Transcription in the linguistic sense is the systematic representation of spoken language in written form. The source can either be utterances ( speech or sign language ) or preexisting text in another writing system .
52-1038: Jallow is an English transcription of the surname of Fula origin, Diallo . Notable people with the surname include: Antouman Jallow (born 1981), Gambian/Swedish professional footballer Chernow Jallow QC (born 1962), former Attorney General of the British Virgin Islands Haddy Jallow (born 1985), Gambian-Swedish non-professional actress Hassan Bubacar Jallow (born 1950), Gambian lawyer, politician, and jurist Lamin Jallow (born 1994), Gambian footballer Momodou Lamin Jallow (born 1995) Gambian-British rapper and singer better known as J Hus Momodou Malcolm Jallow (born 1975), Gambian-born Swedish politician Ousman Jallow (born 1988), Gambian football striker Pierre Jallow (born 1979), Gambian basketball player See also [ edit ] Jalloh , another English transcription of
104-587: A court hearing such as a criminal trial (by a court reporter ) or a physician 's recorded voice notes ( medical transcription ). This article focuses on transcription in linguistics. There are two main types of linguistic transcription. Phonetic transcription focuses on phonetic and phonological properties of spoken language. Systems for phonetic transcription thus furnish rules for mapping individual sounds or phones to written symbols. Systems for orthographic transcription , by contrast, consist of rules for mapping spoken words onto written forms as prescribed by
156-435: A phonetic transcription should be enclosed in square brackets "[ ]". A transcription that specifically denotes only phonemic contrasts may be enclosed in slashes "/ /" instead. If one is unsure, it is best to use brackets since by setting off a transcription with slashes, one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol phonemically contrasts for the language being transcribed. For phonetic transcriptions, there
208-649: A 'one sound one symbol' policy, or may even be restricted to the ASCII symbols of a typical keyboard, as in the SAMPA alphabet. For example, the English word church may be transcribed as /tʃɝːtʃ/ , a close approximation of its actual pronunciation, or more abstractly as /crc/ , which is easier to type. Phonemic symbols should always be backed up by an explanation of their use and meaning, especially when they are as divergent from actual pronunciation as /crc/ . Occasionally
260-537: A broad transcription. Most phonetic transcription is based on the assumption that linguistic sounds are segmentable into discrete units that can be represented by symbols. Many different types of transcription, or "notation", have been tried out: these may be divided into Alphabetic (which are based on the same principle as that which governs ordinary alphabetic writing, namely that of using one single simple symbol to represent each sound) and Analphabetic (notations which are not alphabetic) which represent each sound by
312-416: A broader or narrower way. A transcription which includes some allophonic detail but is still closely linked to the phonemic structure of an utterance is called an allophonic transcription . The advantage of narrower transcription is that it can help learners to produce exactly the right sound and allows linguists to make detailed analyses of language variation. The disadvantage is that a narrow transcription
364-414: A composite symbol made up of a number of signs put together. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is the most widely used and well-known of present-day phonetic alphabets and has a long history . It was created in the nineteenth century by European language teachers and linguists. It soon developed beyond its original purpose as a tool of foreign language pedagogy and is now also used extensively as
416-531: A morphological and a lexical component alongside the phonetic component (which aspect is represented to which degree depends on the language and orthography in question). This form of transcription is thus more convenient wherever semantic aspects of spoken language are transcribed. Phonetic transcription is more systematic in a scientific sense, but it is also more difficult to learn, more time-consuming to carry out and less widely applicable than orthographic transcription. Mapping spoken language onto written symbols
468-425: A native English speaker would recognize that underneath this, they represent the same plural ending. This can be indicated with the pipe notation. If the plural ending is thought to be essentially an s , as English spelling would suggest, the words can be transcribed |pɛts| and |bɛds| . If it is essentially a z , these would be |pɛtz| and |bɛdz| . A double slash (" ⫽ ⫽ ")
520-484: A number of distinct approaches to transcription and sets of transcription conventions. These include, among others, Jefferson Notation. To analyze conversation, recorded data is typically transcribed into a written form that is agreeable to analysts. There are two common approaches. The first, called narrow transcription, captures the details of conversational interaction such as which particular words are stressed, which words are spoken with increased loudness, points at which
572-436: A one-to-one relationship between sound and symbol than is possible with the language's orthography. Phonetic transcription allows one to step outside orthography, examine differences in pronunciation between dialects within a given language and identify changes in pronunciation that may take place over time. A basic principle of phonetic transcription is that it should be applicable to all languages, and its symbols should denote
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#1732788012904624-512: A practical alphabet of phoneticians and linguists. It is found in many dictionaries, where it is used to indicate the pronunciation of words, but most American dictionaries for native English-speakers, e.g., American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language , Random House Dictionary of the English Language , Webster's Third New International Dictionary , avoid phonetic transcription and instead employ respelling systems based on
676-419: A transcription will be enclosed in pipes ("| |"). This goes beyond phonology into morphological analysis. For example, the words pets and beds could be transcribed phonetically as [pʰɛʔts] and [b̥ɛd̥z̥] (in a fairly narrow transcription), and phonemically as /pɛts/ and /bɛdz/ . Because /s/ and /z/ are separate phonemes in English, they receive separate symbols in the phonemic analysis. However,
728-615: A vowel resembling [ o ] ( L-vocalization ). Thus, on the one hand, phonetically, little can be represented as something like [ˈɫɪɾɫ̩] in many American, Canadian, and Australian accents but [ˈlɪʔo] in a southern England accent. Furthermore, in Australian accents especially, the first-syllable vowel of little tends to be higher than in North America, leading to the possibility of employing an even narrower phonetic transcription to indicate this, such as [ˈɫɪ̝ɾɫ̩] . On
780-519: Is a set of symbols, developed by Gail Jefferson , which is used for transcribing talk. Having had some previous experience in transcribing when she was hired in 1963 as a clerk typist at the UCLA Department of Public Health to transcribe sensitivity-training sessions for prison guards, Jefferson began transcribing some of the recordings that served as the materials out of which Harvey Sacks' earliest lectures were developed. Over four decades, for
832-444: Is being used, so that, for example, the English word jet is not read as "yet". This is done with angle brackets or chevrons : ⟨jet⟩ . It is also common to italicize such words, but the chevrons indicate specifically that they are in the original language's orthography, and not in English transliteration . In iconic phonetic notation, the shapes of the phonetic characters are designed so that they visually represent
884-402: Is different from Wikidata All set index articles Transcription (linguistics) Transcription should not be confused with translation , which means representing the meaning of text from a source-language in a target language, (e.g. Los Angeles (from source-language Spanish) means The Angels in the target language English); or with transliteration , which means representing
936-406: Is done on computers. Recordings are usually digital audio files or video files , and transcriptions are electronic documents . Specialized computer software exists to assist the transcriber in efficiently creating a digital transcription from a digital recording. Two types of transcription software can be used to assist the process of transcription: one that facilitates manual transcription and
988-422: Is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a broad transcription ; in some cases, it may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a narrow transcription . They are not binary choices but
1040-427: Is more precise than alphabetic notation is analphabetic phonetic notation. Instead of both the alphabetic and iconic notational types' general principle of using one symbol per sound, analphabetic notation uses long sequences of symbols to precisely describe the component features of an articulatory gesture (MacMahon 1996:842–844). This type of notation is reminiscent of the notation used in chemical formulas to denote
1092-495: Is not as straightforward a process as may seem at first glance. Written language is an idealization, made up of a limited set of clearly distinct and discrete symbols. Spoken language, on the other hand, is a continuous (as opposed to discrete) phenomenon, made up of a potentially unlimited number of components. There is no predetermined system for distinguishing and classifying these components and, consequently, no preset way of mapping these components onto written symbols. Literature
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#17327880129041144-524: Is part of a larger goal of scientific description of phonetics, is particularly interesting in its challenge against the descriptive method of the phoneticians who created alphabetic systems like the IPA. An example of Pike's system can be demonstrated by the following. A syllabic voiced alveolar nasal consonant ( [n̩] in IPA) is notated as In Pike's notation there are 5 main components (which are indicated using
1196-404: Is rarely representative of all dialects or speakers of a language. Most American, Canadian, and Australian speakers of English would pronounce the /t/ in the word little as a tap [ ɾ ] and the initial /l/ as a dark L (often represented as [ɫ] ), but speakers in southern England pronounce the /t/ as [ ʔ ] (a glottal stop ; see t-glottalization ) and the second /l/ as
1248-453: Is relatively consistent in pointing out the nonneutrality of transcription practices. There is not and cannot be a neutral transcription system. Knowledge of social culture enters directly into the making of a transcript. They are captured in the texture of the transcript (Baker, 2005). Transcription systems are sets of rules which define how spoken language is to be represented in written symbols. Most phonetic transcription systems are based on
1300-406: Is sometimes used to mark a diaphonemic transcription. Diaphonemic transcriptions accommodate for the variation between the phonemic systems of different varieties or diasystems of a language. For example, if a speaker of variety A pronounces the lexical set BATH with an [ɑː] as in the lexical set PALM , whereas a speaker of variety B pronounces the lexical set BATH with an [æ] as in
1352-461: Is that it involves a large number of symbols and diacritics that may be unfamiliar to nonspecialists. Broad transcription usually allows statements to be made which apply across accents and dialects, and is thus more appropriate for the pronunciation data in ordinary dictionaries, which may discuss phonetic details in the preface but rarely give them for each entry. Most linguists use a narrow transcription only when necessary, and at all other times use
1404-614: Is the symbol chosen for the English consonant at the beginning of the words 'rue', 'rye', 'red': this is frequently transcribed as /r/, despite the symbol suggesting an association with the IPA symbol [r] which is used for a tongue-tip trill . It is equally possible within a phonemic transcription to use the symbol /ɹ/ , which in IPA usage refers to an alveolar approximant ; this is the more common realization for English pronunciation in America and England. Phonemic symbols will frequently be chosen to avoid diacritics as much as possible, under
1456-532: The International Phonetic Alphabet or, especially in speech technology, on its derivative SAMPA . Examples for orthographic transcription systems (all from the field of conversation analysis or related fields) are: Arguably the first system of its kind, originally sketched in (Sacks et al. 1978), later adapted for the use in computer readable corpora as CA-CHAT by (MacWhinney 2000). The field of Conversation Analysis itself includes
1508-789: The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet ) and Caucasian languages . This is often labeled the Americanist phonetic alphabet despite having been widely used for languages outside the Americas. The principal difference between these alphabets and the IPA is that the specially created characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of already existing typewriter characters with diacritics (e.g. many characters are borrowed from Eastern European orthographies) or digraphs . Examples of this transcription may be seen in Pike's Phonemics and in many of
1560-414: The orthography of a given language. Phonetic transcription operates with specially defined character sets, usually the International Phonetic Alphabet . The type of transcription chosen depends mostly on the context of usage. Because phonetic transcription strictly foregrounds the phonetic nature of language, it is mostly used for phonetic or phonological analyses. Orthographic transcription, however, has
1612-692: The CA perspective and is regarded as having become a near-globalized set of instructions for transcription. A system described in (DuBois et al. 1992), used for transcription of the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English (SBCSAE), later developed further into DT2 . A system described in (Selting et al. 1998), later developed further into GAT2 (Selting et al. 2009), widely used in German speaking countries for prosodically oriented conversation analysis and interactional linguistics. Arguably
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1664-409: The English alphabet, with diacritical marks over the vowels and stress marks. (See Pronunciation respelling for English for a generic version.) Another commonly encountered alphabetic tradition was originally created by American linguists for the transcription of Native American and European languages and is still commonly used by linguists of Slavic , Indic , Semitic , Uralic (here known as
1716-535: The composition of chemical compounds. Although more descriptive than alphabetic notation, analphabetic notation is less practical for many purposes (e.g. for descriptive linguists doing fieldwork or for speech pathologists transcribing their impressions of speech disorders). As a result, this type of notation is uncommon. Two examples of this type were developed by the Danish Otto Jespersen (1889) and American Kenneth Pike (1943). Pike's system, which
1768-419: The differences between individual speakers or even whole dialects of the same language). Phonemic transcription provides a representation only of a language's abstract word-distinguishing units of sound ( phonemes ), and thus is not really a phonetic transcription at all (though at times it may coincide with one). Instead, a phonetic transcription focuses on more exact articulatory or acoustic details, whether in
1820-622: The ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets. For example, in some dialects the English word pretzel in a narrow transcription would be [ˈpɹ̥ʷɛʔts.ɫ̩] , which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broad transcription is [ˈpɹ̥ɛts.ɫ̩] , which indicates only some of the features that are easier to hear. A yet broader transcription would be [ˈpɹɛts.l] in which every symbol represents an unambiguous speech sound but without going into any unnecessary detail. None of those transcriptions makes any claims about
1872-439: The first system of its kind, originally described in (Ehlich and Rehbein 1976) – see (Ehlich 1992) for an English reference - adapted for the use in computer readable corpora as (Rehbein et al. 2004), and widely used in functional pragmatics . Transcription was originally a process carried out manually, i.e. with pencil and paper, using an analogue sound recording stored on, e.g., a Compact Cassette. Nowadays, most transcription
1924-542: The lexical set TRAP , then a diaphonemic transcription that accommodates for variety A and variety B at the same time would transcribe the three lexical sets in three different ways, for instance PALM ⫽pɑːm⫽ , TRAP ⫽træp⫽ , and BATH ⫽baθ⫽ , where the ⫽a⫽ would mean ‘pronounced [ɑː] in variety A and [æ] in variety B.’ Other ways to mark diaphonemic transcriptions include exclamation marks ("! !") or pipes ("| |"). To avoid confusion with IPA symbols, it may be desirable to specify when native orthography
1976-411: The majority of which she held no university position and was unsalaried, Jefferson's research into talk-in-interaction has set the standard for what became known as conversation analysis (CA). Her work has greatly influenced the sociological study of interaction, but also disciplines beyond, especially linguistics, communication, and anthropology. This system is employed universally by those working from
2028-456: The most noticeable phonetic features of an utterance, whereas narrow transcription encodes more information about the phonetic details of the allophones in the utterance. The difference between broad and narrow is a continuum, but the difference between phonemic and phonetic transcription is usually treated as a binary distinction. Phonemic transcription is a particularly broad transcription that disregards all allophonic differences (for example
2080-432: The other automated transcription. For the former, the work is still very much done by a human transcriber who listens to a recording and types up what is heard in a computer, and this type of software is often a multimedia player with functionality such as playback or changing speed. For the latter, automated transcription is achieved by a speech-to-text engine which converts audio or video files into electronic text. Some of
2132-590: The other hand, a broad phonemic transcription of little is also possible that ignores all the above specifics of these aforementioned dialects; this can be useful in situations where minor details are not important to distinguish or where the emphasis is on overarching patterns. For example, one typical phonemic transcription for the word little is /ˈlɪtᵊl/ , as is common in both British and American English dictionaries. (Slashes, rather than square brackets, are used to indicate phonemic rather than phonetic representations.) A further disadvantage of narrow transcription
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2184-549: The papers reprinted in Joos's Readings in Linguistics 1 . In the days before it was possible to create phonetic fonts for computer printers and computerized typesetting, this system allowed material to be typed on existing typewriters to create printable material. There are also extended versions of the IPA, for example: Ext-IPA , VoQS , and Luciano Canepari 's IPA . The International Phonetic Association recommends that
2236-422: The phonemic status of the sounds. Instead, they represent certain ways in which it is possible to produce the sounds that make up the word. There are also several possibilities in how to transcribe the word phonemically, but here, the differences are generally of not precision but analysis. For example, pretzel could be /ˈprɛts.l̩/ or /ˈprɛts.əl/ . The latter transcription suggests that there are two vowels in
2288-555: The position of articulators in the vocal tract. This is unlike alphabetic notation, where the correspondence between character shape and articulator position is arbitrary. This notation is potentially more flexible than alphabetic notation in showing more shades of pronunciation (MacMahon 1996:838–841). An example of iconic phonetic notation is the Visible Speech system, created by Scottish phonetician Alexander Melville Bell (Ellis 1869:15). Another type of phonetic notation that
2340-437: The pronunciation. Words borrowed from other languages may retain the spelling from the original language, which may have a different system of correspondences between written symbols and speech sounds. Pronunciation can also vary greatly among dialects of a language. Standard orthography in some languages, such as English and Tibetan , is often irregular and makes it difficult to predict pronunciation from spelling. For example,
2392-437: The same phonetic properties whatever the language being transcribed. It follows that a transcription devised for one individual language or group of languages is not a phonetic transcription but an orthography. Phonetic transcription may be used to transcribe the phones of a language. In all systems of transcription there is a distinction between broad transcription and narrow transcription . Broad transcription indicates only
2444-584: The software would also include the function of annotation . Phonetic transcription Phonetic transcription (also known as phonetic script or phonetic notation ) is the visual representation of speech sounds (or phones ) by means of symbols . The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet, such as the International Phonetic Alphabet . The pronunciation of words in all languages changes over time. However, their written forms ( orthography ) are often not modified to take account of such changes, and do not accurately represent
2496-402: The spelling of a text from one script to another. In the academic discipline of linguistics , transcription is an essential part of the methodologies of (among others) phonetics , conversation analysis , dialectology , and sociolinguistics . It also plays an important role for several subfields of speech technology . Common examples for transcriptions outside academia are the proceedings of
2548-734: The surname Diallo , a French transcription Djaló , a Portuguese and Creole transcription [REDACTED] Surname list This page lists people with the surname Jallow . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jallow&oldid=1176274176 " Categories : Surnames Surnames of Gambian origin Surnames of Fula origin Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description
2600-420: The turns-at-talk overlap, how particular words are articulated, and so on. If such detail is less important, perhaps because the analyst is more concerned with the overall gross structure of the conversation or the relative distribution of turns-at-talk amongst the participants, then a second type of transcription known as broad transcription may be sufficient (Williamson, 2009). The Jefferson Transcription System
2652-424: The word even if they cannot both be heard, but the former suggests that there is only one. Strictly speaking, it is not possible to have a distinction between "broad" and "narrow" within phonemic transcription, since the symbols chosen represent only sounds that have been shown to be distinctive. However, the symbols themselves may be more or less explicit about their phonetic realization. A frequently cited example
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#17327880129042704-500: The words bough , tough , cough , though and through do not rhyme in English even though their spellings might suggest otherwise. Other languages, such as Spanish and Italian have a more consistent (but still imperfect) relationship between orthography and pronunciation, while a few languages may claim to have a fully phonemic spelling system (a phonemic orthography ). For most languages, phonetic transcription makes it possible to show pronunciation with something much nearer to
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