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117-419: Jamaica Bay (also known as Grassy Bay ) is an estuary on the southern portion of the western tip of Long Island , in the U.S. state of New York . The estuary is partially man-made, and partially natural. The bay connects with Lower New York Bay to the west, through Rockaway Inlet , and is the westernmost of the coastal lagoons on the south shore of Long Island. Politically, it is primarily divided between

234-671: A Public Private Partnership wherein Adani Group , the operator pays Airports Authority of India , the owner of the airports, a predetermined sum of money based on the number of passengers handled by the airports. The rest of India's airports are managed by the Airports Authority of India . In Pakistan nearly all civilian airports are owned and operated by the Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority except for Sialkot International Airport which has

351-589: A plane to take off and to land or a helipad , and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers , hangars and terminals , to maintain and monitor aircraft. Larger airports may have airport aprons , taxiway bridges , air traffic control centres, passenger facilities such as restaurants and lounges , and emergency services . In some countries, the US in particular, airports also typically have one or more fixed-base operators , serving general aviation . Airport operations are extremely complex, with

468-598: A complicated system of aircraft support services, passenger services, and aircraft control services contained within the operation. Thus airports can be major employers, as well as important hubs for tourism and other kinds of transit. Because they are sites of operation for heavy machinery, a number of regulations and safety measures have been implemented in airports, in order to reduce hazards. Additionally, airports have major local environmental impacts, as both large sources of air pollution , noise pollution and other environmental impacts, making them sites that acutely experience

585-573: A harsh environment for organisms. Sediment often settles in intertidal mudflats which are extremely difficult to colonize. No points of attachment exist for algae , so vegetation based habitat is not established. Sediment can also clog feeding and respiratory structures of species, and special adaptations exist within mudflat species to cope with this problem. Lastly, dissolved oxygen variation can cause problems for life forms. Nutrient-rich sediment from human-made sources can promote primary production life cycles, perhaps leading to eventual decay removing

702-570: A large seaport in Jamaica Bay. These plans were scrapped because there was not enough commercial traffic to justify the construction. Over the next two decades, commercial activity in New York City increased. New proposals for the Jamaica Bay seaport emerged in the 1900s. By 1905, the value of the city's manufacturing sector was assessed at $ 1.5 billion, a figure cited by supporters of the Jamaica Bay project. In 1910, developers unveiled

819-528: A mistake in handling of the passenger, such as unreasonable delays or mishandling of checked baggage. Airline lounges frequently offer free or reduced cost food, as well as alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. Lounges themselves typically have seating , showers, quiet areas, televisions, computer, Wi-Fi and Internet access, and power outlets that passengers may use for their electronic equipment. Some airline lounges employ baristas, bartenders and gourmet chefs. Airlines sometimes operate multiple lounges within

936-529: A number of coastal water bodies such as coastal lagoons and brackish seas. A more comprehensive definition of an estuary is "a semi-enclosed body of water connected to the sea as far as the tidal limit or the salt intrusion limit and receiving freshwater runoff; however the freshwater inflow may not be perennial, the connection to the sea may be closed for part of the year and tidal influence may be negligible". This broad definition also includes fjords , lagoons , river mouths , and tidal creeks . An estuary

1053-591: A plan to convert Jamaica Bay to a seaport district as part of the New York State Barge Canal project, which would connect Hudson River to the Great Lakes by way of a new canal in upstate New York . The new seaport would convert existing inland creeks into barge canals with lengths of up to 1.5 miles (2.4 km), and the 25 square miles (65 km) area of the bay was to be dredged. An aggregate 4,200 acres (1,700 ha) of marshlands in

1170-674: A plan to reinforce and rebuild NYC infrastructure in order to create a city better able to withstand future storms. Later that year, Mayor Bloomberg , together with the then Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell , announced the establishment of the Jamaica Bay Science and Resilience Institute , a multidisciplinary consortium of academic, governmental and community partners coordinated by the City University of New York . The Institute, subsequently renamed

1287-490: A plane of 100,000 pounds and the price increases with weight. Non-aeronautical revenue is gained through things other than aircraft operations. It includes lease revenue from compatible land-use development, non-aeronautical building leases, retail and concession sales, rental car operations, parking and in-airport advertising. Concession revenue is one big part of non-aeronautical revenue airports makes through duty free , bookstores, restaurants and money exchange. Car parking

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1404-460: A retail store upon exiting security. Airport planners sometimes incorporate winding routes within these stores such that passengers encounter more goods as they walk towards their gate. Planners also install artworks next to the airport's shops in order to draw passengers into the stores. Apart from major fast food chains, some airport restaurants offer regional cuisine specialties for those in transit so that they may sample local food without leaving

1521-641: A runway that is only 122 m (400 ft) long. In the United States, the minimum dimensions for dry, hard landing fields are defined by the FAR Landing And Takeoff Field Lengths . These include considerations for safety margins during landing and takeoff. The longest public-use runway in the world is at Qamdo Bamda Airport in China. It has a length of 5,500 m (18,045 ft). The world's widest paved runway

1638-409: A series of gates , which provide passengers with access to the plane. Passenger facilities typically include: Links between passenger facilities and aircraft include jet bridges or airstairs . Baggage handling systems transport baggage from the baggage drop-off to departing planes, and from arriving planes to the baggage reclaim. The area where the aircraft parks to load passengers and baggage

1755-408: A type of ecosystem in some estuaries that have been negatively impacted by eutrophication. Cordgrass vegetation dominates the salt marsh landscape. Excess nutrients allow the plants to grow at greater rates in above ground biomass, however less energy is allocated to the roots since nutrients is abundant. This leads to a lower biomass in the vegetation below ground which destabilizes the banks of

1872-521: A variety of benthic invertebrates and macroalgae dominated by sea lettuce ( Ulva latuca ). These rich food resources attract a variety of fish, shorebirds, and waterfowl. In addition, two freshwater impoundments were created on Rulers Bar Hassock in the Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge ; the smaller 49 acres (0.20 km) freshwater West Pond is kept as open water, and the larger 120 acres (0.49 km) slightly brackish East Pond

1989-563: A well-mixed water column and the disappearance of the vertical salinity gradient . The freshwater-seawater boundary is eliminated due to the intense turbulent mixing and eddy effects . The lower reaches of Delaware Bay and the Raritan River in New Jersey are examples of vertically homogeneous estuaries. Inverse estuaries occur in dry climates where evaporation greatly exceeds the inflow of freshwater. A salinity maximum zone

2106-436: A wholly marine embayment to any of the other estuary types. The most important variable characteristics of estuary water are the concentration of dissolved oxygen, salinity and sediment load. There is extreme spatial variability in salinity, with a range of near-zero at the tidal limit of tributary rivers to 3.4% at the estuary mouth. At any one point, the salinity will vary considerably over time and seasons, making it

2223-414: A wide effect on the surrounding water bodies.  In turn, this can decrease fishing industry sales in one area and across the country. Production in 2016 from recreational and commercial fishing contributes billions of dollars to the United States' gross domestic product (GDP). A decrease in production within this industry can affect any of the 1.7 million people the fishing industry employs yearly across

2340-475: A year, nearly twice the rate in 2001. As of 2003, marshland is being lost at the rate of approximately 40 acres (160,000 m) per year. The reasons for this loss are still unclear, but one hypothesis is that the loss is the result of rising sea levels . To test this, in the hope of preventing further losses, the National Park Service plans to dredge a small area of the bay in order to build up

2457-846: Is a saline to brackish , eutrophic (nutrient-rich) estuary covering about 25,000 acres (100 km), with a mean depth of 13 feet (4.0 m), a semidiurnal tidal range averaging 4.9 ft (1.5 m), and a residence time of about three weeks. The bay communicates with Lower New York Bay and the Atlantic Ocean via Rockaway Inlet, a high current area that is 0.6 mi (0.97 km) wide at its narrowest point, with an average depth of 23 ft (7.0 m). Measurements taken during recent surveys in Jamaica Bay indicate average yearly ranges for temperature of 34 to 79 °F (1 to 26 °C), salinity of 20.5 to 26 parts per thousand, dissolved oxygen of 3.5 to 18.5 milligrams/liter, and pH of 6.8 to 9. Loadings of nutrients and organic matter into

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2574-455: Is a dynamic ecosystem having a connection to the open sea through which the sea water enters with the rhythm of the tides . The effects of tides on estuaries can show nonlinear effects on the movement of water which can have important impacts on the ecosystem and waterflow. The seawater entering the estuary is diluted by the fresh water flowing from rivers and streams. The pattern of dilution varies between different estuaries and depends on

2691-488: Is a growing source of revenue for airports, as more people use the parking facilities of the airport. O'Hare International Airport in Chicago charges $ 2 per hour for every car. Many airports are local monopolies. To prevent them from abusing their market power, governments regulate how much airports may charge to airlines, using price-cap regulation . Airports are divided into landside and airside zones. The landside

2808-486: Is a series of highly complex operations that requires managing frequent traffic that moves in all three dimensions. A "towered" or "controlled" airport has a control tower where the air traffic controllers are based. Pilots are required to maintain two-way radio communication with the controllers, and to acknowledge and comply with their instructions. A " non-towered " airport has no operating control tower and therefore two-way radio communications are not required, though it

2925-598: Is also common to connect an airport and a city with rapid transit , light rail lines or other non-road public transport systems. Some examples of this would include the AirTrain JFK at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York , Link light rail that runs from the heart of downtown Seattle to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport , and the Silver Line T at Boston 's Logan International Airport by

3042-500: Is at Ulyanovsk Vostochny Airport in Russia and is 105 m (344 ft) wide. As of 2009 , the CIA stated that there were approximately 44,000 "airports or airfields recognizable from the air" around the world, including 15,095 in the US, the US having the most in the world. Most of the world's large airports are owned by local, regional, or national government bodies who then lease

3159-404: Is called a heliport . An airport for use by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft is called a seaplane base . Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water for takeoffs and landings , and seaplane docks for tying-up. An international airport has additional facilities for customs and passport control as well as incorporating all the aforementioned elements. Such airports rank among

3276-648: Is common for airports to provide moving walkways , buses, and rail transport systems. Some airports like Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport and London Stansted Airport have a transit system that connects some of the gates to a main terminal. Airports with more than one terminal have a transit system to connect the terminals together, such as John F. Kennedy International Airport , Mexico City International Airport and London Gatwick Airport . Airport operations are made possible by an organized network of trained personnel , specialized equipment, and spatial data . After thousands of ground operations staff left

3393-678: Is controlled to expose mudflats. Some of the islands in the bay have upland communities, including grasslands consisting of little bluestem ( Schizachyrium scoparium ), switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum ), and seaside goldenrod ( Solidago sempervirens ); scrub-shrub containing bayberry ( Myrica pensylvanica ), beach plum ( Prunus maritima ), sumac ( Rhus spp.), and poison ivy ( Toxicodendron radicans ); developing woodland consisting of hackberry ( Celtis occidentalis ), willow ( Salix spp.), black cherry ( Prunus serotina ), and tree-of-heaven ( Ailanthus altissima ); and beachgrass ( Ammophila breviligulata ) dune. Species introduced in

3510-513: Is derived from the Latin word aestuarium meaning tidal inlet of the sea, which in itself is derived from the term aestus , meaning tide. There have been many definitions proposed to describe an estuary. The most widely accepted definition is: "a semi-enclosed coastal body of water, which has a free connection with the open sea, and within which seawater is measurably diluted with freshwater derived from land drainage". However, this definition excludes

3627-411: Is formed, and both riverine and oceanic water flow close to the surface towards this zone. This water is pushed downward and spreads along the bottom in both the seaward and landward direction. Examples of an inverse estuary are Spencer Gulf , South Australia, Saloum River and Casamance River , Senegal. Estuary type varies dramatically depending on freshwater input, and is capable of changing from

Jamaica Bay - Misplaced Pages Continue

3744-472: Is good operating practice for pilots to transmit their intentions on the airport's common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) for the benefit of other aircraft in the area. The CTAF may be a Universal Integrated Community (UNICOM), MULTICOM, Flight Service Station (FSS), or tower frequency. The majority of the world's airports are small facilities without a tower. Not all towered airports have 24/7 ATC operations. In those cases, non-towered procedures apply when

3861-660: Is known as an apron or ramp (or incorrectly, "the tarmac"). Airport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since the September 11 attacks and the Real ID Act of 2005 , airport security has dramatically increased and gotten tighter and stricter than ever before. Most major airports provide commercial outlets for products and services. Most of these companies, many of which are internationally known brands, are located within

3978-566: Is less restricted, and there is a slow but steady exchange of water between the estuary and the ocean. Fjord-type estuaries can be found along the coasts of Alaska , the Puget Sound region of western Washington state , British Columbia , eastern Canada, Greenland , Iceland , New Zealand, and Norway. These estuaries are formed by subsidence or land cut off from the ocean by land movement associated with faulting , volcanoes , and landslides . Inundation from eustatic sea-level rise during

4095-658: Is managed by the quasi-private firm Fraport . While in India GMR Group operates, through joint ventures, Indira Gandhi International Airport and Rajiv Gandhi International Airport . Bengaluru International Airport is controlled by Fairfax . Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport , Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport , Mangalore International Airport , Thiruvananthapuram International Airport , Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport , Jaipur International Airport , Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport are operated by Adani Group through

4212-489: Is subject to fewer special laws and is part of the public realm, while access to the airside zone is tightly controlled. Landside facilities may include publicly accessible airport check-in desks, shops and ground transportation facilities. The airside area includes all parts of the airport around the aircraft, and the parts of the buildings that are restricted to staff, and sections of these extended to travelling, airside shopping , dining, or waiting passengers. Depending on

4329-534: Is the Colorado River Delta in Mexico, historically covered with marshlands and forests, but now essentially a salt flat. Airport An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities, mostly for commercial air transport . They usually consist of a landing area , which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for

4446-646: Is the whitefish species from the European Alps . Eutrophication reduced the oxygen levels in their habitats so greatly that whitefish eggs could not survive, causing local extinctions. However, some animals, such as carnivorous fish, tend to do well in nutrient-enriched environments and can benefit from eutrophication. This can be seen in populations of bass or pikes. Eutrophication can affect many marine habitats which can lead to economic consequences. The commercial fishing industry relies upon estuaries for approximately 68 percent of their catch by value because of

4563-471: Is to say, all airports are aerodromes, but not all aerodromes are airports. In jurisdictions where there is no legal distinction between aerodrome and airport , which term to use in the name of an aerodrome may be a commercial decision. In US technical/legal usage, landing area is used instead of aerodrome , and airport means "a landing area used regularly by aircraft for receiving or discharging passengers or cargo". An airport solely serving helicopters

4680-748: The Holocene Epoch has also contributed to the formation of these estuaries. There are only a small number of tectonically produced estuaries; one example is the San Francisco Bay , which was formed by the crustal movements of the San Andreas Fault system causing the inundation of the lower reaches of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers . In this type of estuary, river output greatly exceeds marine input and tidal effects have minor importance. Freshwater floats on top of

4797-610: The Mandovi estuary in Goa during the monsoon period. As tidal forcing increases, river output becomes less than the marine input. Here, current induced turbulence causes mixing of the whole water column such that salinity varies more longitudinally rather than vertically, leading to a moderately stratified condition. Examples include the Chesapeake Bay and Narragansett Bay . Tidal mixing forces exceed river output, resulting in

Jamaica Bay - Misplaced Pages Continue

4914-503: The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA). Such a connection lowers risk of missed flights due to traffic congestion . Large airports usually have access also through controlled-access highways ('freeways' or 'motorways') from which motor vehicles enter either the departure loop or the arrival loop. The distances passengers need to move within a large airport can be substantial. It

5031-640: The Mid-Atlantic coast, and Galveston Bay and Tampa Bay along the Gulf Coast . Bar-built estuaries are found in a place where the deposition of sediment has kept pace with rising sea levels so that the estuaries are shallow and separated from the sea by sand spits or barrier islands. They are relatively common in tropical and subtropical locations. These estuaries are semi-isolated from ocean waters by barrier beaches ( barrier islands and barrier spits ). Formation of barrier beaches partially encloses

5148-671: The New York City Board of Estimate approved a plan to build railroads on both sides of Paerdegat Basin, connecting the LIRR to Canarsie Pier to the east and to Floyd Bennett Field to the west. By that time, the city had spent $ 10 million, and the federal government $ 2 million, toward improving the bay for a proposed seaport district. Supporters of the new proposal included Mayor Jimmy Walker , President of Aldermen Fiorello La Guardia , City Comptroller Charles Berry, and Brooklyn's and Queens' borough presidents. New Jersey opposed

5265-482: The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation moved to convert much of the Jamaica Bay area into a city park. In 1949, the New York City Board of Estimate approved Moses's proposal, ending all plans for the seaport project. The only thing that was completed was the dredging of Paerdegat Basin to a 16-foot (4.9 m) depth. In the 1950s and 1960s, much of the city-owned land around the basin

5382-646: The New York Department of Environmental Conservation . Jamaica Bay was also designated as one of three special natural waterfront areas by the New York City Department of City Planning . A comprehensive watershed management plan for the bay was completed in 1993 by the New York City Department of Environmental Protection in order to better protect and restore habitats and improve water quality. Wetlands are regulated in New York under

5499-734: The Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom and the Ems Dollard along the Dutch-German border. The width-to-depth ratio of these estuaries is typically large, appearing wedge-shaped (in cross-section) in the inner part and broadening and deepening seaward. Water depths rarely exceed 30 m (100 ft). Examples of this type of estuary in the U.S. are the Hudson River , Chesapeake Bay , and Delaware Bay along

5616-478: The black-tailed godwit , rely on estuaries. Two of the main challenges of estuarine life are the variability in salinity and sedimentation . Many species of fish and invertebrates have various methods to control or conform to the shifts in salt concentrations and are termed osmoconformers and osmoregulators . Many animals also burrow to avoid predation and to live in a more stable sedimental environment. However, large numbers of bacteria are found within

5733-467: The environmental effects of aviation . Airports are also vulnerable infrastructure to extreme weather , climate change caused sea level rise and other disasters. The terms aerodrome , airfield , and airstrip also refer to airports, and the terms heliport , seaplane base , and STOLport refer to airports dedicated exclusively to helicopters , seaplanes , and short take-off and landing aircraft. In colloquial use in certain environments,

5850-739: The AATF, as well as pays for the FAA's Operation and Maintenance (O&M) account. The funding of these accounts are dependent on the taxes the airports generate of revenues. Passenger tickets , fuel , and cargo tax are the taxes that are paid by the passengers and airlines help fund these accounts. Airports revenues are divided into three major parts: aeronautical revenue, non-aeronautical revenue, and non-operating revenue. Aeronautical revenue makes up 50% in 2021 (from 54% and 48% in 2019 and 2020, non-aeronautical revenue makes up 34% (40%, 39% in previous years), and non-operating revenue makes up 16% (6%, 14%) of

5967-501: The FAA under the Code of Federal Regulations Title 14 Part 139, "Certification of Commercial Service Airports" but maintained by the local airport under the regulatory authority of the FAA. Despite the reluctance to privatize airports in the US (contrary to the FAA sponsoring a privatization program since 1996), the government-owned, contractor-operated (GOCO) arrangement is the standard for

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6084-549: The Jamaica Bay and Breezy Point habitat complex: Breezy Point (B2 – very high biodiversity significance) and Fountain Avenue Landfill (B3 – high biodiversity significance). Jamaica Bay and Breezy Point have been designated as Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitats by the New York State Department of State , and the bay up to the high tide line was designated as a Critical Environmental Area by

6201-517: The Jamaica Bay project, since it wanted to build the competing Port of Newark . There was enough federal money for both projects, though. However, Robert Moses , the New York City Parks Commissioner at the time, was critical of the seaport project. He instead proposed a series of parks and parkways around New York City, including Belt Parkway along the northern and western shores of Jamaica Bay. Under Moses's leadership,

6318-671: The New York Bight and the Hudson River and Raritan River estuaries, and to a diverse community of migratory birds and insects that use the Bay for refueling during transit between summer breeding and overwintering grounds. While the resident wildlife of Jamaica Bay are poorly studied, survey data indicate that Jamaica Bay and the Rockaways support seasonal or year-round populations of at least 325 bird species, more than 100 species of fish, and more than 80 butterfly species. Jamaica Bay

6435-806: The Science and Resilience Institute at Jamaica Bay (SRIJB), is currently housed at Brooklyn College , but will be relocating to a permanent home at Floyd Bennett Field within the next 3 years.. Notes Sources Estuary Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea level began to rise about 10,000–12,000 years ago. Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphological features or to water-circulation patterns. They can have many different names, such as bays , harbors , lagoons , inlets , or sounds , although some of these water bodies do not strictly meet

6552-616: The United States' entry into World War I , the project was abandoned. The plans were revived by 1927. At the time, the docklands were expected to gain a connection to the Long Island Rail Road . Planners wanted to create a spur of the Bay Ridge Branch south to Flatlands, with two branches to Canarsie and Mill Basin. A connection to Staten Island would be built via the planned Staten Island Tunnel , which would in turn allow freight to be delivered and shipped to

6669-400: The United States. Estuaries are incredibly dynamic systems, where temperature, salinity, turbidity, depth and flow all change daily in response to the tides. This dynamism makes estuaries highly productive habitats, but also make it difficult for many species to survive year-round. As a result, estuaries large and small experience strong seasonal variation in their fish communities. In winter,

6786-513: The above definition of an estuary and could be fully saline. Many estuaries suffer degeneration from a variety of factors including soil erosion , deforestation , overgrazing , overfishing and the filling of wetlands. Eutrophication may lead to excessive nutrients from sewage and animal wastes; pollutants including heavy metals , polychlorinated biphenyls , radionuclides and hydrocarbons from sewage inputs; and diking or damming for flood control or water diversion. The word "estuary"

6903-544: The acquisition of a right-of-way for a proposed LIRR branch to Paerdegat Basin . The railroad would connect to the New York Connecting Railroad , which would then connect to the national railroad system at large. Dredging Paerdegat Basin was a key part of the plan, as it would allow easier access for ships headed to Canarsie. As part of the updated proposal, two artificial islands for shipping operations would be built in Jamaica Bay. In January 1931,

7020-490: The aircraft. Similarly, import cargo that is offloaded needs to be in bond before the consignee decides to take delivery. Areas have to be kept aside for examination of export and import cargo by the airport authorities. Designated areas or sheds may be given to airlines or freight forward ring agencies. Every cargo terminal has a landside and an airside. The landside is where the exporters and importers through either their agents or by themselves deliver or collect shipments while

7137-414: The airline's clubs. Premium services may sometimes be open to passengers who are members of a different airline's frequent flyer program. This can sometimes be part of a reciprocal deal, as when multiple airlines are part of the same alliance, or as a ploy to attract premium customers away from rival airlines. Sometimes these premium services will be offered to a non-premium passenger if the airline has made

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7254-600: The airport that are available for rent by the hour. The smallest type is the capsule hotel popular in Japan. A slightly larger variety is known as a sleep box . An even larger type is provided by the company YOTEL . Some airports provide smoking areas and prayer areas. Airports may also contain premium and VIP services. The premium and VIP services may include express check-in and dedicated check-in counters. These services are usually reserved for first and business class passengers, premium frequent flyers , and members of

7371-547: The airport to private corporations who oversee the airport's operation. For example, in the UK the state-owned British Airports Authority originally operated eight of the nation's major commercial airports – it was subsequently privatized in the late 1980s, and following its takeover by the Spanish Ferrovial consortium in 2006, has been further divested and downsized to operating just Heathrow. Germany's Frankfurt Airport

7488-551: The airport, passengers and staff must be checked by security or border control before being permitted to enter the airside zone. Conversely, passengers arriving from an international flight must pass through border control and customs to access the landside area, in which they exit, unless in airside transit. Most multi-terminal airports have (variously termed) flight/passenger/air connections buses, moving walkways and/or people movers for inter-terminal airside transit. Their airlines can arrange for baggage to be routed directly to

7605-446: The airport. Some airport structures include on-site hotels built within or attached to a terminal building. Airport hotels have grown popular due to their convenience for transient passengers and easy accessibility to the airport terminal. Many airport hotels also have agreements with airlines to provide overnight lodging for displaced passengers. Major airports in such countries as Russia and Japan offer miniature sleeping units within

7722-726: The airside is where loads are moved to or from the aircraft. In addition, cargo terminals are divided into distinct areas – export, import, and interline or transshipment. Airports require parking lots, for passengers who may leave the cars at the airport for a long period of time. Large airports will also have car-rental firms, taxi ranks, bus stops and sometimes a train station. Many large airports are located near railway trunk routes for seamless connection of multimodal transport , for instance Frankfurt Airport , Amsterdam Airport Schiphol , London Heathrow Airport , Tokyo Haneda Airport , Tokyo Narita Airport , Hamad International Airport , London Gatwick Airport and London Stansted Airport . It

7839-829: The area; the English retained this Dutch spelling, but, after repeated reading and speaking of "Jamaica", slowly replaced the liquid sound with the hard "j" of the English pronunciation of the name today. (In the Caribbean, the aboriginal Arawaks named their island Xaymaca , "land of wood and water", and the "x" spelling in Spanish was in time transformed to the hard "j" of the modern English name, "Jamaica".) The location of Jamaica Bay, combined with its rich food resources, make it an important habitat for both plants and animals. This geographic location also provides valuable feeding habitat to marine and estuarine species migrating between

7956-958: The bay by 3,000 pounds per day by 2014. The majority of land and water within this complex is owned by the United States federal government, and the city of New York. Most of Jamaica Bay proper and portions of the uplands and barrier beach are part of the Gateway National Recreation Area 's Jamaica Bay Unit. Administered by the National Park Service, the Jamaica Bay Unit includes the 9,100 acres (37 km) of Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge , as well as Breezy Point Tip, Fort Tilden , Jacob Riis Park and Floyd Bennett Field . There are two state parks at Jamaica Bay, Shirley Chisholm , and Bayswater Point . There are several city parks within

8073-507: The bay complex, including Marine Park , Spring Creek Park and Rockaway Community Park , and numerous smaller parcels of city-owned land such as Tribute Park and Sunset Cove at Broad Channel. Portions of the wetlands and uplands are part of JFK Airport, owned by the city of New York and operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . Occasionally the airport becomes a route of migration of some wildlife species disrupting

8190-628: The bay from sewage treatment plants and runoff result in phytoplankton blooms and high suspended-solid concentrations which, in turn, result in turbid water and low bottom dissolved oxygen concentrations. Jamaica Bay is in the southern portion of the New York metropolitan area , and the uplands around the bay, as well as much of the Rockaway barrier beach, are dominated by urban residential, commercial, and industrial development. The bay itself has been disturbed by dredging , filling, and development. About 49 square kilometres (19 sq mi) of

8307-476: The bay would be converted to land that could be built upon, while residential communities would be built on Long Island for port workers. Railroads would be built to collect cargo from piers, and a canal would extend northward across Long Island to the Long Island Sound . The project began in 1911, despite doubts about the feasibility of the project. Some engineers believed that shifting sand dunes and

8424-535: The boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens in New York City , with a small part touching Nassau County . The bay contains numerous marshy islands. It was known as Grassy Bay as late as the 1940s. Jamaica Bay is located adjacent to the confluence of the New York Bight and New York Bay, and is at the turning point of the primarily east-west oriented coastline of southern New England and Long Island and

8541-452: The bottom where they are harmless. Historically the oysters filtered the estuary's entire water volume of excess nutrients every three or four days. Today that process takes almost a year, and sediment, nutrients, and algae can cause problems in local waters. Some major rivers that run through deserts historically had vast, expansive estuaries that have been reduced to a fraction of their former size, because of dams and diversions. One example

8658-617: The city in force in October 2012, causing billions of dollars of damage, and inundating coastal regions, including Jamaica Bay, with a storm surge estimated at close to 2.5 meters. The impact of Hurricane Sandy revealed the vulnerability of the city's coastal infrastructure to storm surges, and with projections suggesting that the frequency of such storms is likely to increase over the coming century, New York City released "A Stronger, More Resilient New York" in June 2013, an extensive report outlining

8775-534: The departure areas. These include clothing boutiques and restaurants and in the US amounted to $ 4.2 billion in 2015. Prices charged for items sold at these outlets are generally higher than those outside the airport. However, some airports now regulate costs to keep them comparable to "street prices". This term is misleading as prices often match the manufacturers' suggested retail price (MSRP) but are almost never discounted. Many new airports include walkthrough duty-free stores that require air passengers to enter

8892-409: The dissolved oxygen from the water; thus hypoxic or anoxic zones can develop. Nitrogen is often the lead cause of eutrophication in estuaries in temperate zones. During a eutrophication event, biogeochemical feedback decreases the amount of available silica . These feedbacks also increase the supply of nitrogen and phosphorus, creating conditions where harmful algal blooms can persist. Given

9009-645: The distinction of being the first privately owned public airport in Pakistan and South Asia . In the US, commercial airports are generally operated directly by government entities or government-created airport authorities (also known as port authorities ), such as the Los Angeles World Airports authority that oversees several airports in the Greater Los Angeles area , including Los Angeles International Airport . In Canada,

9126-418: The early 20th century. The marshlands are also fast diminishing. Within Jamaica Bay, 1,290 acres (520 ha) of marshland disappeared between 1924 and 1974, of which 780 acres (320 ha) was due to land filling and dredging. Another 526 acres (213 ha) disappeared in 1974–1994, and 220 acres (89 ha) was lost during 1994–1999. By 2007, the bay was losing wetlands at a rate of 33 acres (13 ha)

9243-401: The effects of modifying the estuarine circulation. Fjord -type estuaries are formed in deeply eroded valleys formed by glaciers . These U-shaped estuaries typically have steep sides, rock bottoms, and underwater sills contoured by glacial movement. The estuary is shallowest at its mouth, where terminal glacial moraines or rock bars form sills that restrict water flow. In the upper reaches of

9360-601: The estuary impacted by human activities, and over time may shift the basic composition of the ecosystem, and the reversible or irreversible changes in the abiotic and biotic parts of the systems from the bottom up. For example, Chinese and Russian industrial pollution, such as phenols and heavy metals, has devastated fish stocks in the Amur River and damaged its estuary soil. Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land runoff discharges nutrients into estuaries. With human activities, land run-off also now includes

9477-424: The estuary, the depth can exceed 300 m (1,000 ft). The width-to-depth ratio is generally small. In estuaries with very shallow sills, tidal oscillations only affect the water down to the depth of the sill, and the waters deeper than that may remain stagnant for a very long time, so there is only an occasional exchange of the deep water of the estuary with the ocean. If the sill depth is deep, water circulation

9594-776: The estuary, with only narrow inlets allowing contact with the ocean waters. Bar-built estuaries typically develop on gently sloping plains located along tectonically stable edges of continents and marginal sea coasts. They are extensive along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U.S. in areas with active coastal deposition of sediments and where tidal ranges are less than 4 m (13 ft). The barrier beaches that enclose bar-built estuaries have been developed in several ways: Fjords were formed where Pleistocene glaciers deepened and widened existing river valleys so that they become U-shaped in cross-sections. At their mouths there are typically rocks, bars or sills of glacial deposits , which have

9711-410: The facilities used on a flight like water, food, wifi and shows which is paid while paying for an airline ticket . Aircraft parking is also a major revenue source for airports. Aircraft are parked for a certain amount of time before or after takeoff and have to pay to park there. Every airport has its own rates of parking, for example, John F Kennedy airport in New York City charges $ 45 per hour for

9828-610: The federal authority, Transport Canada, divested itself of all but the remotest airports in 1999/2000. Now most airports in Canada are operated by individual legal authorities, such as Vancouver International Airport Authority (although still owned by Transport Canada); some airports, such as Boundary Bay Airport and Pitt Meadows Airport, are municipally owned. Many US airports still lease part or all of their facilities to outside firms, who operate functions such as retail management and parking. All US commercial airport runways are certified by

9945-609: The fish community is dominated by hardy marine residents, and in summer a variety of marine and anadromous fishes move into and out of estuaries, capitalizing on their high productivity. Estuaries provide a critical habitat to a variety of species that rely on estuaries for life-cycle completion. Pacific Herring ( Clupea pallasii ) are known to lay their eggs in estuaries and bays, surfperch give birth in estuaries, juvenile flatfish and rockfish migrate to estuaries to rear, and anadromous salmonids and lampreys use estuaries as migration corridors. Also, migratory bird populations, such as

10062-486: The flooding in nearly all of these cases. In an effort to reduce the amount of nitrogen being discharged into Jamaica Bay, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection announced the installation of enhanced treatment measures. An innovative technology, called the Ammonia Recovery Process , is now being designed by ThermoEnergy Corporation , which will further reduce nitrogen discharges from

10179-400: The great biodiversity of this ecosystem. During an algal bloom , fishermen have noticed a significant increase in the quantity of fish. A sudden increase in primary productivity causes spikes in fish populations which leads to more oxygen being utilized. It is the continued deoxygenation of the water that then causes a decline in fish populations. These effects can begin in estuaries and have

10296-429: The ground. The salt marshes of Jamaica Bay offer prime habitat for migratory birds and other wildlife . Most of the waters and marshes have been protected since 1972 as part of the Gateway National Recreation Area . Though much improved, pollution is still a problem, and after once enjoying a worldwide reputation for oysters and supporting a vigorous fishing industry the area has been closed to shellfishing since

10413-434: The growth of sea lettuce, smothering other plants. The excess energy may also cause smooth cordgrass to reallocate energy from its roots to its shoots, making it harder for marsh soil to hold together. The loss of marshlands has also contributed to flooding in communities surrounding the bay. In 2020 alone, surrounding neighborhoods were flooded 15 times; dredging, the loss of marshland, and global sea-level rise contributed to

10530-608: The historic and now-defunct Floyd Bennett Field on the western side. The center of the bay is dominated by subtidal open water and extensive low-lying islands with areas of salt marsh, intertidal flats, and uplands important for colonial nesting waterbirds. The average mean low tide exposes 350 acres (1.4 km) of mudflat , 940 acres (3.8 km) of low salt marsh dominated by low marsh cordgrass ( Spartina alterniflora ), and 520 acres (2.1 km) of high marsh dominated by high marsh cordgrass ( Spartina patens ). The extensive intertidal areas are rich in food resources, including

10647-420: The impacts do not end there. Plant death alters the entire food web structure which can result in the death of animals within the afflicted biome . Estuaries are hotspots for biodiversity , containing a majority of commercial fish catch, making the impacts of eutrophication that much greater within estuaries. Some specific estuarine animals feel the effects of eutrophication more strongly than others. One example

10764-489: The industry during the COVID-19 pandemic , there have been discussions on the need for systemic improvements in three primary areas: The surfaces where ground operations occur are generally divided into three regions: runways , taxiways , and aprons . Air traffic control (ATC) is the task of managing aircraft movements and making sure they are safe, orderly and expeditious. At the largest airports, air traffic control

10881-525: The many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. Excess oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of dead zones . This can result in reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. Overfishing also occurs. Chesapeake Bay once had a flourishing oyster population that has been almost wiped out by overfishing. Oysters filter these pollutants, and either eat them or shape them into small packets that are deposited on

10998-422: The marine environment, such as plastics , pesticides , furans , dioxins , phenols and heavy metals . Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation . They also accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds : a geological record of human activities of the last century. The elemental composition of biofilm reflect areas of

11115-575: The marsh causing increased rates of erosion . A similar phenomenon occurs in mangrove swamps , which are another potential ecosystem in estuaries. An increase in nitrogen causes an increase in shoot growth and a decrease in root growth. Weaker root systems cause a mangrove tree to be less resilient in seasons of drought, which can lead to the death of the mangrove. This shift in above ground and below ground biomass caused by eutrophication could hindered plant success in these ecosystems. Across all biomes, eutrophication often results in plant death but

11232-469: The most complex and largest of all built typologies, with 15 of the top 50 buildings by floor area being airport terminals. Smaller or less-developed airfields, which represent the vast majority, often have a single runway shorter than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Larger airports for airline flights generally have paved runways of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) or longer. Skyline Airport in Inkom, Idaho , has

11349-591: The north-south oriented coastline of the mid- Atlantic coast. The name derives from the nearby town of Jamaica , which in turn derives from Yameco , a corruption of a word for "beaver" in the Lenape language spoken by the Native Americans who lived in the area at the time of first European contact. The liquid "y" sound of English is spelled with a "j" in Dutch, the language of the first people to write about

11466-440: The now off-balance nitrogen cycle , estuaries can be driven to phosphorus limitation instead of nitrogen limitation. Estuaries can be severely impacted by an unbalanced phosphorus cycle, as phosphorus interacts with nitrogen and silica availability. With an abundance of nutrients in the ecosystem, plants and algae overgrow and eventually decompose, which produce a significant amount of carbon dioxide. While releasing CO 2 into

11583-558: The one airport terminal allowing ultra-premium customers, such as first class customers, additional services, which are not available to other premium customers. Multiple lounges may also prevent overcrowding of the lounge facilities. In addition to people, airports move cargo around the clock. Cargo airlines often have their own on-site and adjacent infrastructure to transfer parcels between ground and air. Cargo Terminal Facilities are areas where international airports export cargo has to be stored after customs clearance and prior to loading

11700-494: The operation of commercial airports in the rest of the world. The Airport & Airway Trust Fund (AATF) was created by the Airport and Airway Development in 1970 which finances aviation programs in the United States. Airport Improvement Program (AIP), Facilities and Equipment (F&E), and Research, Engineering, and Development (RE&D) are the three major accounts of Federal Aviation Administration which are financed by

11817-413: The original 65 square kilometres (25 sq mi) of wetlands in the bay have been filled in, mostly around the perimeter of the bay. Extensive areas of the bay have been dredged for navigation channels and to provide fill for the airports and other construction projects. This includes John F. Kennedy International Airport (commonly known as JFK Airport) on the northeastern side of the bay, as well as

11934-425: The passenger's destination. Most major airports issue a secure keycard , an airside pass to employees, to assist in their reliable, standardized and efficient verification of identity. A terminal is a building with passenger facilities. Small airports have one terminal. Large ones often have multiple terminals, though some large airports, like Amsterdam Airport Schiphol , still have one terminal. The terminal has

12051-549: The refuge to attract wildlife include autumn olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata ), Japanese black pine ( Pinus thunbergii ), and Japanese barberry ( Berberis thunbergii ). Some modifications to Jamaica Bay were conducted in the early 20th century as a result of a never-realized plan to develop Jamaica Bay as a seaport. As early as 1886, the U.S. Engineering Department (a part of the Army Corps of Engineers ) had created plans to dredge Rockaway Inlet in preparation for constructing

12168-482: The rest of the continental United States. By 1928, the Barren Island Airport was being constructed on the bay's west shore, and advocates for the seaport project were pushing the city to construct the docklands simultaneously. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey offered to build the new railroad link for $ 2 million and lease it to the city. In 1930, the city approved of a report recommending

12285-427: The seawater in a layer that gradually thins as it moves seaward. The denser seawater moves landward along the bottom of the estuary, forming a wedge-shaped layer that is thinner as it approaches land. As a velocity difference develops between the two layers, shear forces generate internal waves at the interface, mixing the seawater upward with the freshwater. An examples of a salt wedge estuary is Mississippi River and

12402-411: The sediment which has a very high oxygen demand. This reduces the levels of oxygen within the sediment often resulting in partially anoxic conditions, which can be further exacerbated by limited water flow. Phytoplankton are key primary producers in estuaries. They move with the water bodies and can be flushed in and out with the tides . Their productivity is largely dependent upon the turbidity of

12519-435: The soil in about 1 acre (4,000 m) of marsh. Opponents are concerned that the dredging may be harmful, perhaps leading to greater loss of marshland than the area saved. Other scientists suggest that the 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) of nitrogen pouring into the bay every day, 92 percent from four sewage treatment plants ringing the bay, may be partly to blame. They hypothesize that the high levels of nitrogen may stimulate

12636-601: The state's Freshwater Wetlands Act of 1975 and Tidal Wetlands Act of 1977. These statutes are in addition to federal regulation under Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 , Section 404 of the Clean Water Act , and various Executive Orders . In 2012, the City of New York and the National Park Service signed an agreement to jointly manage Jamaica Bay and restore its parkland and greenspaces. Hurricane Sandy hit

12753-471: The terms airport and aerodrome are often interchanged. However, in general, the term airport may imply or confer a certain stature upon the aviation facility that other aerodromes may not have achieved. In some jurisdictions, airport is a legal term of art reserved exclusively for those aerodromes certified or licensed as airports by the relevant civil aviation authority after meeting specified certification criteria or regulatory requirements. That

12870-423: The tides in Jamaica Bay might make it impossible to construct the seaport district. The next year, developers began dredging within Jamaica Bay in order to make it navigable for the large vessels that were supposed to use the bay. Significant progress on the dredging had been completed by 1918, and the city allowed the construction of several piers. However, only one pier was built near Barren Island . The pier, which

12987-470: The total revenue of airports. Aeronautical revenue are generated through airline rents and landing, passenger service, parking, and hangar fees. Landing fees are charged per aircraft for landing an airplane in the airport property. Landing fees are calculated through the landing weight and the size of the aircraft which varies but most of the airports have a fixed rate and a charge extra for extra weight. Passenger service fees are charges per passengers for

13104-592: The traffic. Small areas in the upland buffer around the bay and on the Rockaway Peninsula remain in private residential or commercial ownership. Jamaica Bay has been designated and mapped as an otherwise protected beach unit pursuant to the federal Coastal Barrier Resources Act , prohibiting incompatible federal financial assistance or flood insurance within the unit. The New York State Natural Heritage Program , in conjunction with The Nature Conservancy , recognizes two Priority Sites for Biodiversity within

13221-456: The volume of freshwater, the tidal range, and the extent of evaporation of the water in the estuary. Drowned river valleys are also known as coastal plain estuaries. In places where the sea level is rising relative to the land, sea water progressively penetrates into river valleys and the topography of the estuary remains similar to that of a river valley. This is the most common type of estuary in temperate climates. Well-studied estuaries include

13338-453: The water and atmosphere, these organisms are also intaking all or nearly all of the available oxygen creating a hypoxic environment and unbalanced oxygen cycle . The excess carbon in the form of CO 2 can lead to low pH levels and ocean acidification , which is more harmful for vulnerable coastal regions like estuaries. Eutrophication has been seen to negatively impact many plant communities in estuarine ecosystems . Salt marshes are

13455-835: The water. The main phytoplankton present are diatoms and dinoflagellates which are abundant in the sediment. A primary source of food for many organisms on estuaries, including bacteria , is detritus from the settlement of the sedimentation. Of the thirty-two largest cities in the world in the early 1990s, twenty-two were located on estuaries. As ecosystems, estuaries are under threat from human activities such as pollution and overfishing . They are also threatened by sewage, coastal settlement, land clearance and much more. Estuaries are affected by events far upstream, and concentrate materials such as pollutants and sediments. Land run-off and industrial, agricultural, and domestic waste enter rivers and are discharged into estuaries. Contaminants can be introduced which do not disintegrate rapidly in

13572-828: Was sold off to private developers. On March 1, 1962, American Airlines Flight 1 , a Boeing 707 , crashed on takeoff from JFK Airport after its rudder jammed. It crashed into Pumpkin Patch Channel , a remote area of marshland on Jamaica Bay that is part of the Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge. All 95 people on board were killed, including 87 passengers and 8 crew members. On November 12, 2001, American Airlines Flight 587 , an Airbus A300 , crashed after takeoff from JFK Airport after its vertical stabilizer separated in-flight and landed in Jamaica Bay. The aircraft crashed into Belle Harbor, Queens . All 260 people on board were killed, as well as five more people on

13689-421: Was to receive landfill for the other proposed piers, stretched 1 mile (1.6 km) northeast and was 700 feet (210 m) wide. A total of six such piers were planned for this area. In June 1918, a 447-foot-long (136 m) municipally owned pier was opened at Mill Basin . At the time, there were proposals to fill in 8,000 acres (3,200 ha) between Mill and Barren Islands so 14 more piers could be built. With

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