases where people were suffering from chronic illness. Both Ingersoll and Adler argued for voluntary euthanasia of adults suffering from terminal ailments. Dowbiggin argues that by breaking down prior moral objections to euthanasia and suicide, Ingersoll and Adler enabled others to stretch
25404-511: The same suffering. Towards this end she engaged in an extensive letter writing campaign, recruited Lurana Sheldon and Maud Ballington Booth , and organised a debate on euthanasia at the annual meeting of the American Humane Association in 1905 – described by Jacob Appel as the first significant public debate on the topic in the 20th century. Hunt's bill called for the administration of an anesthetic to bring about
25578-427: The sense of alleviating the process of death goes back to the medical historian Karl Friedrich Heinrich Marx , who drew on Bacon's philosophical ideas. According to Marx, a doctor had a moral duty to ease the suffering of death through encouragement, support and mitigation using medication. Such an "alleviation of death" reflected the contemporary zeitgeist , but was brought into the medical canon of responsibility for
25752-607: The skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions (" rashes ") and neoplasms . Therefore, dermatopathologists must maintain a broad base of knowledge in clinical dermatology, and be familiar with several other specialty areas in Medicine. Forensic pathology focuses on determining the cause of death by post-mortem examination of a corpse or partial remains. An autopsy is typically performed by a coroner or medical examiner, often during criminal investigations; in this role, coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm
25926-517: The state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics . It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: Psychopathology is the study of mental illness , particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology , its purpose
26100-474: The study of disease is divided into many different fields that study or diagnose markers for disease using methods and technologies particular to specific scales, organs , and tissue types. Anatomical pathology ( Commonwealth ) or anatomic pathology ( United States ) is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the gross , microscopic , chemical, immunologic and molecular examination of organs, tissues, and whole bodies (as in
26274-554: The suffering of patients, even if that meant allowing patients to die. Kevorkian spoke at Presbyterian and Episcopal churches to gain support for euthanasia. John Finn, medical director of palliative care at the Catholic St. John's Hospital, said Kevorkian's methods were unorthodox and inappropriate. He added that many of Kevorkian's patients were isolated, lonely, and potentially depressed, and therefore in no state to mindfully choose whether to live or die. Derek Humphry , author of
26448-455: The suicide handbook Final Exit , said Kevorkian was "too obsessed, too fanatical, in his interest in death and suicide to offer direction for the nation". In a 2015 Retro Report story about Kevorkian's legacy and the Right to Die movement, journalist Jack Lessenberry said Kevorkian "got a national debate going, which I think he then helped stifle by his own outrageous actions". Howard Markel,
26622-484: The time appointed for administering the penalty) as a form of execution in lieu of conventional methods prescribed by law. Senior doctors at the University of Michigan, Kevorkian's employer, opposed his proposal and Kevorkian chose to leave the university rather than stop advocating his ideas. Ultimately, he gained little support for his plan. He returned to the idea of using death-row inmates for medical purposes after
26796-494: The time to hasten the death of the dying, (including the sudden removal of a pillow, which was believed to accelerate death), and argued against their use, as doing so was "against the laws of God and Nature". This view was shared by others who followed, including Philipp Jakob Spener, Veit Riedlin and Johann Georg Krünitz . Despite opposition, euthanasia continued to be practised, involving techniques such as bleeding, suffocation, and removing people from their beds to be placed on
26970-576: The time?" Kevorkian said: "Of course. Any time you interfere with a natural process, you are playing God." Director Barry Levinson and actors Al Pacino , Susan Sarandon and John Goodman , who appeared in You Don't Know Jack , a film based on Kevorkian's life, were interviewed alongside Kevorkian. Kevorkian was again interviewed by Cavuto on Your World on April 19, 2010, regarding the movie and Kevorkian's world view . You Don't Know Jack premiered April 24, 2010, on HBO . The film premiered April 14 at
27144-452: The tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology , etiology , immunology , and parasitology . General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology . Medical imaging
27318-661: The topic of euthanasia; he also discussed such topics as tyranny , the criminal justice system, politics, the Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution and Armenian culture . He appeared on the Fox News Channel 's Your World with Neil Cavuto on September 2, 2009, to discuss health care reform . On April 15 and 16, 2010, Kevorkian appeared on CNN 's Anderson Cooper 360° . Cooper asked, "You are saying doctors play God all
27492-474: The vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia ) and phytopathology , which studies disease in plants. Veterinary pathology covers
27666-544: The vote) in the election, in which Peters defeated the incumbent Knollenberg by a nine-percent margin. Peters would eventually serve three terms in Congress before making a successful run for the United States Senate. Kevorkian had struggled with kidney problems for years. He was diagnosed with liver cancer , which "may have been caused by hepatitis C ," according to his longtime friend Neal Nicol. Kevorkian
27840-407: The world. In the mid-1800s, the use of morphine to treat "the pains of death" emerged, with John Warren recommending its use in 1848. A similar use of chloroform was revealed by Joseph Bullar in 1866. However, in neither case was it recommended that the use should be to hasten death. In 1870 Samuel Williams, a schoolteacher, initiated the contemporary euthanasia debate through a speech given at
28014-494: Was "merely the first step, an early distasteful professional obligation... What I find most satisfying is the prospect of making possible the performance of invaluable experiments or other beneficial medical acts under conditions that this first unpleasant step can help establish – in a [portmanteau] word obitiatry." In a journal article titled "The Last Fearsome Taboo: Medical Aspects of Planned Death", Kevorkian also detailed anesthetizing, experimenting on, and utilizing
28188-518: Was also an oil painter. His work tended toward the grotesque and surreal, and he had created pieces of symbolic art, such as one "of a child eating the flesh off a decomposing corpse". Of his known works, six were made available in the 1990s for print release. The Ariana Gallery in Royal Oak, Michigan , is the exclusive distributor of Kevorkian's artwork. The original oil prints are not for release. Sludge metal band Acid Bath used his painting "For He
28362-583: Was also the period in which the modern hospital system was developed, which has been seen as a factor in the emergence of the euthanasia debate. Robert Ingersoll argued for euthanasia, stating in 1894 that where someone is suffering from a terminal illness, such as terminal cancer, they should have a right to end their pain through suicide. Felix Adler offered a similar approach, although, unlike Ingersoll, Adler did not reject religion. In fact, he argued from an Ethical Culture framework. In 1891, Adler argued that those suffering from overwhelming pain should have
28536-629: Was bought by paranormal investigator Zak Bagans (from the documentary series Ghost Adventures ) for display in his haunted museum in Las Vegas . † = Later heavily revised and incorporated into glimmerIQs †† = Later incorporated in abridged form into glimmerIQs * = Revised and distributed in 2009 by World Audience, Inc. Pathologist As a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses components of disease: cause, mechanisms of development ( pathogenesis ), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and
28710-444: Was denied parole repeatedly until 2007. In an MSNBC interview aired on September 29, 2005, Kevorkian said that if he were granted parole, he would not resume directly helping people die and would restrict himself to campaigning to have the law changed. On December 22, 2005, Kevorkian was denied parole by a board on the count of 7–2 recommending not to give parole. Reportedly terminally ill with Hepatitis C , which he contracted in
28884-700: Was described in a BBC "Genocide Under the Nazis Timeline" as the first "state-sponsored euthanasia". Parties that consented to the killing included Hitler's office, the parents, and the Reich Committee for the Scientific Registration of Serious and Congenitally Based Illnesses. The Telegraph noted that the killing of the disabled infant—whose name was Gerhard Kretschmar , born blind, with missing limbs, subject to convulsions, and reportedly "an idiot"— provided "the rationale for
29058-461: Was first used in a medical context by Francis Bacon in the 17th century to refer to an easy, painless, happy death, during which it was a "physician's responsibility to alleviate the 'physical sufferings' of the body." Bacon referred to an "outward euthanasia"—the term "outward" he used to distinguish from a spiritual concept—the euthanasia "which regards the preparation of the soul." Euthanasia may be classified into three types, according to whether
29232-746: Was hospitalized on May 18, 2011, with kidney problems and pneumonia . Kevorkian's condition grew rapidly worse and he died from a thrombosis on June 3, 2011, eight days after his 83rd birthday, at William Beaumont Hospital in Royal Oak, Michigan . According to his attorney, Mayer Morganroth, there were no artificial attempts to keep him alive and his death was painless. Kevorkian was buried in White Chapel Memorial Cemetery in Troy, Michigan . Judge Thomas Jackson, who presided over Kevorkian's first murder trial in 1994, commented that he wanted to express sorrow at Kevorkian's death and that
29406-517: Was no longer permitted to practice medicine or to work with patients. His California medical license was suspended in April 1993 by an administrative law judge , with Kevorkian's attorney responding that Kevorkian "will go on assisting people commit suicide. He dares that California judge to come catch him". According to his lawyer Geoffrey Fieger , Kevorkian assisted in the deaths of 130 terminally ill people between 1990 and 1998. In each of these cases,
29580-402: Was not able to call any witnesses to the stand as the judge did not deem the testimony of any of his witnesses relevant. After a two-day trial, the Michigan jury found Kevorkian guilty of second-degree homicide. Judge Jessica Cooper sentenced Kevorkian to serve 10–25 years in prison and told him: This is a court of law and you said you invited yourself here to take a final stand. But this trial
29754-484: Was not an opportunity for a referendum. The law prohibiting euthanasia was specifically reviewed and clarified by the Michigan Supreme Court several years ago in a decision involving your very own cases, sir. So the charge here should come as no surprise to you. You invited yourself to the wrong forum. Well, we are a nation of laws, and we are a nation that tolerates differences of opinion because we have
29928-555: Was not legally allowed to possess the controlled substance. On March 26, 1999, a jury began deliberations in the first-degree murder trial of Kevorkian. He had discharged his attorneys and proceeded through the trial representing himself , a decision he later regretted. The judge ordered a criminal defense attorney to remain available at trial as standby counsel for information and advice. Inexperienced in law but persisting in his efforts to represent himself, Kevorkian encountered great difficulty in presenting his evidence and arguments. He
30102-512: Was present in most early societies and is attested to in the records of the earliest historical societies , including those of the Middle East , India , and China . By the Hellenic period of ancient Greece , a concerted causal study of disease was underway (see Medicine in ancient Greece ), with many notable early physicians (such as Hippocrates , for whom the modern Hippocratic Oath
30276-452: Was sometimes alerted that the patient was unhappy for reasons other than their medical condition. In 1992, Kevorkian himself wrote that it is always necessary to consult a psychiatrist when performing assisted suicides because a person's "mental state is [...] of paramount importance." The report also stated that Kevorkian failed to refer at least 17 patients to a pain specialist after they complained of chronic pain and sometimes failed to obtain
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