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80-530: The Abdul Latif Jameel Institute for Disease and Emergency Analytics (commonly, the Jameel Institute ) is a research institute at Imperial College London in the fields of epidemiology , mathematical modelling of infectious diseases and emergencies, environmental health , and health economics . Co-founded in 2019 by Imperial College London and Community Jameel, the Jameel Institute

160-543: A cordon sanitaire was used to control an outbreak of Ebola virus disease in Kikwit , Zaire . President Mobutu Sese Seko surrounded the town with troops and suspended all flights into the community. Inside Kikwit, the World Health Organization and Zaire's medical teams erected further cordons sanitaires , isolating burial and treatment zones from the general population and successfully containing

240-520: A 2 m (6.6 ft) distance from anyone else in their household. Supermarkets quickly made priority grocery delivery slots available to those shielding, and the Government arranged for food boxes to be sent to those shielding who needed additional assistance, for example elderly people shielding on their own. This was gradually relaxed from June to allow shielders to spend more time outside, before being suspended indefinitely from 1 August. During

320-491: A 29% to 37% reduction in influenza transmission rates during the 2009 flu epidemic in Mexico. The 2009 swine flu pandemic caused social distancing to rise in popularity, most notably in Mexico, with the country's Ministry of Health advising people to avoid handshakes and kissing as ways of greeting people. A mandatory nationwide school closure enacted in Mexico, which lasted for 18 days from late April 2009 to early May 2009,

400-503: A contaminated surface), and airborne transmission (if the microorganism can survive in the air for long periods). The measures are less effective when an infection is transmitted primarily via contaminated water or food or by vectors such as mosquitoes or other insects. Authorities have encouraged or mandated social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic as it is an important method of preventing transmission of COVID-19 . COVID-19

480-410: A group of epidemiologists endorsed the closure of schools to interrupt the course of the infection, slow the further spread and buy time to research and produce a vaccine. Having studied previous influenza pandemics including the 1918 flu pandemic , the influenza pandemic of 1957 and the 1968 flu pandemic , they reported on the economic and workforce effect school closure would have, particularly with

560-491: A hundred countries have implemented nationwide school closures in response to COVID-19 , impacting over half the world's student population. In the United Kingdom, the government advised the public to avoid public spaces, and cinemas and theaters voluntarily closed to encourage the government's message. With many people disbelieving that COVID-19 is any worse than the seasonal flu , it has been difficult to convince

640-511: A large percentage of doctors and nurses being women, of whom half had children under the age of 16. They also looked at the dynamics of the spread of influenza in France during French school holidays and noted that cases of flu dropped when schools closed and re-emerged when they re-opened. They noted that when teachers in Israel went on strike during the flu season of 1999–2000, visits to doctors and

720-409: A load of 7 million SARS-CoV-2 virus per milliliter that can remain for more than eight minutes, a time-period during which many people could enter or remain in the area. A sneeze can distribute such droplets as far as 7 m (23 ft) or 8 m (26 ft). Social distancing is less effective than face masks at reducing the spread of COVID-19. Various alternatives have been proposed for

800-435: A major challenge, particularly since many teenagers with ASD already have social and communication difficulties. Aggressive and self-injurious behaviors may increase during this time of fear and uncertainty. In his 1957 science fiction novel The Naked Sun , Isaac Asimov portrays a planet where people live with social distancing. They are spread out, miles from each other, across a sparsely-populated world. Communication

880-456: A pandemic, its impact on economy, and resulting hardships may create anxiety. Change in daily circumstances and uncertainty about the future may add onto the mental stress of being away from other people. Psychologist Lennis Echterling noted that, in such social distancing situations, using technology for "connection with loved ones...is imperative" to combat isolation, for the sake of one's well-being. Social worker Mindy Altschul noted that

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960-556: A pandemic. During the 1918 influenza pandemic, military parades in Philadelphia and Boston may have been responsible for spreading the disease by mixing infected sailors with crowds of civilians. Restricting mass gatherings, in combination with other social distancing interventions, may help reduce transmission. A 2020 peer-reviewed study in the British Medical Journal ( The BMJ ) also suggested it as one of

1040-431: A physical distance between people and reducing the number of times people come into close contact with each other. It usually involves keeping a certain distance from others (the distance specified differs from country to country and can change with time) and avoiding gathering together in large groups. By minimising the probability that a given uninfected person will come into physical contact with an infected person,

1120-427: A population where all individuals are equally susceptible to a disease. In a basic model of social distancing, where a proportion f {\displaystyle f} of the population engages in social distancing to decrease their interpersonal contacts to a fraction a {\displaystyle a} of their normal contacts, the new effective reproduction number R {\displaystyle R}

1200-403: A second wave of cases, but remained overall less than in other cities. Bootsma and Ferguson analyzed social distancing interventions in sixteen U.S. cities during the 1918 epidemic and found that time-limited interventions reduced total mortality only moderately (perhaps 10–30%), and that the impact was often very limited because the interventions were introduced too late and lifted too early. It

1280-420: A specific geographic area. Public health messaging, gaining the public's trust (countering misinformation), ensuring community involvement and two-way exchange of ideas can affect the uptake, adherence, and effectiveness of best-evidence social distancing approach to preventing disease spread. The communication approaches, messaging, and delivery mechanisms need to be flexible so that they can be changed as both

1360-402: Is given by: R = [ 1 − ( 1 − a 2 ) f ] R 0 {\displaystyle R=[1-(1-a^{2})f]R_{0}} Where the value of R {\displaystyle R} can be brought below   1 for sufficiently long, containment is achieved, and the number infected should decrease. For any given period of time,

1440-574: Is going on or might not be able to express their fears and frustrations. They also may need extra support to understand what's expected of them in some situations. The adjustment to a new situation can lead to challenging behavior uncharacteristic of the autistic individual's true character. In some countries and demographics, teenagers and young adults within the autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) receive support services including special education, behavioral therapy , occupational therapy, speech services, and individual aides through school, but this can be

1520-575: Is housed in the School of Public Health, within the college's Faculty of Medicine . The mission of the Jameel Institute is "to combat threats from disease worldwide". The Jameel Institute rose to prominence in 2020 under the leadership of Professor Neil Ferguson , Director of the Jameel Institute, when, as part of the Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team , the Jameel Institute published mathematical modelling of

1600-442: Is much more likely to spread over short distances than long ones. However, it can spread over distances longer than 2 m (6 ft) in enclosed, poorly ventilated places and with prolonged exposure. The term "social distancing" was not introduced until the 21st century. Social distancing measures have been successfully implemented in several epidemics. In St. Louis , shortly after the first cases of influenza were detected in

1680-428: Is primarily through technology. A male and a female still need to engage in sex to make a baby, but it is seen as a dangerous, nasty chore. In contrast, when communication is through technology the situation is the reverse: there is no modesty, and casual nudity is frequent. The novel's point of departure is a murder: this seemingly idyllic world, in fact, has serious social problems. From the perspective of epidemiology,

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1760-591: Is that this type of intensive intervention package – or something equivalently effective at reducing transmission – will need to be maintained until a vaccine becomes available (potentially 18 months or more) – given that we predict that transmission will quickly rebound if interventions are relaxed. We show that intermittent social distancing – triggered by trends in disease surveillance – may allow interventions to be relaxed temporarily in relative short time windows, but measures will need to be reintroduced if or when case numbers rebound. The report led to changes in policy by

1840-521: The Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). Prior to the symposium, the Jameel Institute published a recorded discussion between Neil Ferguson, Director of the Jameel Institute, and Tony Blair , former prime minister of the United Kingdom , on the subject of the symposium. The director of the Jameel Institute since its founding is Professor Neil Ferguson , professor of mathematical biology and also director of

1920-777: The COVID-19 pandemic . As part of the COVID-19 pandemic response, researchers from the Jameel Institute provided expert advice to the UK government's Scientific Pandemic Influenza Group on Modelling, Operational sub-group (SPI-M-O). In 2022, SPI-M-O was awarded the Weldon Memorial Prize , which is awarded annually by the University of Oxford for "noteworthy contributions to the development of mathematical or statistical methods applied to problems in Biology". In October 2019,

2000-548: The MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis (MRC GIDA) at Imperial. The Jameel Institute has six research leads : 51°31′05″N 0°10′23″W  /  51.518°N 0.173°W  / 51.518; -0.173 Research institute In the early medieval period, several astronomical observatories were built in the Islamic world. The first of these was the 9th-century Baghdad observatory built during

2080-831: The MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis (MRC GIDA)—published "Report 9: Impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to reduce COVID-19 mortality and healthcare demand", with a focus on the UK and the US. The report found: Two fundamental strategies are possible: (a) mitigation, which focuses on slowing but not necessarily stopping epidemic spread – reducing peak healthcare demand while protecting those most at risk of severe disease from infection, and (b) suppression, which aims to reverse epidemic growth, reducing case numbers to low levels and maintaining that situation indefinitely. Each policy has major challenges. We find that that optimal mitigation policies (combining home isolation of suspect cases, home quarantine of those living in

2160-720: The Ottoman Empire , imposed from 1770 until 1871 to prevent persons infected with the bubonic plague from entering Austria, were reportedly effective, as there were no major outbreaks of plague in Austrian territory after they were established, whereas the Ottoman Empire continued to suffer frequent epidemics of plague until the mid-nineteenth century. A Northeastern University study published in March 2020 found that "travel restrictions to and from China only slow down

2240-706: The Rockefeller Institute , Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Institute for Advanced Study . Research was advanced in both theory and application. This was aided by substantial private donation. As of 2006, there were over 14,000 research centres in the United States. The expansion of universities into the faculty of research fed into these developments as mass education produced mass scientific communities . A growing public consciousness of scientific research brought public perception to

2320-977: The World Health Organization recommends that a distance of 1 m (3.3 ft) or more is safe. Subsequently, China , Denmark , France , Hong Kong , Lithuania and Singapore adopted a 1 m social distancing policy. South Korea adopted 1.4 m (4.6 ft). Australia , Belgium , Germany , Greece , Italy , Netherlands , Portugal and Spain adopted 1.5 m (4.9 ft). The United States adopted 6 ft (1.8 m), and Canada adopted 2 m (6.6 ft). The United Kingdom first advised 2 m, then on 4 July 2020 reduced this to "one metre plus" where other methods of mitigation such as face masks were in use. The WHO's one-metre recommendation stems from research into droplet-based transmission of tuberculosis by William F. Wells , which had found that droplets produced by exhalation, coughs, or sneezes landed an average of 3 ft (0.9 m) from where they were expelled. Quartz speculated that

2400-456: The disease transmission can be suppressed, resulting in fewer deaths . The measures may be used in combination with others, such as good respiratory hygiene , face masks and hand washing . To slow down the spread of infectious diseases and avoid overburdening healthcare systems, particularly during a pandemic , several social-distancing measures are used, including the closing of schools and workplaces, isolation , quarantine , restricting

2480-506: The 2003 SARS outbreak in Singapore , approximately 8000 people were subjected to mandatory home quarantine and an additional 4300 were required to self-monitor for symptoms and make daily telephone contact with health authorities as a means of controlling the epidemic. Although only 58 of these individuals were eventually diagnosed with SARS, public health officials were satisfied that this measure assisted in preventing further spread of

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2560-584: The COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, shielding referred to special advisory measures put in place by the UK Government to protect those at the highest risk of serious illness from the disease. This included those with weakened immune systems (such as organ transplant recipients), as well as those with certain medical conditions such as cystic fibrosis or severe asthma. Until 1 June 2020, those shielding were strongly advised not to leave home for any reason at all, including essential travel, and to maintain

2640-551: The International Centre for Theoretical Physics and the research complex Elettra Sincrotrone Trieste, the biology project EMBL, and the fusion project ITER which in addition to technical developments has a strong research focus. Research institutes came to emerge at the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1900, at least in Europe and the United States, the scientific profession had only evolved so far as to include

2720-803: The Jameel Institute began publishing regular reports with results of mathematical modelling of the spread of the virus. The Jameel Institute and other research centers in Imperial involved in the modelling were later grouped into the Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team. As of November 2020, the team had published 36 reports. On 16 March 2020, the Jameel Institute—together with the World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Infectious Disease Modelling and

2800-529: The Jameel Institute had over 130,000 enrolled learners that year. The course was presented by Jameel Institute research lead Professor Helen Ward and deputy director Dr Katharina Hauck , with specific modules in collaboration with other researchers from across Imperial. The inaugural symposium, marking the Jameel Institute's first anniversary, took place on 24 November 2020, featuring Dame Sally Davies , former chief medical officer for England , and Professor Esther Duflo , Nobel Prize laureate and co-founder of

2880-529: The Jameel Institute was co-founded by Imperial and Community Jameel, an organisation of the Jameel family, owners of the Abdul Latif Jameel business. The Jameel Institute was launched at a signing ceremony on Imperial's White City campus , with Imperial's president, Alice Gast , and Fady Jameel and Hassan Jameel , presidents of Community Jameel. In 2020, from the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic,

2960-534: The U.S. CDC's adoption of 6 ft (1.8 m) may have stemmed from a study of SARS transmission on an airplane, published in The New England Journal of Medicine . When contacted, however, the CDC did not provide any specific information. Some have suggested that distances greater than 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) should be observed. One minute of loud speaking can produce oral droplets with

3040-409: The UK and US governments, including more stringent social distancing , quarantine , and other preventative measures, as well as informing policy in other countries worldwide. To provide education about the pandemic, the Jameel Institute launched a free massive open online course on Coursera called " Science Matters: Let's Talk About COVID-19 ". The most popular course launched on Coursera in 2020,

3120-576: The United States, with more than 2,000 deaths in New York City alone, movie theaters were closed, meetings were cancelled, public gatherings were almost non-existent, and children were warned not to drink from water fountains, and told to avoid amusement parks, swimming pools and beaches. During the influenza pandemic of 1918 , Philadelphia saw its first cases of influenza on 17 September. The city continued with its planned parade and gathering of more than 200 000 people on 28 September and over

3200-403: The basic goal behind social distancing is to decrease the effective reproduction number , R e {\displaystyle R_{e}} or R {\displaystyle R} , which in the absence of social distancing would equate to the basic reproduction number , i.e. the average number of secondary infected individuals generated from one primary infected individual in

3280-448: The best-evidence social distancing measures change and as the community needs change. Leper colonies and lazarettos were established as a means of preventing the spread of leprosy and other contagious diseases through social distancing, until transmission was understood and effective treatments invented. During the 1916 New York City polio epidemic , when there were more than 27,000 cases and more than 6,000 deaths due to polio in

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3360-562: The city during the 1918 flu pandemic , authorities implemented school closures, bans on public gatherings and other social-distancing interventions. The influenza fatality rates in St. Louis were much less than in Philadelphia , which had fewer cases of influenza but allowed a mass parade to continue and did not introduce social distancing until more than two weeks after its first cases. The World Health Organization (WHO) has suggested using

3440-404: The city took two days to implement several social distancing measures, including closing schools, theatres, and other places where people get together. It banned public gatherings, including funerals. The actions slowed the spread of influenza in St. Louis and a spike in cases and deaths, as had happened in Philadelphia, did not occur. The final death rate in St. Louis increased following

3520-488: The community, as opposed to essential services ). Cancellation of mass gatherings includes sports events, films or musical shows. Evidence published in 2006 suggesting that mass gatherings increase the potential for infectious disease transmission is inconclusive. Anecdotal evidence suggests certain types of mass gatherings may be associated with increased risk of influenza transmission , and may also "seed" new strains into an area, instigating community transmission in

3600-444: The concept of "social distancing" ought to be reframed as "physical distancing", so as to emphasize the fact that being physically isolated need not, and should not, result in being socially isolated. People with autism also suffer impact from social distancing. Adjusting to a new routine can be stressful for everyone within the spectrum but especially for children who have trouble with change. Children with autism may not know what

3680-500: The fore in driving specific research developments. After the Second World War and the atom bomb specific research threads were followed: environmental pollution and national defence . Social distancing In public health, social distancing , also called physical distancing , is a set of non-pharmaceutical interventions or measures intended to prevent the spread of a contagious disease by maintaining

3760-491: The highly interconnected nature of modern transportation hubs, a highly contagious illness can achieve rapid geographic spread if appropriate mitigation measures are not taken early. Consequently, highly coordinated efforts must be put into place early during an outbreak to proactively monitor, detect, and isolate any potentially infectious individuals. If community spread is present, more aggressive measures may be required, up to and including complete cessation of travel in/out of

3840-612: The infection. During the 1918 influenza epidemic , the town of Gunnison , Colorado, isolated itself for two months to prevent an introduction of the infection. Highways were barricaded and arriving train passengers were quarantined for five days. As a result of the isolation, no one died of influenza in Gunnison during the epidemic. Several other communities adopted similar measures. Other measures include shutting down or limiting mass transit and closure of sport facilities (community swimming pools, youth clubs, gymnasiums ). Due to

3920-453: The infection. Voluntary self-isolation may have helped reduce transmission of influenza in Texas in 2009. Short and long-term negative psychological effects have been reported. The objective of stay-at-home orders is to reduce day-to-day contact between people and thereby reduce the spread of infection During the COVID-19 pandemic , early and aggressive implementation of stay-at-home orders

4000-676: The international spread of COVID-19 [when] combined with efforts to reduce transmission on a community and an individual level. ... Travel restrictions aren't enough unless we couple it with social distancing." The study found that the travel ban in Wuhan delayed the spread of the disease to other parts of mainland China only by three to five days, although it did reduce the spread of international cases by as much as 80 percent. Shielding measures for individuals include limiting face-to-face contacts, conducting business by phone or online, avoiding public places and reducing unnecessary travel. During

4080-476: The key components of an effective strategy in reducing the burden of COVID-19. Border restrictions or internal travel restrictions are unlikely to delay an epidemic by more than two to three weeks unless implemented with over 99% coverage. Airport screening was found to be ineffective in preventing viral transmission during the 2003 SARS outbreak in Canada and the U.S. Strict border controls between Austria and

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4160-482: The movement of people and the cancellation of mass gatherings . Drawbacks of social distancing can include loneliness , reduced productivity and the loss of other benefits associated with human interaction . Social distancing measures are most effective when the infectious disease spreads via one or more of the following methods, droplet contact (coughing or sneezing), direct physical contact (including sexual contact), indirect physical contact (such as by touching

4240-484: The number of respiratory infections dropped by more than a fifth and more than two fifths respectively. During the SARS outbreak of 2003 , social distancing measures were implemented, such as banning large gatherings, closing schools and theaters, and other public places, supplemented public health measures such as finding and isolating affected people, quarantining their close contacts, and infection control procedures. This

4320-406: The overall infection transmission rate is around 11.9% and the epidemic peak time is slightly delayed. In contrast, if 33% of affected workplaces are closed, the attack rate decreases to 4.9%, and the peak time is delayed by one week. Workplace closures include closure of "non-essential" businesses and social services ("non-essential" means those facilities that do not maintain primary functions in

4400-680: The peak of the outbreak. Facebook , Twitter and Instagram also joined the campaign with similar hashtags, stickers and filters under #staythefhome, #stayhome, #staythefuckhome and began trending across social media. The website claims to have reached about two million people online and says the text has been translated into 17 languages. There are concerns that social distancing can have adverse affects on participants' mental health. It may lead to stress , anxiety , depression or panic , especially for individuals with preexisting conditions such as anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorders , and paranoia . Widespread media coverage about

4480-590: The popular thumbs up gesture, the wave , the shaka (or "hang loose") sign , and placing a palm on one's heart, as practiced in parts of Iran. Mathematical modeling has shown that transmission of an outbreak may be delayed by closing schools. However, effectiveness depends on the contacts children maintain outside of school. Often, one parent has to take time off work, and prolonged closures may be required. These factors could result in social and economic disruption. Modeling and simulation studies based on U.S. data suggest that if 10% of affected workplaces are closed,

4560-464: The preferred policy option. We show that in the UK and US context, suppression will minimally require a combination of social distancing of the entire population, home isolation of cases and household quarantine of their family members. This may need to be supplemented by school and university closures, though it should be recognised that such closures may have negative impacts on health systems due to increased absenteeism. The major challenge of suppression

4640-762: The principles of mass production and large-scale teamwork to the process of invention in the late 1800s, and because of that, he is often credited with the creation of the first industrial research laboratory. From the throes of the Scientific Revolution came the 17th century scientific academy. In London, the Royal Society was founded in 1660, and in France Louis XIV founded the Académie royale des sciences in 1666 which came after private academic assemblies had been created earlier in

4720-568: The public—particularly youth, and the anti vaxx community to voluntarily adopt social distancing practices. In Belgium , media reported a rave was attended by at least 300 before it was broken up by local authorities. In France , teens making nonessential trips are fined up to US$ 150. Beaches were closed in Florida and Alabama to disperse partygoers during spring break. Weddings were broken up in New Jersey and an 8   p.m. curfew

4800-405: The risk of becoming infected during outbreaks of infectious respiratory diseases (for example, flu pandemics and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020.) These distances of separation, in addition to personal hygiene measures, are also recommended at places of work. Where possible, remote work may be encouraged. The distance advised by authorities varies. During the COVID-19 pandemic, for example,

4880-511: The risk of transmission of disease". During the 2009 swine flu pandemic the WHO described social distancing as "keeping at least an arm's length distance from others, [and] minimizing gatherings". During the COVID-19 pandemic, the CDC defined social distancing as "remaining out of congregate settings, avoiding mass gatherings, and maintaining distance (approximately six feet or two meters) from others when possible". Social distancing, combined with

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4960-433: The same household as suspect cases, and social distancing of the elderly and others at most risk of severe disease) might reduce peak healthcare demand by 2/3 and deaths by half. However, the resulting mitigated epidemic would still likely result in hundreds of thousands of deaths and health systems (most notably intensive care units) being overwhelmed many times over. For countries able to achieve it, this leaves suppression as

5040-455: The school seems to have ended with Narayana Bhattathiri (1559–1632). In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently discovered a number of important mathematical concepts. The earliest research institute in Europe was Tycho Brahe 's Uraniborg complex on the island of Hven , a 16th-century astronomical laboratory set up to make highly accurate measurements of

5120-516: The seventeenth century to foster research. In the early 18th century, Peter the Great established an educational-research institute to be built in his newly created imperial capital, St Petersburg . His plan combined provisions for linguistic, philosophical and scientific instruction with a separate academy in which graduates could pursue further scientific research. It was the first institution of its kind in Europe to conduct scientific research within

5200-520: The significance of children in spreading COVID-19 is unclear. While the full impact of school closures during the coronavirus pandemic are not yet known, UNESCO advises that school closures have negative impacts on local economies and on learning outcomes for students. In early March 2020, the sentiment "Stay Home" was coined by Florian Reifschneider, a German engineer and was quickly echoed by notable celebrities such as Taylor Swift , Ariana Grande and Busy Philipps in hopes of reducing and delaying

5280-465: The stars. In the United States there are numerous notable research institutes including Bell Labs , Xerox Parc , The Scripps Research Institute , Beckman Institute , RTI International , and SRI International . Hughes Aircraft used a research institute structure for its organizational model. Thomas Edison , dubbed "The Wizard of Menlo Park", was one of the first inventors to apply

5360-843: The structure of a university. The St Petersburg Academy was established by decree on 28 January 1724. At the European level, there are now several government-funded institutions such as the European Space Agency (ESA), the nuclear research centre CERN , the European Southern Observatory (ESO) (Grenoble), the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) (Grenoble), EUMETSAT , the Italian-European Sistema Trieste with, among others,

5440-403: The subsequent three days, the city's 31 hospitals became fully occupied. During the week ending 16 October, over 4500 people died. Social distancing measures were introduced on 3   October, on the orders of St. Louis physician Max C. Starkloff , more than two weeks after the first case. Unlike Philadelphia, St. Louis experienced its first cases of influenza on 5   October and

5520-479: The term "physical distancing" instead of "social distancing" because it is physical separation which prevents transmission; people can remain socially connected by meeting outdoors at a safe distance (when there is no stay-at-home order ) and by meeting via technology. The American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have described social distancing as a set of "methods for reducing frequency and closeness of contact between people in order to decrease

5600-421: The theoretical implications of science and not its application. Research scientists had yet to establish a leadership in expertise. Outside scientific circles it was generally assumed that a person in an occupation related to the sciences carried out work which was necessarily "scientific" and that the skill of the scientist did not hold any more merit than the skill of a labourer. A philosophical position on science

5680-509: The time of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun , though the most famous were the 13th-century Maragheh observatory , and the 15th-century Ulugh Beg Observatory . The Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics was a school of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kerala , India . The school flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries and the original discoveries of

5760-649: The tradition of handshaking . The gesture of namaste , placing one's palms together, fingers pointing upwards, drawing the hands to the heart, is one non-touch alternative. During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom , this gesture was used by Prince Charles upon greeting reception guests, and has been recommended by the Director-General of the WHO , Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus , and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu . Other alternatives include

5840-462: The use of face masks, good respiratory hygiene and hand washing , is considered the most feasible way to reduce or delay a pandemic. Several social distancing measures are used to control the spread of contagious illnesses. Research indicates that measures must be applied rigorously and immediately in order to be effective. Keeping a set physical distance from each other and avoiding hugs and gestures that involve direct physical contact, reduce

5920-449: The widespread closure of primary , secondary , and post-secondary schools in more than 120 countries. As of 23 March 2020, more than 1.2 billion learners were out of school due to school closures in response to COVID-19 . Given low rates of COVID-19 symptoms among children, the effectiveness of school closures has been called into question. Even when school closures are temporary, it carries high social and economic costs. However,

6000-508: Was a form of social distancing aimed at reducing the transmission of Swine flu . A study from 2011 found the mandatory nationwide school closure and other forms of social distancing in Mexico were effective at reducing influenza transmission rates. During the swine flu outbreak in 2009 in the UK , in an article titled "Closure of schools during an influenza pandemic" published in The Lancet Infectious Diseases ,

6080-537: Was combined with the wearing of masks for certain people. During this time in Canada, "community quarantine" was used to reduce transmission of the disease with moderate success. Social distancing was noted advice during the 2009 swine flu pandemic , especially as people started wearing N95 respirators . During the COVID-19 pandemic , social distancing and related measures are emphasized by several governments as alternatives to an enforced quarantine of heavily affected areas. According to UNESCO monitoring, more than

6160-414: Was effective in "flattening the curve" and provided the much needed time for healthcare systems to increase their capacity while reducing the number of peak cases during the initial wave of illness. It is important for public health authorities to follow disease trends closely to re-implement appropriate social distancing policies, including stay-at-home orders, if secondary COVID-19 waves appear. In 1995,

6240-590: Was imposed in Newark . New York, New Jersey, Connecticut and Pennsylvania were the first states to adopt coordinated social distancing policies which closed down non-essential businesses and restricted large gatherings. Shelter in place orders in California were extended to the entire state on 19 March. On the same day Texas declared a public disaster and imposed statewide restrictions. These preventive measures such as social-distancing and self-isolation prompted

6320-597: Was not thought by all researchers to be intellectually superior to applied methods. However any research on scientific application was limited by comparison. A loose definition attributed all naturally occurring phenomena to "science". The growth of scientific study stimulated a desire to reinvigorate the scientific discipline by robust research in order to extract "pure" science from such broad categorisation. This began with research conducted autonomously away from public utility and governmental supervision. Enclaves for industrial investigations became established. These included

6400-510: Was observed that several cities experienced a second epidemic peak after social distancing controls were lifted, because susceptible individuals who had been protected were now exposed. School closures were shown to reduce morbidity from the Asian flu by 90% during the 1957–1958 pandemic , and up to 50% in controlling influenza in the U.S., 2004–2008. Similarly, mandatory school closures and other social distancing measures were associated with

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