James Rush (1786–1869) was an American physician and writer.
98-742: Dr. James Rush, son of doctor Benjamin Rush , was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on March 1, 1786. He graduated from Princeton in 1805, and at the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania in 1809. He subsequently studied in Edinburgh, and, returning to Philadelphia, practised for several years, but afterward relinquished the active duties of his profession to devote himself to scientific and literary pursuits. He married his wife, Phoebe Ann Rush , in 1819. Phoebe Ann
196-466: A blessing that the Lord had put it into our hearts to wait upon... those gentle-men. They pitied our situation, and subscribed largely towards the church, and were very friendly towards us and advised us how to go on. We appointed Mr. Ralston our treasurer. Dr. Rush did much for us in public by his influence. I hope the name of Dr. Benjamin Rush and Mr. Robert Ralston will never be forgotten among us. They were
294-719: A civic leader in Philadelphia , where he was a physician, politician, social reformer, humanitarian, educator, and the founder of Dickinson College . Rush was a Pennsylvania delegate to the Continental Congress . He later described his efforts in support of the American Revolution, saying: "He aimed right." He served as surgeon general of the Continental Army and became a professor of chemistry, medical theory, and clinical practice at
392-648: A general and a soldier from among 10,000 people. There is not a king in Europe that would not look like a valet de chambre by his side." Rush believed that, while America was free from British rule, the "American Revolution" had yet to finish. As expressed in his 1787 'Address to the People of the United States', "The American war is over: but this is far from being the case with the American revolution. On
490-483: A judgment of $ 5,000 and $ 3,000 in court costs, which was only partially paid before Cobbett returned to England. Nonetheless, Rush's practice waned as he continued to advocate bloodletting and purges, much to the chagrin of his friend Thomas Jefferson. Some even blamed Rush's bleeding for hastening the death of Benjamin Franklin , as well as George Washington (although the only one of Washington's medics who opposed
588-516: A letter dated "12/22 Dec. 1635". In his biography of John Dee , The Queen's Conjurer , Benjamin Woolley surmises that because Dee fought unsuccessfully for England to embrace the 1583/84 date set for the change, "England remained outside the Gregorian system for a further 170 years, communications during that period customarily carrying two dates". In contrast, Thomas Jefferson , who lived while
686-422: A letter to John Adams , Rush describes his religious views as "a compound of the orthodoxy and heterodoxy of most of our Christian churches." Christian Universalists consider him one of their founders, although Rush stopped attending that church after the death of his friend, former Baptist pastor Elhanan Winchester , in 1797. Rush fought for temperance and both public and Sunday schools. He helped found
784-615: A medical libertarian: "Unless we put medical freedoms into the Constitution, the time will come when medicine will organize into an undercover dictatorship [. . .] To restrict the art of healing to one class of men and deny equal privileges to others will constitute the Bastille of medical science. All such laws are un-American and despotic and have no place in a republic [. . .] The Constitution of this republic should make special privilege for medical freedom as well as religious freedom,"
882-434: A member of the cabinets of James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk , and Zachary Taylor (at one point during each of their presidencies). In 1812, Rush helped reconcile the friendship of Jefferson and Adams by encouraging the two former presidents to resume writing to each other. Once divided over politics and political rivalries, Jefferson and Adams grew close. On July 4, 1826,
980-400: A more enlightened penal system. As a leading physician, Rush had a major impact on the emerging medical profession. As an Enlightenment intellectual, Rush was committed to organizing all medical knowledge around explanatory theories, rather than relying on empirical methods . Rush argued that illness was the result of imbalances in the body's physical system and was caused by malfunctions in
1078-516: A piece of bread, and afterwards spreading over it, a thin covering of butter." Rush followed the standard procedures of bleeding and treatment with mercury, he did believe that "coercion" and "restraint", the physical punishment, chains and dungeons, which were the practice of the time, were the answer as proven by his invention of the restraint chair and other devices. For this reason, some aspects of his approach could be seen as similar to Moral Therapy , which would soon rise to prominence in at least
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#17327718178991176-549: A prominent Presbyterian doctor and professor of chemistry in Philadelphia, he provided a bold and respected voice against the slave trade. He warmly praised the ministry of "Black Harry" Hosier , the freedman circuit rider who accompanied Bishop Francis Asbury during the establishment of the Methodist Church in America, but the highlight of his involvement was the pamphlet he wrote in 1773 entitled "An Address to
1274-911: A start-of-year adjustment works well with little confusion for events before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is well known to have been fought on 25 October 1415, which is Saint Crispin's Day . However, for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in Continental Western Europe and in British domains. Events in Continental Western Europe are usually reported in English-language histories by using
1372-610: A stranger." Rush published one of the first descriptions and treatments for psychiatric disorders in American medicine, Medical Inquiries and Observations, Upon the Diseases of the Mind (1812). He undertook to classify different forms of mental illness and to theorize as to their causes and possible cures. Rush believed (incorrectly) that many mental illnesses were caused by disruptions of blood circulation or by sensory overload and treated them with devices meant to improve circulation to
1470-541: A systematic manner, and he is considered the father of American Psychiatry. During his career, he educated over 3,000 medical students, and several of these established Rush Medical College in Chicago in his honor after his death. His students included Valentine Seaman , who mapped yellow fever mortality patterns in New York and introduced the smallpox vaccine to the United States in 1799. One of his last apprentices
1568-536: Is 9 February 1649, the date by which his contemporaries in some parts of continental Europe would have recorded his execution. The O.S./N.S. designation is particularly relevant for dates which fall between the start of the "historical year" (1 January) and the legal start date, where different. This was 25 March in England, Wales, Ireland and the colonies until 1752, and until 1600 in Scotland. In Britain, 1 January
1666-404: Is his analysis of race. In reviewing the case of Henry Moss, a slave who lost his dark skin color (probably through vitiligo ), Rush characterized being black as a hereditary and curable skin disease. Rush wrote that the "disease, instead of inviting us [whites] to tyrannise over them [blacks], it should entitle them to a double portion of our humanity." He added that this "should teach white people
1764-704: Is likely a misattribution. No primary source for it has been found, and the words "un-American" and "undercover" are anachronisms, as their usage as such did not appear until after Rush's death. Before 1779, Rush's religious views were influenced by what he described as "Fletcher's controversy with the Calvinists in favor of the Universality of the atonement." After hearing Elhanan Winchester preach, Rush indicated that this theology "embraced and reconciled my ancient calvinistical, and my newly adopted ( Arminian ) principles. From that time on I have never doubted upon
1862-537: The College of Philadelphia (which in 1791 changed its name to its present name, University of Pennsylvania ). After his election to the revived American Philosophical Society in 1768, Rush served as the society's curator from 1770 to 1773, as secretary from 1773 to 1773, and vice president from 1797 to 1801. Rush ultimately published the first American textbook on chemistry and several volumes on medical student education and wrote influential patriotic essays. Rush
1960-609: The Russian Empire and the very beginning of Soviet Russia . For example, in the article "The October (November) Revolution", the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the format of "25 October (7 November, New Style)" to describe the date of the start of the revolution. The Latin equivalents, which are used in many languages, are, on the one hand, stili veteris (genitive) or stilo vetere (ablative), abbreviated st.v. , and meaning "(of/in) old style" ; and, on
2058-559: The United States Mint , serving from 1797 to 1813. He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1788. He became a professor of medical theory and clinical practice at the University of Pennsylvania in 1791, though the quality of his medicine was quite primitive even for the time: he advocated bloodletting for almost any illness, long after its practice had declined. While teaching at
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#17327718178992156-600: The University of Edinburgh in Scotland, where Rush studied from 1766 to 1768 and earned an M.D. degree. Rush became fluent in French, Italian, and Spanish as a result of his studies and European tour. While at Edinburgh , he became a friend of the Earl of Leven and his family, including William Leslie . Returning to the Colonies in 1769, Rush opened a medical practice in Philadelphia and became professor of chemistry at
2254-647: The University of Pennsylvania . Dr. Benjamin Rush was a leader of the American Enlightenment and an enthusiastic supporter of the American Revolution . He was a leader in Pennsylvania's ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1788. He was prominent in many reforms, especially in the areas of medicine and education. He opposed slavery, advocated free public schools, and sought improved, but patriarchal, education for women, and
2352-494: The West Indies where there were yellow fever outbreaks every year. However, he also helped the population of the city by convincing Richard Allen to ask members of his African Methodist Episcopal Church and other free blacks, who it was believed were less affected by yellow fever than other Philadelphians, to perform volunteer aid work for doctors and funeral homes . Rush came down with yellow fever himself during
2450-673: The 1793 epidemic, although he recovered from it. Rush took on several social causes during his lifetime. Rush became a social activist and an abolitionist and was a founding member of the Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons (known today as the Pennsylvania Prison Society ), which greatly influenced the construction of Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia. He supported Thomas Jefferson for president in 1796 over
2548-539: The 4th century , had drifted from reality . The Gregorian calendar reform also dealt with the accumulated difference between these figures, between the years 325 and 1582, by skipping 10 days to set the ecclesiastical date of the equinox to be 21 March, the median date of its occurrence at the time of the First Council of Nicea in 325. Countries that adopted the Gregorian calendar after 1699 needed to skip an additional day for each subsequent new century that
2646-549: The 50th anniversary of the signing of the U.S. Declaration of Independence , Jefferson and Adams both died within hours of each other. After dying of typhus fever , he was buried (in Section N67) along with his wife Julia in the Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia, not far from where Benjamin Franklin is buried. At the site, a small plaque honoring Benjamin Rush has been placed. However,
2744-779: The Bible Society at Philadelphia (now known as the Pennsylvania Bible Society ) and promoted the American Sunday School Union . When many public schools stopped using the Bible as a textbook, Rush proposed that the U.S. government require such use, as well as furnish an American Bible to every family at public expense. In 1806, Rush proposed inscribing "The Son of Man Came into the World, Not To Destroy Men's Lives, But To Save Them." above
2842-583: The Boyne was commemorated with smaller parades on 1 July. However, both events were combined in the late 18th century, and continue to be celebrated as " The Twelfth ". Because of the differences, British writers and their correspondents often employed two dates, a practice called dual dating , more or less automatically. Letters concerning diplomacy and international trade thus sometimes bore both Julian and Gregorian dates to prevent confusion. For example, Sir William Boswell wrote to Sir John Coke from The Hague
2940-515: The British Isles and colonies converted to the Gregorian calendar, instructed that his tombstone bear his date of birth by using the Julian calendar (notated O.S. for Old Style) and his date of death by using the Gregorian calendar. At Jefferson's birth, the difference was eleven days between the Julian and Gregorian calendars and so his birthday of 2 April in the Julian calendar is 13 April in
3038-410: The British colonies, changed the start of the year from 25 March to 1 January, with effect from "the day after 31 December 1751". (Scotland had already made this aspect of the changes, on 1 January 1600.) The second (in effect ) adopted the Gregorian calendar in place of the Julian calendar. Thus "New Style" can refer to the start-of-year adjustment , to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar , or to
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3136-623: The Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. However, confusion occurs when an event involves both. For example, William III of England arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November (Julian calendar), after he had set sail from the Netherlands on 11 November (Gregorian calendar) 1688. The Battle of the Boyne in Ireland took place a few months later on 1 July 1690 (Julian calendar). That maps to 11 July (Gregorian calendar), conveniently close to
3234-466: The Gregorian calendar. Similarly, George Washington is now officially reported as having been born on 22 February 1732, rather than on 11 February 1731/32 (Julian calendar). The philosopher Jeremy Bentham , born on 4 February 1747/8 (Julian calendar), in later life celebrated his birthday on 15 February. There is some evidence that the calendar change was not easily accepted. Many British people continued to celebrate their holidays "Old Style" well into
3332-498: The Human Voice was published in 1827 and considered one of the most important work behind the science of speech at its time. In his book, he discusses his thoughts on human speech, discussing his idea on how speech of one could be controlled and improved instead of pre-determined. The main concept Rush wanted to establish was how the "voice must have distinct meanings or signs for declaring our thoughts and actions". Rush determined
3430-414: The Human Voice , but he was unsatisfied with their conclusions and decided to work towards this connection himself. This work looked to focus on the connection of the mind and the voice, stating "when we shall have a clear physical history of the mind as we now have of the voice, the two subjects will form the first and second parts, but not the whole of the physiology of the senses and the brain". Rush coined
3528-548: The Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, upon Slave-Keeping." In this first of his many attacks on the social evils of his day, he assailed the slave trade as well as the entire institution of slavery. Rush argued scientifically that Blacks were not by nature intellectually or morally inferior. Any apparent evidence to the contrary was only the perverted expression of slavery, which "is so foreign to
3626-430: The Julian and Gregorian dating systems respectively. The need to correct the calendar arose from the realisation that the correct figure for the number of days in a year is not 365.25 (365 days 6 hours) as assumed by the Julian calendar but slightly less (c. 365.242 days). The Julian calendar therefore has too many leap years . The consequence was that the basis for the calculation of the date of Easter , as decided in
3724-581: The Julian calendar had added since then. When the British Empire did so in 1752, the gap had grown to eleven days; when Russia did so (as its civil calendar ) in 1918, thirteen days needed to be skipped. In the Kingdom of Great Britain and its possessions, the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 introduced two concurrent changes to the calendar. The first, which applied to England, Wales, Ireland and
3822-517: The Julian date of the subsequent (and more decisive) Battle of Aughrim on 12 July 1691 (Julian). The latter battle was commemorated annually throughout the 18th century on 12 July, following the usual historical convention of commemorating events of that period within Great Britain and Ireland by mapping the Julian date directly onto the modern Gregorian calendar date (as happens, for example, with Guy Fawkes Night on 5 November). The Battle of
3920-472: The Pennsylvania legislature to abolish the death penalty for all crimes other than first-degree murder . He authored a 1792 treatise on punishing murder by death in which he made three principal arguments: Rush led the state of Pennsylvania to establish the first state penitentiary, the Walnut Street Prison , in 1790. Rush campaigned for long-term imprisonment, the denial of liberty, as both
4018-601: The Philadelphia Library, banning every-day novels, mind-tainting reviews, controversial politics and newspapers in the hope to keep the library from becoming too urban. At an early age, James Rush was pressured by his father, Benjamin Rush, to become a physician and eventually take over the family practice. After graduating from Princeton in 1805, Rush studied under his father at the University of Pennsylvania, learning and adopting many of his medical practices,
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4116-533: The Solemnity with which the whole business was conducted." While Rush was representing Pennsylvania in the Continental Congress (and serving on its medical committee), he also used his medical skills in the field. Rush accompanied the Philadelphia militia during the battles after which the British occupied Philadelphia and most of New Jersey. He was depicted serving in the Battle of Princeton in
4214-616: The United States in its form and adoption is as much the work of a Divine Providence as any of the miracles recorded in the Old and New Testament". In 1798, after the Constitution's adoption, Rush declared: "The only foundation for a useful education in a republic is to be laid in Religion. Without this there can be no virtue, and without virtue there can be no liberty, and liberty is the object and life of all republican governments." One quote popularly assigned to Rush, however, which portrays him as
4312-512: The United States. Upon returning, James Rush took over his father's practice without losing any significant amount of patients. After the death of his father, Rush began to lose interest in his practice as a physician and began exploring other avenues of life. Rush found that democratic life was incapable of studying basic science and decided to spend his time researching science rather than running his family's practice. His publications include: Credited as Rush's most important work, Philosophy of
4410-756: The University of Pennsylvania, one of his students was future president William Henry Harrison , who took a chemistry class from Rush. He was also founder of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania . In 1794, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . In the 1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic , Rush treated patients with bleeding, calomel, and other early medicinal techniques that often were ineffective and actually brought many patients closer to their deathbeds. Rush's ideas on yellow fever treatments differed from those of many experienced French doctors, who came from
4508-666: The bleeding was Rush's former student), and Rush insisted upon being bled himself shortly before his death (as he had during the yellow fever epidemic two decades earlier). Rush also wrote the first case report on dengue fever (published in 1789 on a case from 1780). Perhaps his greatest contributions to physical medicine were his establishment of a public dispensary for low-income patients (Philadelphia Dispensary), and public works associated with draining and rerouting Dock Creek (eliminating mosquito breeding grounds, which greatly decreased typhus , typhoid and cholera outbreaks). Another of Rush's medical views that now draws criticism
4606-668: The box marker is next to the plaque on the right, with inscriptions on the top. The inscription reads, Old Style and New Style dates Old Style ( O.S. ) and New Style ( N.S. ) indicate dating systems before and after a calendar change, respectively. Usually, they refer to the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar as enacted in various European countries between 1582 and 1923. In England , Wales , Ireland and Britain's American colonies , there were two calendar changes, both in 1752. The first adjusted
4704-520: The brain such as a centrifugal spinning board, and inactivity/sensory deprivation via a restraining chair with a sensory-deprivation head enclosure ("tranquilizer chair"). After seeing mental patients in appalling conditions in Pennsylvania Hospital, Rush led a successful campaign in 1792 for the state to build a separate mental ward where the patients could be kept in more humane conditions. Rush believed, as did so many physicians of
4802-504: The brain. His approach prepared the way for later medical research, but Rush undertook none of it. He promoted public health by advocating clean environment and stressing the importance of personal and military hygiene. His study of mental disorder made him one of the founders of American psychiatry . In 1965, the American Psychiatric Association recognized Rush as the "father of American psychiatry". Rush
4900-492: The combination of the two. It was through their use in the Calendar Act that the notations "Old Style" and "New Style" came into common usage. When recording British history, it is usual to quote the date as originally recorded at the time of the event, but with the year number adjusted to start on 1 January. The latter adjustment may be needed because the start of the civil calendar year had not always been 1 January and
4998-581: The common school of suprasegmental phonetic by around fifty years, and Rush is commonly considered the most important figure towards studying the nineteenth century elocution movement. Following his wife's passing in 1857, Rush began work on his next most important piece of writing, Analysis of the Human Intellect . Rush was inspired to write this as many others had looked towards connecting the mind and its functions to Rush's work in Philosophy of
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#17327718178995096-401: The concept of four tones representing how one speaks, stating the four tones of speaking are natural, falsetto, whispering, and orotund. These were all groundbreaking concepts at the time, as no one had ever looked into speech through the psychological view Rush did. His writings on the improvement of speech, looking into how tone, pronunciation, emphasis, and using emotion on one's voice predated
5194-460: The contrary, nothing but the first act of the great drama is closed." In this address, he encouraged Americans to "come forward" and continue advancements on behalf of America. In 1783, he was appointed to the staff of Pennsylvania Hospital , and he remained a member until his death. He was elected to the Pennsylvania convention which adopted the Federal constitution and was appointed treasurer of
5292-516: The doors of courthouses and other public buildings. Earlier, on July 16, 1776, Rush had complained to Patrick Henry about a provision in Virginia's constitution of 1776 which forbade clergymen from serving in the legislature. Rush felt that the United States was the work of God: "I do not believe that the Constitution was the offspring of inspiration, but I am as perfectly satisfied that the Union of
5390-405: The effects of social aspects on one's psychology, all of which predated his peers in this field of work. Rush establishes that ones mental process is intertwined to ones psychology and their expression, and that speech connects to ones physiological being and wellness, arguing speech itself is one entity in the brain. This work of the connection of speech directly to ones psychology is important as he
5488-543: The end of the following December, 1661/62 , a form of dual dating to indicate that in the following twelve weeks or so, the year was 1661 Old Style but 1662 New Style. Some more modern sources, often more academic ones (e.g. the History of Parliament ) also use the 1661/62 style for the period between 1 January and 24 March for years before the introduction of the New Style calendar in England. The Gregorian calendar
5586-461: The end of the month after Continental Congress delegate John Witherspoon , chairman of a committee to investigate Morgan's and Rush's charges of misappropriation and mismanagement against Shippen, told Rush his complaints would not produce reform. Rush later expressed regret for his gossip against Washington. In a letter to John Adams in 1812, Rush wrote, "He [Washington] was the highly favored instrument whose patriotism and name contributed greatly to
5684-517: The establishment of the independence of the United States." Rush also successfully pleaded with Washington's biographers Justice Bushrod Washington and Chief Justice John Marshall to delete his association with those stinging words. In his 2005 book 1776 , David McCullough quotes Rush, referring to George Washington: The Philadelphia physician and patriot Benjamin Rush, a staunch admirer, observed that Washington "has so much martial dignity in his deportment that you would distinguish him to be
5782-548: The eventual winner, John Adams. In 1803, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis to Philadelphia to prepare for the Lewis and Clark Expedition under the tutelage of Rush, who taught Lewis about frontier illnesses and the performance of bloodletting. Rush provided the corps with a medical kit that included: In 1766, when Rush set out for his studies in Edinburgh, he was outraged by the sight of 100 slave ships in Liverpool harbor. As
5880-489: The failure of two treatments, sweats in vinegar-wrapped blankets accompanied by mercury rubs, and cold baths. William Cobbett vociferously objected to Rush's extreme use of bloodletting, and even in Rush's day and location, many physicians had abandoned on scientific grounds this favorite remedy of Rush's former teachers Thomas Sydenham and Hermann Boerhaave . Cobbett accused Rush of killing more patients than he had saved. Rush ultimately sued Cobbett for libel , winning
5978-578: The family. At age eight, Benjamin was sent to live with an aunt and uncle to receive an education. He and his older brother Jacob attended a school run by Reverend Samuel Finley , which later became West Nottingham Academy . In 1760, after further studies at the College of New Jersey, which in 1895 became Princeton University , Rush graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree at age 14. From 1761 to 1766, Rush apprenticed under Dr. John Redman in Philadelphia. Redman encouraged him to further his studies at
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#17327718178996076-435: The hospitals under his command, ultimately led to Rush's resignation in 1778. Rush criticized General George Washington in two handwritten but unsigned letters while still serving under the surgeon general. One, to Virginia Governor Patrick Henry dated October 13, 1778, quotes General Thomas Conway saying that if not for God's grace the ongoing war would have been lost by Washington and his weak counselors. Henry forwarded
6174-439: The human mind, that the moral faculties, as well as those of the understanding are debased, and rendered torpid by it." Rush deemed public punishments such as putting a person on display in stocks , common at the time, to be counterproductive. Instead, he proposed private confinement, labor, solitude, and religious instruction for criminals, and he opposed the death penalty. His outspoken opposition to capital punishment pushed
6272-488: The idea that people with mental illness are people who have an illness, rather than inhuman animals. He is quoted to have said, "Terror acts powerfully upon the body, through the medium of the mind, and should be employed in the cure of madness." He also championed the idea of "partial madness," or that people could have varying degrees of mental illness. The American Psychiatric Association 's seal bears an image of Rush's purported profile at its center. The outer ring of
6370-718: The letter to Washington, despite Rush's request that the criticism be conveyed orally, and Washington recognized the handwriting. At the time, the supposed Conway Cabal was reportedly trying to replace Washington with Horatio Gates as commander-in-chief. Rush's letter relayed General John Sullivan 's criticism that forces directly under Washington were undisciplined and mob-like, and contrasted Gates' army as "a well-regulated family". Ten days later, Rush wrote to John Adams relaying complaints inside Washington's army, including about "bad bread, no order, universal disgust" and praising Conway, who had been appointed to inspector general. Shippen sought Rush's resignation and received it by
6468-571: The medical committee. Nonetheless, Rush accepted an appointment as surgeon-general of the middle department of the Continental Army. Rush's order "Directions for preserving the health of soldiers" became one of the foundations of preventive military medicine and was repeatedly republished, including as late as 1908. However, Rush's reporting of Shippen's misappropriation of food and wine supplies intended to comfort hospitalized soldiers, under-reporting of patient deaths, and failure to visit
6566-548: The most efficient way to observe speech and research one's articulation was solely through observation. He argued that the thought of speech should be expanded into five separate sectors: vocality, time, pitch, force, and abruptness. This system of sectors of speech would later come to be known as the concept of personal magnetism. Rush also introduced the idea and concepts of phonemes, writing how there were thirty-five different speech sounds, and dividing these into three categories: tonic, subtonic, and atonic. Rush also first introduced
6664-536: The most humane but severe punishment. This 1792 treatise was preceded by comments on the efficacy of the death penalty that he self-references and which, evidently, appeared in the second volume of the American Museum . After the Revolution, Rush proposed a new model of education for elite women that included English language, vocal music, dancing, sciences, bookkeeping, history, and moral philosophy. He
6762-576: The most notable of which was the practice of bloodletting. After studying under his father, James Rush travelled to Edinburgh, Scotland to begin his post-doctoral studies at the University of Edinburgh, where Rush's practices of bloodletting were challenged. After a year of studies in Edinburgh, Rush moved to London to continue his studies. While in London, James Rush spent much of his time experiencing various fine arts such as music and art. He enjoyed aristocratic life in England, but otherwise wished to return to
6860-632: The necessity of keeping up that prejudice against [miscegenation], as it would tend to infect posterity with … their disorder" and called for an "endeavour to discover a remedy for it." Rush was interested in Native American health. He wanted to find out why Native Americans were susceptible to certain illnesses and whether they had higher mortality rates as compared to other people. Other questions that he raised were whether they dreamed more and if their hair turned gray as they got older. His fascination with indigenous peoples came from his interest in
6958-456: The other, stili novi or stilo novo , abbreviated st.n. and meaning "(of/in) new style". The Latin abbreviations may be capitalised differently by different users, e.g., St.n. or St.N. for stili novi . There are equivalents for these terms in other languages as well, such as the German a.St. (" alter Stil " for O.S.). Usually, the mapping of New Style dates onto Old Style dates with
7056-457: The painting The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777 by the American artist John Trumbull . The Army Medical Service was in disarray, between the military casualties, extremely high losses from typhoid , yellow fever and other camp illnesses, political conflicts between Dr. John Morgan and Dr. William Shippen Jr. , and inadequate supplies and guidance from
7154-521: The post-revolutionary period, as women claimed a role in creating the Republic. And so, the ideal of Republican motherhood emerged, lauding women's responsibility of instructing the young in the obligations of patriotism, the blessings of liberty and the true meaning of Republicanism . He opposed coeducational classrooms and insisted on the need to instruct all youth in the Christian religion. Rush
7252-576: The prophet Jeremiah . Rush regularly attended Christ Church in Philadelphia and counted William White among his closest friends (and neighbors). Ever the controversialist, Rush became involved in internal disputes over the revised Book of Common Prayer and the splitting of the Episcopal Church from the Church of England . He dabbled with Presbyterianism , Methodism (which split from Anglicanism in those years), and Unitarianism . In
7350-443: The seal contains the words "American Psychiatric Association 1844". The Association's history of the seal states: The choice of Rush (1746–1813) for the seal reflects his place in history. .... Rush's practice of psychiatry was based on bleeding, purging, and the use of the tranquilizer chair and gyrator. By 1844 these practices were considered erroneous and abandoned. Rush, however, was the first American to study mental disorder in
7448-560: The second, the Indian manners are more diluted. It is in the third species only that we behold civilization completed. It is to the third species of settlers only that it is proper to apply the term of farmers. While we record the voices of the first and second settlers, it is but just to mention their virtues likewise. Their mutual wants to produce mutual dependence; hence they are kind and friendly to each other. Their solitary situation makes visitors agreeable to them; hence they are hospitable to
7546-555: The signing of the Declaration of Independence. He described it as a scene of "pensive and awful silence". Rush said the delegates were called up, one after another, and then filed forward somberly to subscribe to what each thought was their ensuing death warrant. He related that the "gloom of the morning" was briefly interrupted when the rotund Benjamin Harrison of Virginia said to a diminutive Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, at
7644-456: The signing table, "I shall have a great advantage over you, Mr. Gerry, when we are all hung for what we are now doing. From the size and weight of my body I shall die in a few minutes and be with the Angels, but from the lightness of your body you will dance in the air an hour or two before you are dead." According to Rush, Harrison's remark "procured a transient smile, but it was soon succeeded by
7742-644: The start of a new year from 25 March ( Lady Day , the Feast of the Annunciation ) to 1 January, a change which Scotland had made in 1600. The second discarded the Julian calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar, skipping 11 days in the month of September to do so. To accommodate the two calendar changes, writers used dual dating to identify a given day by giving its date according to both styles of dating. For countries such as Russia where no start-of-year adjustment took place, O.S. and N.S. simply indicate
7840-667: The subject of the salvation of all men ." To simplify, both believed in punishment after death for the wicked. His wife, Julia Rush, thought her husband like Martin Luther for his ardent passions, fearless attacks on old prejudices, and quick tongue against perceived enemies. Rush helped Richard Allen found the African Methodist Episcopal Church . In his autobiography, Allen wrote: ...By this time we had waited on Dr. Rush and Mr. Robert Ralston, and told them of our distressing situation. We considered it
7938-400: The term mentivity as a definition towards how one thinks, and looked into how the brain functions as a physical embodiment of the mind and ones senses. Rush's work in the Human Intellect is stated as one of the primary formations of the behavioristic school of psychology, as he targeted the motor system as a key towards one's behavior, including concepts such as personality, free association, and
8036-427: The theory that social scientists can better study the history of their own civilization by studying cultures in earlier stages of development, "primitive men". In his autobiography, he writes "From a review of the three different species of settlers, it appears that there are certain regular stages which mark the progress from the savage to civilized life. The first settler is nearly related to an Indian in his manners. In
8134-427: The time, that bleeding and active purging with mercury(I) chloride (calomel) were the preferable medical treatments for insanity, a fact evidenced by his statement that, "It is sometimes difficult to prevail upon patients in this state of madness, or even to compel them, to take mercury in any of the ways in which it is usually administered. In these cases I have succeeded, by sprinkling a few grains of calomel daily upon
8232-697: The two first gentlemen who espoused the cause of the oppressed and aided us in building the house of the Lord for the poor Africans to worship in. Here was the beginning and rise of the first African church in America." On January 11, 1776, Rush married Julia Stockton (1759–1848), daughter of Richard Stockton , another signer of the Declaration of Independence, and his wife Annis Boudinot Stockton . They had 13 children, 9 of whom survived their first year: John, Ann Emily, Richard , Susannah (died as an infant), Elizabeth Graeme (died as an infant), Mary B, James, William (died as an infant), Benjamin (died as an infant), Benjamin, Julia, Samuel, and William. Richard later became
8330-416: The walls of the hospital. Furthermore, Rush was one of the first people to describe Savant Syndrome. In 1789, he described the abilities of Thomas Fuller , an enslaved African who was a lightning calculator . His observation would later be described in other individuals by notable scientists like John Langdon Down . Rush pioneered the therapeutic approach to addiction . Prior to his work, drunkenness
8428-563: The wealthier institutions of Europe and the United States. Rush is sometimes considered a pioneer of occupational therapy particularly as it pertains to the institutionalized. In Diseases of the Mind (1812), Rush wrote: It has been remarked that the maniacs of the male sex in all hospitals, who assist in cutting wood, making fires, and digging in a garden, and the females who are employed in washing, ironing, and scrubbing floors, often recover, while persons, whose rank exempts them from performing such services, languish away their lives within
8526-469: Was Samuel A. Cartwright , later a Confederate States of America surgeon charged with improving sanitary conditions in the camps around Vicksburg, Mississippi , and Port Hudson, Louisiana . Rush University Medical Center in Chicago, formerly Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center, was named in his honor. Rush advocated Christianity in public life and in education and sometimes compared himself to
8624-402: Was a leading proponent of heroic medicine . He firmly believed in such practices as bloodletting patients (a practice now known to be generally harmful, but at the time common practice), as well as purges using calomel and other toxic substances. In his report on the Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic of 1793, Rush wrote: "I have found bleeding to be useful, not only in cases where the pulse
8722-544: Was active in the Sons of Liberty and was elected to attend the provincial conference to send delegates to the Continental Congress . Thomas Paine consulted Rush when writing the profoundly influential pro-independence pamphlet Common Sense . Starting in 1776, Rush represented Pennsylvania and signed the Declaration of Independence. He also represented Philadelphia at Pennsylvania's own Constitutional Convention. In an 1811 letter to John Adams, Rush recounted in stark fashion
8820-480: Was altered at different times in different countries. From 1155 to 1752, the civil or legal year in England began on 25 March ( Lady Day ); so for example, the execution of Charles I was recorded at the time in Parliament as happening on 30 January 164 8 (Old Style). In newer English-language texts, this date is usually shown as "30 January 164 9 " (New Style). The corresponding date in the Gregorian calendar
8918-603: Was born to John Rush and Susanna Hall on January 4, 1746 (December 24, 1745, O.S.). The family, of English descent, lived on a farm in the Township of Byberry in Philadelphia County , about 14 miles outside of Philadelphia (the township was incorporated into Philadelphia in 1854). Rush was the fourth of seven children. His father died in July 1751 at age 39, leaving his mother, who ran a country store, to care for
9016-596: Was celebrated as the New Year festival from as early as the 13th century, despite the recorded (civil) year not incrementing until 25 March, but the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year, although the phrase Old Style was more commonly used". To reduce misunderstandings about the date, it was normal even in semi-official documents such as parish registers to place a statutory new-year heading after 24 March (for example "1661") and another heading from
9114-519: Was full and quick but where it was slow and tense. I have bled twice in many and in one acute case four times, with the happiest effect. I consider intrepidity in the use of the lancet , at present, to be necessary, as it is in the use of mercury and jalap , in this insidious and ferocious disease." During that epidemic, Rush gained acclaim for remaining in town and treating sometimes 100 patients per day (some through freed black volunteers coordinated by Richard Allen ), but many died. Even Rush acknowledged
9212-549: Was implemented in Russia on 14 February 1918 by dropping the Julian dates of 1–13 February 1918 , pursuant to a Sovnarkom decree signed 24 January 1918 (Julian) by Vladimir Lenin . The decree required that the Julian date was to be written in parentheses after the Gregorian date, until 1 July 1918. It is common in English-language publications to use the familiar Old Style or New Style terms to discuss events and personalities in other countries, especially with reference to
9310-489: Was instrumental to the founding of the Young Ladies' Academy of Philadelphia , the first chartered women's institution of higher education in Philadelphia. Rush saw little need for training women in metaphysics, logic, mathematics, or advanced science; rather he wanted the emphasis on guiding women toward moral essays, poetry, history, and religious writings. This type of education for elite women grew dramatically during
9408-548: Was one of the daughters of Jacob Ridgeway , and the two of them lived together in their large Philadelphia mansion which he built. This large mansion played host to numerous large balls and parties, as Phoebe Ann was very outgoing and social. He died in Philadelphia on May 26, 1869. He left $ 1,000,000 for the Philadelphia Library Company for the erection of the Ridgeway Branch of
9506-486: Was the first writer to make this connection and opened the gateway for more branches of investigation on inner psychology and how it affects ones interactions. Benjamin Rush Dr. Benjamin Rush (January 4, 1746 [ O.S. December 24, 1745] – April 19, 1813) was an American revolutionary , a Founding Father of the United States and signatory to the U.S. Declaration of Independence , and
9604-447: Was viewed as being sinful and a matter of choice. Rush believed that the alcoholic loses control over himself and identified the properties of alcohol, rather than the alcoholic's choice, as the causal agent. He developed the conception of alcoholism as a form of medical disease and proposed that alcoholics should be weaned from their addiction via less potent substances. Rush advocated for more humane mental institutions and perpetuated
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