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109-474: James Turrell (born May 6, 1943) is an American artist known for his work within the Light and Space movement. He is considered the "master of light" often creating art installations that mix natural light with artificial color through openings in ceilings thereby transforming internal spaces by ever shifting and changing color. Much of Turrell's career has been devoted to a still-unfinished work, Roden Crater ,

218-565: A MacArthur Fellow in 1984. His works, which explore perception and the nature of light, have been exhibited in major museums and public art spaces worldwide. James Turrell was born in Los Angeles, California . His father, Archibald Milton Turrell, was an aeronautical engineer and educator. His mother, Margaret Hodges Turrell, trained as a medical doctor and later worked in the Peace Corps . His parents were Quakers . Turrell obtained

327-474: A crystalline structure like ice. In mid-altitude clouds, the usual seeding strategy has been based on the fact that the equilibrium vapor pressure is lower over ice than over water. The formation of ice particles in supercooled clouds allows those particles to grow at the expense of liquid droplets. If sufficient growth takes place, the particles become heavy enough to fall as precipitation from clouds that otherwise would produce no precipitation. This process

436-556: A BA degree from Pomona College in perceptual psychology in 1965 (including the study of the Ganzfeld effect ) and also studied mathematics , geology , and astronomy . The following year, Turrell enrolled in the graduate Studio Art program at the University of California, Irvine , where he began making work using light projections. His studies at Irvine were interrupted in 1966, when he was arrested for coaching young men to avoid

545-408: A BA degree from Pomona College in perceptual psychology and further studies in mathematics, geology, and astronomy. He began experimenting with light projections during his time in the graduate Studio Art program at the University of California, Irvine , which laid the foundation for his later works. Turrell's innovative use of light and space has earned him numerous accolades, including being named

654-576: A cloud seeding project, created in response to lower water levels for hydroelectric power due to dry weather. In February of that year, a group of officials from the SLAF, Ceylon Electricity Board , and meteorology and irrigation departments were sent to Thailand to study rainmaking projects carried out by the Department of Royal Rainmaking and Agricultural Aviation . On March 22, a Harbin Y-12 flew over

763-466: A few experiments at GE's Schenectady Research Lab. He was dismayed to find that the deep freezer was not cold enough to produce a "cloud" using breath air. He decided to move the process along by adding a chunk of dry ice just to lower the temperature of his experimental chamber. To his astonishment, as soon as he breathed into the deep freezer, he noted a bluish haze, followed by an eye-popping display of millions of microscopic ice crystals, reflecting

872-639: A flight that began in upstate New York on 13 November 1946. Schaefer was able to cause snow to fall near Mount Greylock in western Massachusetts after he dumped six pounds (2.5 kg) of dry ice into the target cloud from a plane after a 60-mile (100 km) easterly chase from the Schenectady County Airport . Dry ice and silver iodide agents are effective in changing super-cooled clouds' physical chemistry, and thus useful in augmenting winter snowfall over mountains and, under certain conditions, in lightning and hail suppression. While not

981-435: A gas, has also been used. It can produce ice crystals at higher temperatures than silver iodide. After promising research, the use of hygroscopic materials, such as table salt , is becoming more popular. When cloud seeding, increased snowfall takes place when temperatures within the clouds are between −20 and −7 °C. Freezing nucleation is induced by the introduction of substances similar to silver iodide, which has

1090-472: A long enough time to show statistically any change from natural variations. An attempt by the U.S. military to modify hurricanes in the Atlantic basin using cloud seeding in the 1960s was called Project STORMFURY . Scientists tested four hurricanes across eight days and observed decreased wind speeds of 10% to 30% on four of these days. They originally attributed the lack of results to faulty execution, but

1199-560: A natural cinder cone crater located outside Flagstaff, Arizona , that he is turning into a massive naked-eye observatory ; and for his series of skyspaces , enclosed spaces that frame the sky. Turrell was born in Los Angeles, California , and grew up in a Quaker family. He obtained his pilot's license at the age of 16 and later registered as a conscientious objector during the Vietnam War , flying Buddhist monks out of Chinese-controlled Tibet. Turrell's academic background includes

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1308-491: A natural material to use, because color is abstract. If you make a form that appears to be composed of color, then you have something, an object, that's pretty abstract. Just form alone would be more abstract, of course, because it's just a mental idea, but you don't have anything there for your perceptions to grapple with unless you make it out of a material. However, if you make it out of metal, or stone, or wood, or whatever, then you have something that to my mind may overemphasize

1417-515: A new technique, hygroscopic seeding for enhancement of rainfall in warm clouds is enjoying a revival, based on positive indications from research in South Africa, Mexico, and elsewhere. The hygroscopic material most commonly used is table salt. It is postulated that hygroscopic seeding causes the droplet size spectrum in clouds to become more maritime (bigger drops) and less continental, stimulating rainfall through coalescence. From 1967 to 1972,

1526-443: A next generation light and space artist, has created "irregularly shaped wall mounted acrylic orbs... scarab-like objects achieve their iridescence via the play of natural light, yet the sculptures appear to change color as one moves around them, as if lit by multihued bulbs." McCracken states the following. "I was always primarily interested in form alone, but then to make a form, you have to make it out of something. So color seemed

1635-516: A payload of electric-charge emission instruments and customized sensors that fly at low altitudes and deliver an electric charge to air molecules. This method produced a significant rainstorm in July 2021. For instance, in Al Ain it rained 6.9 millimeters on 20–21 July. An electronic mechanism was tested in 2010, when infrared laser pulses were directed to the air above Berlin by researchers from

1744-515: A perfect slice of sky. Since 2009, Turrell's Third Breath, 2005 is part of the permanent exhibition of the Centre for International Light Art (CILA) in Unna , Germany. It is a camera obscura , consisting of two rooms: In the lower, cubic room (Camera Obscura Space), the visitor sees an image of the sky which is being reflected through a lens on the ground. In the upper, cylindrical room (Sky Space),

1853-402: A pilot's license when he was 16 years old. Later, registered as a conscientious objector during the Vietnam War , he flew Buddhist monks out of Chinese-controlled Tibet. Some writers have suggested it was a CIA mission; Turrell called it "a humanitarian mission" — and that he found "some beautiful places to fly". For years he restored antique airplanes to support his "art habit". He received

1962-502: A remarkable example of Turrell's exhibited sky spaces, created within the inner courtyard of the museum, which reaches maximum intensity in the views of the Andean sky at dawn and sunset. Turrell is also known for his light tunnels and light projections that create shapes that seem to have mass and weight, though they are created with only light. Three such works by Turrell ( Danaë , Catso Red , and Pleiades ) are permanent installations at

2071-786: A skyspace ( Unseen Blue , 2002) and some drawings and prints. Turrell's work is represented in numerous public collections, including the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art, North Adams; the Ringling Museum , Sarasota; the Centre for International Light Art , Unna; the Mattress Factory , Pittsburgh; Los Angeles County Museum of Art ; the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum , New York; the Henry Art Gallery , Seattle; Walker Art Center , Minneapolis;

2180-524: A skyspace, whose view of the sunrise has been described as "the almost imperceptible change into deep blue was incredibly moving". Turrell has received numerous awards in the arts, including a Guggenheim Fellowship for Fine Arts, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 1984 and the National Medal of Arts in 2013. In 2004, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Haverford College . Light and Space The nature of

2289-649: A slow-art movement, and take an hour. Art critic John McDonald writes that Turrell's works are "dull to describe but magical to experience". Turrell was given his first solo show at the Pasadena Art Museum in 1967. Solo exhibitions have since included the Stedelijk Museum (1976); Whitney Museum of American Art , New York (1980); Israel Museum (1982); Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (1984); MAK, Vienna (1998–1999); Mattress Factory, Pittsburgh (2002–2003). The Wolfsburg Project at

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2398-465: A study to gauge its viability locally. In Southeast Asia , open-burning haze pollutes the regional environment. Cloud seeding has been used to improve the air quality by encouraging rainfall. On 20 June 2013, Indonesia said it will begin cloud-seeding operations following reports from Singapore and Malaysia that smog caused by forest and bush fires in Sumatra have disrupted daily activities in

2507-533: Is "difficult to show clearly that cloud seeding has a very large effect". Environmental and health impacts are considered minimal due to the low concentrations of substances used. But concerns persist over the potential accumulation of seeding agents in sensitive ecosystems. The practice has a long history, with initial experiments dating back to the 1940s, and has been used for various purposes, including agricultural benefits, water supply augmentation, and event planning. Legal frameworks primarily focus on prohibiting

2616-455: Is known as "static" seeding. Seeding of warm-season or tropical cumulonimbus (convective) clouds seeks to exploit the latent heat released by freezing. This strategy of "dynamic" seeding assumes that the additional latent heat adds buoyancy, strengthens updrafts, ensures more low-level convergence, and ultimately causes rapid growth of properly selected clouds. Cloud seeding chemicals may be dispersed by aircraft or by dispersion devices on

2725-619: Is to increase rain or snow, either for its own sake or to prevent precipitation from occurring in days afterward. Cloud seeding is undertaken by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei . Common agents include silver iodide , potassium iodide , and dry ice, with hygroscopic materials like table salt gaining popularity due to their ability to attract moisture. Techniques vary from static seeding, which encourages ice particle formation in supercooled clouds to increase precipitation, to dynamic seeding, designed to enhance convective cloud development through

2834-411: Is unable to say with assurance which, if any, seeding techniques produce positive effects. In the 55 years following the first cloud-seeding demonstrations, substantial progress has been made in understanding the natural processes that account for our daily weather. Yet scientifically acceptable proof for significant seeding effects has not been achieved". A 2010 Tel Aviv University study claimed that

2943-481: Is within reach – stretched like a canvas across an opening in the ceiling". In 1992, Turrell's Irish Sky Garden opened at the Liss Ard Estate, Skibbereen, Co Cork, Ireland. The giant earth and stoneworks has a crater at its center. A visitor enters through a doorway in the perimeter of the rim, walks through a passage and climbs stairs to enter, then lies on the central plinth and looks upwards to experience

3052-643: The Eureka organization in 2001 for an invention that is beneficial to the world. In 2009, Jordan received permission from Thailand to use the technique. On 12 October 2005 the European Patent Office granted to King Bhumibol Adulyadej the patent EP 1 491 088 Weather modification by royal rainmaking technology . The budget of the Department of Royal Rainmaking and Agricultural Aviation in FY2019

3161-1072: The Kielder Skyspace (2000) on Cat Cairn in Kielder, Northumberland , England; Knight Rise (2001) at the Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art ; Sky Pesher (2005) at the Walker Art Center ; Second Wind (2005) in Vejer de la Frontera , Spain; the Sky-Space (2006) in Salzburg , Austria; The other Horizon (2004) in Vienna , Austria ( MAK -Branch Geymüllerschlössel); La Brea Sky (2013) at Kayne Griffin Corcoran ; Hardanger Skyspace (2016) in Oystese (Norway), located by

3270-730: The Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg , Turrell's largest exhibition in Germany to date, opened in October 2009 and continued through October 2010. Amongst the works featured in the Wolfsburg Project was a "Ganzfeld" work, which is a light installation that covers 700 square meters in area and 12 meters in height. Also in 2009, the opening of the artwork Third Breath, 2005 at the Centre for International Light Art in Unna, Germany,

3379-471: The Maskeliya Reservoir at 8000 feet, dispersing cloud seeding chemicals. Rain arrived the next day on March 23, though project members had expected it to appear earlier on the 22nd. News First proclaimed that the pilot project had "proven to be a success", while Mongabay described it as a "failed attempt" that had "fallen short" and highlighted various climate experts who recommended that

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3488-744: The Mattress Factory in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania . Turrell's 1968 projection of a suspended luminous pink pyramid, Raethro Pink , was acquired by the Welsh National Museum of Art . His work Acton is a very popular exhibit at the Indianapolis Museum of Art . It consists of a room that appears to have a blank canvas on display, but the "canvas" is actually a rectangular hole in the wall, illuminated to look otherwise. Security guards are known to come up to unsuspecting visitors and say "Touch it! Touch it!" Turrell's works defy

3597-681: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA; Department of Commerce). Reclamation sponsored several cloud-seeding research projects under the umbrella of Project Skywater from 1964 to 1988, and NOAA conducted the Atmospheric Modification Program from 1979 to 1993. The sponsored projects were carried out in several states and two countries (Thailand and Morocco), studying both winter and summer cloud seeding. From 1962 to 1988 Reclamation developed cloud seeding applied research to augment water supplies in

3706-446: The University of Geneva . The experimenters posited that the pulses would encourage atmospheric sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide to form particles that would then act as seeds. Whether cloud seeding is effective in producing a statistically significant increase in precipitation is a matter of academic debate, with contrasting results depending on the study in question and contrasting opinion among experts. A study conducted by

3815-594: The Welsh National Museum of Art , Cardiff. In Japan , Turrell's works are in the collections of several museums, including the 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa and at the Chichu Art Museum at Benesse Art-Site in Naoshima, Kagawa . The Chichu Art Museum holds three works by Turrell, which are on permanent exhibition: the projection piece Afrum – Pale Blue (1968); Ganzfield work Open Field (2000); and skyspace Open Sky (2004). As part of

3924-890: The de Young Museum , San Francisco; the Indianapolis Museum of Art , Indianapolis; the Spencer Museum of Art , Lawrence, Kansas; the National Gallery of Art , Washington, and the Academy Art Museum , Easton, Maryland. Internationally, his works have been installed at the Tate Modern , London; the Israel Museum , Jerusalem; Magasin III Museum for Contemporary Art , Stockholm, Sweden; the Museum SAN , Wonju; Panza Foundation , Varese ; and

4033-491: The haze began in early-August. Johor Water Regulatory Body is focus to produce rain over dams with critically low water levels. They use Cessna 340 with tubes of ioidise salt their operation base is at Senai Airport WMKJ. The Thailand Royal Rainmaking Project ( Thai : โครงการฝนหลวง , RTGS :  khrongkan fon luang ) was initiated in November 1955 by King Bhumibol Adulyadej . Thai farmers repeatedly suffered

4142-559: The pygmy possum , among other species, as well as recent high-level algal blooms in once pristine glacial lakes. Research 50 years ago and analysis by the former Snowy Mountains Authority led to the cessation of the cloud seeding program in the 1950s with non-definitive results. Formerly, cloud seeding was rejected in Australia on environmental grounds because of concerns about the pygmy possum. The claims of negative environmental impact are disputed by peer-reviewed research, as summarized by

4251-779: The revolution of 1978, in the years 1989 to 1995, cloud fertilization was carried out in a scattered manner using ground generators in the heights of Shirkuh, Yazd. Then, with the announcement of the Minister of Energy in February 1996, the National Center for Cloud Fertility Research and Studies was established in Yazd and officially started working in 1997. Israel conducted experimental cloud seeding for seven years from 2014 to 2021. The practice involved emitting silver iodide from airplanes and ground stations and took place only in

4360-468: The "Turrell Tour", which involves seeing a Turrell in 23 countries worldwide, and during May 2015, Roden Crater was open to a select group of 80 people at a cost of $ 6,500 per person. Although he works in the American desert, Turrell does not consider himself an earthworks artist like Robert Smithson or Michael Heizer . "You could say I'm a mound builder," he said. "I make things that take you up into

4469-584: The "accelerated" habits of many people, especially when looking at art. He feels that viewers spend so little time with the art that this makes it hard to appreciate. I feel my work is made for one being, one individual. You could say that's me, but that's not really true. It's for an idealized viewer. Sometimes I'm kind of cranky coming to see something. I saw the Mona Lisa when it was in L.A., saw it for 13 seconds and had to move on. But, you know, there's this slow-food movement right now. Maybe we could also have

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4578-702: The 1960s, unaware of the movement in California. A famous group of abstract color theory artists were influenced by the Light and Space Movement, notably: Frederick Spratt , Phil Sims , Anne Appleby , and David Simpson . The legacy of the Light and Space movement can be seen in the work of important contemporary artists, such as Casper Brindle , Olafur Eliasson , Brigitte Kowanz , Ann Veronica Janssens , Jennifer Steinkamp , Kaloust Guedel , Phillip K. Smith III , Nellie King Solomon, Gisela Colon and Shana Mabari . Irwin and Turrell, for instance, investigated

4687-536: The 1990s. The last time Turrell or his team went on record talking about a completion date, the goal was 2011; but according to a 2013 article in the Los Angeles Times , "nobody volunteers a date any more". Roden Crater has been long shrouded in secrecy and access limited to friends of the artist, although fans have sneaked in without the artist's permission. More recently, a program was established by which devoted fans can gain sanctioned access by completing

4796-605: The 2008 Olympic Games in order to have a dry Olympic season. In February 2009, China also blasted iodide sticks over Beijing to artificially induce snowfall after four months of drought, and blasted iodide sticks over other areas of northern China to increase snowfall. The snowfall in Beijing lasted for approximately three days and led to the closure of 12 main roads around Beijing. At the end of October 2009 Beijing claimed it had its earliest snowfall since 1987 due to cloud seeding. According to "research paper from Tsinghua University,

4905-535: The 2011 Pacific Standard Time initiative , the Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego held a major survey exhibition of perceptual art titled "Phenomenal: California Light, Space, Surface," organized by the museum's then curator Robin Clark. Cloud seeding Cloud seeding is a type of weather modification that aims to change the amount or type of precipitation , mitigate hail or disperse fog. The usual objective

5014-662: The Bureau of Reclamation sponsored a six-state research program from 2002 to 2006 called the "Weather Damage Modification Program". A 2003 study by the United States National Academy of Sciences urges a national research program to clear up remaining questions about weather modification's efficacy and practice. In Australia , the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) conducted major trials between 1947 and

5123-590: The Chichu Art Museum's Art House Project, architect Tadao Ando designed a building named Minamidera ("Southern Temple") to accommodate a sensory-deprivation work by Turrell, Backside of the Moon, (1999). House of Light , (2000), which is a work commissioned for the first Echigo-Tsumari Art Field Triennial, is a building completely designed by Turrell that mixes traditional Japanese architecture with his signature light installations. House of Light also has

5232-546: The Chinese government used cloud-seeding techniques to force rainfall the evening before the celebration event. This rainfall lowered the amount of PM2.5 pollution by more than two-thirds. That helped improve the air quality at the time from "moderate" to "good". In India , cloud seeding operations were conducted during the years 1983, 1984–87, and 1993–94 by the Tamil Nadu Government due to severe drought. In

5341-486: The Chinese weather authorities used weather modification to ensure the sky was clear and lower air pollution" on July 1, 2021. The Chinese Communist party celebrated its centenary on July 1 with a major celebration. The celebration took place in Tiananmen Square. The paper was published on November 26, 2021 in a peer-review journal called Environment Science (via South China Morning Post) . The research shows that

5450-475: The Clean Water Act of 1977 and 1987 to establish regulations on this type of pollution." Cloud seeding over Kosciuszko National Park  – a biosphere reserve – is problematic in that several rapid changes of environmental legislation were made to enable the trial. Environmentalists are concerned about the uptake of elemental silver in a highly sensitive environment affecting

5559-626: The Desert Research Institute in Reno, claimed that new technology and research has produced reliable results that make cloud seeding a dependable and affordable water supply practice for many regions. Moreover, in 1998 the American Meteorological Society held that "precipitation from supercooled orographic clouds (clouds that develop over mountains) has been seasonally increased by about 10%." Despite

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5668-927: The Hardangerfjord and a part of The Art Centre Kabuso ; the Skyspace Lech (2018) in Oberlech in Vorarlberg ( Austria ); the Ta Khut Skyspace (2021) in José Ignacio, Uruguay ; the Green Mountain Falls Skyspace (2022) in Green Mountain Falls, Colorado , USA; and at Friends Seminary (2023). The Walker Art Center restored its 2005 Sky Pesher work in 2023 and worked with Turrell to convert

5777-614: The International Weather Modification Association. In 1891, Louis Gathmann suggested shooting liquid carbon dioxide into rain clouds to cause them to rain. During the 1930s, the Bergeron–Findeisen process theorized that supercooled water droplets present, while ice crystals are released into rain clouds, would cause rain. While researching aircraft icing , General Electric (GE)'s Vincent Schaefer and Irving Langmuir confirmed

5886-566: The Law on Water and its Nationalization, the then Ministry of Water and Electricity was obliged to provide the water needed by the country in various ways, including cloud fertilization. Accordingly, the Ministry of Energy between 1953 and 1957, in cooperation with a Canadian company and using aircraft and silver iodide compound fertilized the clouds that were over the Karaj and Jajrud dam area. After

5995-452: The Light , an installation of nine Turrell works, is on view at MASS MoCA from 2017 until at least 2025. James Turrell's work has been exhibited at public art spaces as well as commercial galleries around the world. He is represented by Häusler Contemporary in Zűrich, Kayne Griffin Corcoran , Los Angeles, Pace Gallery , New York, Hiram Butler Gallery, Houston, Almine Rech Gallery, Paris, and Gagosian Gallery , New York In February 2020,

6104-425: The NAS study was acquired in a separate study conducted by the Wyoming Weather Modification Pilot Project, but whereas the NAS study concluded that "it is difficult to show clearly that cloud seeding has a very large effect", the WWMPP study concluded that "seeding could augment the snowpack by a maximum of 3% over an entire season." In 2003, the US National Research Council (NRC) released a report stating, "science

6213-423: The Pace Gallery in London held a Turrell exhibition to demonstrate the "culmination of Turrell's lifelong pursuit". On April 22, 2009, the James Turrell Museum opened in Colomé , Province of Salta , in Argentina . It was designed by Turrell after Donald M. Hess , owner of the winery and several of Turrell's works, told him he wanted to dedicate a museum to his work. It contains nine light installations, including

6322-402: The Sierra Nevada of California and a 2004 independent panel of experts in Australia confirmed these earlier findings. "In 1978, an estimated 3,000 tonnes of silver were released into the US environment. This led the US Health Services and EPA to conduct studies regarding the potential for environmental and human health hazards related to silver. These agencies and other state agencies applied

6431-451: The U.S. military's Operation Popeye cloud-seeded silver iodide to extend the monsoon season over North Vietnam , specifically the Ho Chi Minh Trail . The operation extended the monsoon period an average of 30 to 45 days in the targeted areas. The 54th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron carried out the operation to "make mud, not war". One private organization that offered, during the 1970s, to conduct weather modification (cloud seeding from

6540-411: The United States National Academy of Sciences failed to find statistically significant support for cloud seeding's effectiveness. Based on its findings, Stanford University ecologist Jerry Bradley said: "I think you can squeeze out a little more snow or rain in some places under some conditions, but that's quite different from a program claiming to reliably increase precipitation." Data similar to that of

6649-423: The Universities of Wyoming, Washington, UCLA, Utah, Chicago, NYU, Montana, and Colorado, and research teams at Stanford, Meteorology Research Inc., and Penn State University, and the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, North Dakota, Texas A&M, Texas Tech, and Oklahoma. Cooperative efforts with state water resources agencies in California, Colorado, Montana, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Arizona assured that

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6758-409: The Vietnam draft . He spent about a year in jail. In 1973, he received an Master of Arts degree from Claremont Graduate University . In 1966, Turrell began experimenting with light in his Santa Monica studio, the Mendota Hotel, at a time when the so-called Light and Space group of artists in Los Angeles, including Robert Irwin , Mary Corse and Doug Wheeler, was coming into prominence. By covering

6867-411: The applied research met state water management needs. HIPLEX also partnered with NASA, Environment Canada, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ). From 2002 to 2006, in cooperation with six western states, Reclamation sponsored a small cooperative research program called the Weather Damage Modification Program. In the U.S., funding for research has declined in the last two decades. But

6976-438: The artist Robert Irwin and psychologist Edward Wortz. In 1969, he made sky drawings with Sam Francis , using colored skywriting smoke and cloud seeding materials. A pivotal environment Turrell developed from 1969 to 1974, The Mendota Stoppages , used several rooms in the former Mendota Hotel in Santa Monica which were sealed off, with the window apertures controlled by the artist to allow natural and artificial light to enter

7085-423: The artist's first exhibition in a New York museum since 1980. The exhibition focused on the artist's explorations of perception, light, color and space. A new project, Aten Reign (2013), recast the Guggenheim rotunda as an enormous volume filled with shifting artificial and natural light. In early 2017, his work was featured in the solo exhibition, Immersive Light , at the West Bund Long Museum Shanghai . Into

7194-406: The ceiling, is a recreation of such a meeting house. In 2013, Turrell created another Quaker skyspace, Greet the Light , at the newly rebuilt Chestnut Hill Friends Meeting in Philadelphia . In a New York Times article on L.A. collectors building skyspaces in their backyards, Jori Finkel describes a skyspace as a "celestial viewing room designed to create the rather magical illusion that the sky

7303-559: The common practice of cloud seeding to improve rainfall, with materials such as silver iodide and frozen carbon dioxide, seems to have little if any impact on the amount of precipitation. A 2011 study suggested that airplanes may produce ice particles by freezing cloud droplets that cool as they flow around the tips of propellers, over wings or over jet aircraft, and thereby unintentionally seed clouds. This could have potentially serious consequences for particular hail stone formation. In 2016, Jeff Tilley, director of weather modification at

7412-417: The continuous pool below, which is surrounded by granite seating and landscaping. At its opening, David Pagel of the Los Angeles Times called it "one of the best works of public art in recent memory". His 2007 Deer Shelter Skyspace at Yorkshire Sculpture Park in England, commissioned by The Art Fund , was awarded that year's 2007 Marsh Award for Excellence in Public Sculpture . Other Skyspaces include

7521-409: The darkened spaces in specific ways. In 1979 Turrell acquired an extinct cinder cone volcano located outside Flagstaff, Arizona . Since then he has spent decades moving tons of dirt and building tunnels and apertures to turn this crater into a massive naked-eye observatory for experiencing celestial phenomena. A completion date for the Crater has been announced and pushed back several times since

7630-496: The early-1960s: Only the trial conducted in the Snowy Mountains produced statistically significant rainfall increases over the entire experiment. Hydro Tasmania (at the time still known as the Hydro Electric Commission) began experimenting with cloud-seeding over lake catchments in central Tasmania in the early 1960s in order to determine if their electricity-producing dams could be kept at high water levels through cloud seeding. Tasmania proved to be one place where cloud seeding

7739-402: The effects of drought. The king resolved to do something about it and proposed a solution to the dearth of rain: artificial rainmaking , or cloud seeding. The program is run by the Department of Royal Rainmaking and Agricultural Aviation. Thailand started a rain-making project in the late-1950s, known today as the Royal Rainmaking Project . Its first efforts scattered sea salt in the air to catch

7848-482: The ground (generators or canisters fired from anti-aircraft guns or rockets ). For release by aircraft, silver iodide flares are ignited and dispersed as an aircraft flies through the inflow of a cloud. When released by devices on the ground, the fine particles are carried downwind and upward by air currents after release. Since 2021, the United Arab Emirates have been using drones equipped with

7957-488: The ground using silver iodide flares) was Irving P. Krick and Associates of Palm Springs, California . They were contracted by Oklahoma State University in 1972 to conduct a seeding project to increase warm cloud rainfall in the Lake Carl Blackwell watershed . That lake was, at that time (1972–73), the primary water supply for Stillwater , Oklahoma , and was dangerously low. The project did not operate for

8066-659: The growing season in Montana, Kansas, and Texas from 1974 to 1979. In 1979, the World Meteorological Organization and other member-states led by the Government of Spain conducted a Precipitation Enhancement Project (PEP) in Spain, with inconclusive results due probably to location selection issues. Reclamation sponsored research at several universities, including Colorado State University,

8175-531: The humidity and dry ice to condense the humidity to form clouds. The project took about ten years of experiments and refinement. The first field operations began in 1969 above Khao Yai National Park . Since then the Thai government claims that rainmaking has been successfully applied throughout Thailand and neighboring countries. The king received recognition for the Royal Rainmaking Project from

8284-446: The interdisciplinary resources of ASU to better use and maintain the project. ASU has already begun including the facilities into course curriculum, including one class titled "Indigenous Stories and Sky Science" taught by Professor Dalla Costa. In the 1970s, Turrell began his series of "skyspaces" enclosed spaces open to the sky through an aperture in the roof. A Skyspace is an enclosed room large enough for roughly 15 people. Inside,

8393-507: The military or hostile use of weather modification techniques, leaving the ownership and regulation of cloud-seeding activities to national discretion. Despite skepticism and debate over its efficacy and environmental impact, cloud seeding continues to be explored and applied in regions worldwide as a tool for weather modification. The most common chemicals used for cloud seeding include silver iodide , potassium iodide and dry ice (solid carbon dioxide). Liquid propane , which expands into

8502-818: The mixed scientific results, cloud seeding was attempted during the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing to coax rain showers out of clouds before they reached the city in order to prevent rain during the opening and closing ceremonies. Whether this attempt was successful is a matter of dispute, with Roelof Bruintjes, who leads the National Center for Atmospheric Research's weather-modification group, remarking, "we cannot make clouds or chase clouds away". With an NFPA 704 health hazard rating of 2, silver iodide can cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury to humans and other mammals with intense or chronic exposure. But several detailed ecological studies have shown negligible environmental and health impacts. The toxicity of silver and silver compounds (from silver iodide)

8611-536: The neighboring countries. On 25 June 2013, hailstones were reported to have fallen over some parts of Singapore. Despite NEA denials, some believe that the hailstones are the result of cloud seeding in Indonesia. In Malaysia, cloud seeding was first used in 1988 for three purposes: filling up dams, lessening the effects of haze, and fighting forest fires. In 2015, cloud seeding was done daily in Malaysia since

8720-437: The northern parts of the country. Israel stopped the rain enhancement project in 2021 due to the experiment data showing that the practice was largely ineffective and expensive, and because there had been some recent years of unrelated significant rainfall. To counter drought and a growing population in a desert region, Kuwait is embarking on its own cloud seeding program, with the local Environment Public Authority conducting

8829-488: The original cold cathode tubes, which were becoming impossible to replace, with LED lights. The change allowed for a wider range of colors compared to the original that was "shades of tinted white" at sunrise and sunset; now the lighting program is multicolored. The seats in this installation are heated. Completed in 2008, Turrell devised an indoor pool in Connecticut for collectors Lisa and Richard Baker , which creates

8938-503: The outbreak of the battle, and a test commenced the following month. Results were disappointing; while it did not take long for the rain clouds to form and release precipitation, they often drifted away from Route Provinciale 41 in the process, reducing their ability to hinder Việt Minh logistics. In January 2019, the Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) and Ministry of Power, Energy and Business Development signed an agreement for

9047-567: The phenomenon of sensory deprivation (which influenced the development of their similarly spare light works) as part of the art-and-technology program initiated by the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 1967. Wheeler’s RM 669 (1969) comprises curved white walls encased by a floor and ceiling that seem to recede with every step one takes toward the square of light positioned on the far wall, rendering viewers unable to fix their eyes on any surface. For his series of works on

9156-604: The physical aspect and therefore be difficult to perceive as purely mental. An important thought behind this is that all things are essentially mental - that matter, while quite real on the one hand, is on the other hand composed of energy, and in turn, of pure thought." Light and Space art from California was shown at Germano Celant 's influential exhibition of environment-based art at the 1976 Venice Biennale , "Ambiente/arte dal futurismo alla body art". The movement has rarely been shown together, as Wheeler rejected to be included in major museum exhibitions, because of his doubts that

9265-538: The pilots the cloud that has a high concentration of super cooled liquid water. The aircraft will find the altitude where the temperatures are about -5 °C. This is the altitude at which the seeding agent is most active. Pakistan has undergone its first-ever artificial rain experiment using cloud seeding, in a move carried out with the help of the United Arab Emirates Punjab Chief Minister Mohsin Naqvi said there

9374-483: The release of latent heat . Methods of dispersion include aircraft and ground-based generators, with newer approaches involving drones delivering electric charges to stimulate rainfall, or infrared laser pulses aimed at inducing particle formation. Despite decades of research and application, cloud seeding's effectiveness remains a subject of debate among scientists, with studies offering mixed results on its impact on precipitation enhancement. Some studies suggest it

9483-468: The results came into question because of the lack of supercooled water in the hurricane and the inability to determine if the effects were due to human intervention or the natural processes of hurricanes. Two federal agencies have supported various weather modification research projects, which began in the early 1960s: The United States Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation; Department of the Interior) and

9592-501: The sensation of swimming in a mirrored light box. In 2009 the first museum worldwide dedicated to Turrell's work was opened in the province of Salta, Argentina. It is part of the Hess Collection at Colome. The light art pieces represent five decades of the artist's career, like a time tunnel, and are exhibited in a progression of nine rooms within a 1,700-square-metre (18,000 sq ft) space. The experience concludes with

9701-517: The sky can be seen directly through a hole in the ceiling. Three Gems (2005) at the de Young Museum is Turrell's first Skyspace to adopt the stupa form. At Houghton Hall in Norfolk, the Marquess of Cholmondeley commissioned a folly to the east of the great house. Turrell's Skyspace presents itself from the exterior as an oak-clad building raised on stilts. From the inside of the structure,

9810-524: The sky framed by the rim of the crater. "The most important thing is that inside turns into outside and the other way around, in the sense that relationships between the Irish landscape and sky changes" (James Turrell). In 2001, Turrell made a “sky room” and pool for Nora and Norman Stone in Napa Valley, in which visitors swim through a tunnel into the outdoor pool, where an aperture in the roof displays

9919-594: The sky. But it's not about the landforms. I'm working to bring celestial objects like the sun and moon into the spaces that we inhabit." He added: "I apprehend light—I make events that shape or contain light." In 2019, Turrell partnered with the Arizona State University Herberger Institute for Design and the Arts to collaborate on the project, changing the name to the "ASU-Roden Crater Project." This collaboration hopes to employ

10028-489: The state of New York. Schaefer's method altered a cloud's heat budget; Vonnegut's altered formative crystal structure, an ingenious property related to a good match in lattice constant between the two types of crystal . (The crystallography of ice later played a role in Vonnegut's brother Kurt Vonnegut 's novel Cat's Cradle ). The first attempt to modify natural clouds in the field through "cloud seeding" began during

10137-414: The strong light rays from the lamp illuminating a cross-section of the chamber. He instantly realized that he had discovered a way to change super-cooled water into ice crystals. The experiment was easily replicated, and he explored the temperature gradient to establish the −40 °C (−40 °F) limit for liquid water. Within the month, Schaefer's colleague, the atmospheric scientist Bernard Vonnegut ,

10246-606: The technique is still actively deployed there. The largest cloud seeding system is in the People's Republic of China . They believe that it increases the amount of rain over several increasingly arid regions, including its capital city, Beijing , by firing silver iodide rockets into the sky where rain is desired. There is even political strife caused by neighboring regions that accuse each other of "stealing rain" using cloud seeding. China used cloud seeding in Beijing just before

10355-529: The theme of alchemy, Eric Orr has used natural light as well as blood and fire in his environments that produce extreme retinal responses. Mary Corse's large white-on-white glass canvases have glass micro-beads embedded in the acrylic paint to create a surface that shifts dramatically with the light. Helen Pashgian created acrylic spheres, globes with an unreal glow, seemingly lighted from within. More recently, Gisela Colon, who has been recognized in Artforum as

10464-580: The theory. Schaefer discovered the principle of cloud seeding in July 1946 through a series of serendipitous events. Following ideas he and Langmuir generated while climbing Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, Schaefer, Langmuir's research associate, created a way of experimenting with supercooled clouds using a deep freeze unit of potential agents to stimulate ice crystal growth, i.e., table salt, talcum powder, soils, dust, and various chemical agents with minor effect. Then, on July 14, 1946, he wanted to try

10573-497: The viewer's point of view is focused upwards and inevitably lured into contemplating the sky as framed by the open roof. Turrell's Dividing the Light (2007) incorporates both water and landscaping. This Skyspace is an open-air pavilion, with a canopy structure and aperture, lighting program, pool, and landscaping, situated in the Draper Courtyard at Pomona College. The 16-square-foot (1.5 m) canopy aperture mirrors

10682-567: The viewers sit on benches along the edge to view the sky through an opening in the roof. As a lifelong Quaker , Turrell designed the Live Oak Meeting House for the Society of Friends, with an opening or skyhole in the roof, wherein the notion of light takes on a decidedly religious connotation. (See PBS documentary). His work Meeting (1986) at P.S. 1 , which consists of a square room with a rectangular opening cut directly into

10791-927: The western U.S. The research focused on winter orographic seeding to enhance snowfall in the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, and precipitation in coast ranges of southern California. In California Reclamation partnered with the California Department of Water Resources ( CDWR ) to sponsor the Serra Cooperative Pilot Project (SCPP), based in Auburn , to conduct seeding experiments in the central Sierra. The University of Nevada and Desert Research Institute provided cloud physics, physical chemistry, and other field support. The High Plains Cooperative Pilot Project (HIPLEX) focused on convective cloud seeding to increase rainfall during

10900-476: The windows and only allowing prescribed amounts of light from the street outside to come through the openings, Turrell created his first light projections. In Shallow Space Constructions (1968) he used screened partitions, allowing a radiant effusion of concealed light to create an artificially flattened effect within the given space. That same year, he participated in the Los Angeles County Museum 's Art and Technology Program, investigating perceptual phenomena with

11009-715: The works was reflected in the title of the exhibition at UCLA which introduced the emerging movement in 1971: "Transparency, Reflection, Light, Space: Four Artists". The show presented the work of Peter Alexander , Larry Bell , Robert Irwin , Laddie John Dill , and Craig Kauffman . Other artists associated with the movement are Lita Albuquerque , Roz Stroll, Ron Cooper , Mary Corse , Fred Eversley , John McCracken , Bruce Nauman , Maria Nordman , Eric Orr , Helen Pashgian , Joe Ray , James Turrell , DeWain Valentine , Doug Wheeler and Elyn Zimmerman . Late artists Mel and Dorothy Tanner began their light and space art in

11118-402: The works would be shown in the way they were intended, and Nordman refuses to be in group shows on Light and Space. In 2010, David Zwirner Gallery, New York presented an historic exhibition titled “Primary Atmospheres,” a term coined by art critic Dave Hickey to describe the contributions of Southern California artists to the Light & Space movement. As part of a series of exhibitions during

11227-463: The years 2003 and 2004 Karnataka government initiated cloud seeding. Cloud seeding operations were also conducted in the same year through US-based Weather Modification Inc. in the state of Maharashtra . The company Srishti Aviation is actively involved in air defense with two Cessna 340 aircraft for its cloud seeding operations. On the ground at the radar facility the Meteorologist assigns

11336-644: Was 2,224 million baht . In Vietnam , during the leadup to and initial stages of the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ in 1954, the French Far East Expeditionary Corps looked into the possibility of using cloud seeding to impede Việt Minh flow of supplies through Route Provinciale 41, a dirt road leading into Điện Biên Phủ that would become more difficult to navigate during the rainy season . General Henri Navarre authorized research into using cloud seeding this way on March 16, just before

11445-413: Was accompanied by the four-month exhibition James Turrell – Geometry of Light . James Turrell: A Retrospective , a major exhibition spanning the artist's 50-year career, was exhibited from May 26, 2013, to April 6, 2014, at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and travelled to the National Gallery of Australia . From June to September 2013 the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum presented James Turrell ,

11554-553: Was credited with discovering another method for "seeding" super-cooled cloud water. Vonnegut accomplished his discovery at the desk, looking up information in a basic chemistry text and then tinkering with silver and iodide chemicals to produce silver iodide. Together with Professor Henry Chessin, of SUNY Albany , a crystallographer, he co-authored a publication in Science and received a patent in 1975. Both methods were adopted for use in cloud seeding during 1946 while working for GE in

11663-654: Was drizzle in 'at least 10 areas' of Lahore, consistently ranked the most polluted city in the world. In Jakarta , cloud seeding was used to minimize flood risk in anticipation of heavy floods in 2013, according to the Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology. In 1946, the Iranian government tried to fertilize Iran's clouds with the help of Americans, but it was unsuccessful. Then in 1947, in Article 19 of

11772-475: Was highly effective. Various trials were undertaken between 1964 and 2005, and again between 2009 and 2016, but none have taken place since then. Hydro Tasmania also undertook soil and water survey samples and found negligible trace elements of the materials used for cloud seeding (such as silver iodine), and determined it did not have a detrimental effect on the environment. An Austrian study to use silver iodide seeding for hail prevention ran during 1981–2000, and

11881-441: Was shown to be of low order in some studies. These findings likely result from the minute amounts of silver generated by cloud seeding, which are about one percent of industry emissions into the atmosphere in many parts of the world, or individual exposure from tooth fillings. Accumulations in the soil, vegetation, and surface runoff have not been large enough to measure above natural background. A 1995 environmental assessment in

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