Pasha ( Ottoman Turkish : پاشا ; Turkish : paşa ; Arabic : باشا , romanized : basha ) was a high rank in the Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors , generals , dignitaries , and others. Pasha was also one of the highest titles in the 20th-century Kingdom of Egypt and it was also used in Morocco in the 20th century, where it denoted a regional official or governor of a district.
115-749: Ali Janbulad Pasha (transliterated in Turkish as Canbolatoğlu Ali Paşa ; died 1 March 1610) was a Kurdish tribal chief from Kilis and a rebel Ottoman governor of Aleppo who wielded practical supremacy over Syria in c. 1606–1607 . His rebellion, launched to avenge the execution of his uncle Huseyn ibn Janbulad by the commander Jigalazade Sinan Pasha in 1605, gained currency among northern Syria's Kurdish, Turkmen and Arab tribes and expanded to include local Syrian governors and chiefs, most prominently Fakhr al-Din Ma'n of Mount Lebanon and his erstwhile enemy Yusuf Sayfa Pasha of Tripoli . Ali formed
230-643: A Turkish bath by Westerners, is a type of steam bath or a place of public bathing associated with the Islamic world . It is a prominent feature in the culture of the Muslim world and was inherited from the model of the Roman thermae . Muslim bathhouses or hammams were historically found across the Middle East , North Africa , al-Andalus (Islamic Iberia , i.e. Spain and Portugal ), Central Asia ,
345-600: A bathhouse in the city. After Janbulad's death his lands were bequeathed to his sons Huseyn and Habib. A third son, Ahmed, was Ali's father. Huseyn was a sipahi (fief-holding cavalryman) in Damascus and inherited the tribal emirate of Kilis, which he shared on a rotational arrangement with Habib. He participated in the 1578 Ottoman campaigns against the Safavids in Georgia and eastern Anatolia . Three years later he
460-412: A 'principal elder brother' or 'prince's elder son' in the pre-Ottoman period. According to etymologist Sevan Nişanyan , the word is derived from Turkish beşe ( بچّه 'boy, prince'), which is cognate with Persian bačče ( بچّه ). Some earlier Turkish lexicographers, such as Ahmed Vefik Paşa and Mehmed Salahi, argued it was most likely derived from Turkish başa or Turkish beşe ,
575-654: A Pasha, such as the Pasha or Bashaw of Tripoli . Ottoman and Egyptian authorities conferred the title upon both Muslims and Christians without distinction. They also frequently gave it to foreigners in the service of the Ottoman Empire, or of the Egyptian Khedivate (later Sultanate , and Kingdom in turn), e.g. Hobart Pasha . In an Egyptian context, the Abaza Family is known as "the family of
690-652: A campaign against Ali secret, with no contemporary record or reference in Ottoman official correspondence of Ali's disloyalty to the Empire or rebellion. He launched his expedition against Ali from Uskudar on 10 July 1607, ostensibly with the purpose of regaining territory lost to the Safavids. En route through central Anatolia, Murad Pasha recruited minor Celali chiefs and executed ones he considered dangerous. Among those executed were one hundred men of Ali's ally Deli Ahmed,
805-521: A career Ottoman official, sensed a dual opportunity: he could neutralize the Janbulads, whose hegemony he feared, and in the process gain significant prestige with the sultan for suppressing Ali without the costly intervention of an imperial army. The Porte agreed to Yusuf's request to head a campaign against Ali and promoted him to serdar (commander-in-chief) of Damascus. In a short battle near Hama on 24 July, Ali routed Yusuf's forces, which included
920-525: A certain "Shaykh Junblat" is mentioned in the Druze area of Mount Lebanon in 1614, though without any mention of a link to Janbulad or information about his origins. The modern historian William Harris notes "it is only clear that the name Junblat did not feature before the [Ali] Janbulad affair". The Junblat family emerged as one of the most dominant Druze clans and factions in Mount Lebanon's politics in
1035-422: A cold room to progressively hotter rooms. Men are usually washed by male bath attendants and women by female attendants before they are given a massage. Some details of the process vary from region to region, such as the presence or absence of pools where visitors can immerse themselves in water. In more conservative areas women are less likely to bathe in just their underwear while in areas where hammams have become
1150-518: A counterattack with musket and cannon against Ali's remaining forces who could not see their commanders to due to the smoke of the artillery. The counterattack and lack of visibility of Ali or his commanders induced the sekban to panic and flight. Ali could not rally the largely undisciplined sekbans and they were pursued, many being slain, while thousands were captured by imperial troops. Ali fled eastward and Murad Pasha ordered mass executions of captive troops, few of whom were pardoned, and then ordered
1265-834: A decline in their use – although to varying degrees depending on regional cultural practices. In many regions hammams have been abandoned, demolished or converted to serve as commercial buildings or cultural venues. Some have been converted into museums or art galleries , as with the examples of the Bayezid II Hamam in Istanbul , which now houses a hammam museum, and the Davud Pasha (or Daut Pasha) Hamam in Skopje , North Macedonia . In Turkey many historic hammams continue to operate either for locals or for tourists; in some cases this has led to neglected historic hammams such as
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#17327732875001380-489: A formal request to the imperial government for the governorship of Aleppo and a vizier post in Constantinople and pledged 10,000 troops to the Ottoman campaign against the Safavids. The Porte responded to Ali's activities by encouraging and providing assistance to the beylerbey of Tripoli , Yusuf Sayfa , a natural opponent of Ali. As a result, Yusuf, a Kurdish chieftain with a local power base in his province and
1495-459: A full-scale assault, he resolved to pressure the city to surrender Yusuf to him. Aware of the internal divisions among the Ottoman military factions in Damascus, Ali and Fakhr al-Din besieged the city. A skirmish was fought on 30 September 1606, in which the Damascenes were bested. The defeated troops retreated behind the city walls, refusing to hand over Yusuf. Ali ordered a three-day plunder of
1610-416: A hammam after childbirth or illness. However, even al-Ghazali thought it admissible for men to prohibit their wives or sisters from using the hammam. For al-Ghazali the main point of contention surrounding hammams was nakedness, and he warned that overt nakedness was to be avoided ("… he should shield it from the sight of others and second, guard against the touch of others.") His writing focused especially on
1725-569: A pardon for Ali. The Kurdish chief may have interpreted the pardon as an imperial pass to continue his rebellion in Syria. Although control of Damascus would seal his paramountcy in the Syrian region, Ali was mindful of the city's distance from his Aleppine power base and its importance to the Porte as the Empire's main marshaling point for the annual Hajj pilgrimage caravan to Mecca . As such, instead of
1840-593: A potential refuge where he could regroup. Ali also communicated with the major Anatolian Celali leaders Kalenderoglu Mehmed and Kara Said . To prop up his nascent Syrian state Ali moved to obtain recognition, as well as loans or trade revenue, from regional powers. In November 1606 the Duke of Tuscany , Ferdinand I , sent as envoys a Tuscan noble with close ties to Florentine merchants and King Philip III of Spain , Hippolito Leoncini, and an Aleppine-born dragoman Michael Angiolo Corai , who maintained close contacts with
1955-508: A pyramid of 20,000 skulls erected in front of his camp next to 700 captured rebel banners, including Ali's white standard. Despite the rout at Oruç Ovasi, Ali did not surrender. His Syrian allies Yusuf Sayfa and Fakhr al-Din did not participate with their forces, having returned to their local bases after Ali's Syrian campaign. Ali gathered his kinsmen in Kilis before proceeding to Aleppo and positioned hundreds of loyal soldiers with his kinsmen in
2070-558: A reconciliation with the Sublime Porte, while Ali encamped at the hamlet of Pazarcık . From there, on 28 December, he reached out to the Celali chiefs, whose armies were encamped in the general vicinity. His invitation to Tavil was rejected, while his efforts to recruit Kalenderoglu Mehmed and Kara Said fell through as they were in negotiations with the grand vizier and refused to subordinate themselves to Ali's leadership. Sultan Ahmed
2185-518: A secret military alliance with the Grand Duke of Tuscany , Ferdinand I , with the explicit aim of jointly destroying the Ottoman Empire and establishing the Janbulad family as the sovereigns of Syria. Ali's burgeoning ties with several Celali revolt leaders, whose influence spanned central Anatolia , Cilicia and part of Mesopotamia , posed a major threat to the Empire at a time in which it
2300-594: A source of revenue for the upkeep of other institutions such as mosques. In the 11th century the Seljuk Empire conquered much of Anatolia from the Byzantine Empire , eventually leading to the complete conquest of the remnants of the old empire in the 15th century. During those centuries of war, peace, alliance, trade and competition, these intermixing cultures (Eastern Roman, Islamic Persian and Turkic ) had tremendous influence on each other. Later
2415-569: A strong Eastern Roman bath culture, with the Baths of Zeuxippus constituting one early example. Ottoman architects expanded on the experience of Byzantine architects to create particularly well-balanced designs with greater symmetry and regularity in the arrangement of space than could be seen in hammams in other parts of the Muslim world. Some of the city's oldest monumental hammams are the Tahtakale Hamam (probably built right after 1454),
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#17327732875002530-450: A woman or a man can make someone included or excluded. Therefore, they represent a departure from the public sphere in which one is physically exposed amongst other women or men. This declaration of sexuality merely by being nude makes hammams a site of gendered expression. One exception to this gender segregation is the presence of young boys who often accompany their mothers until they reach the age of five or six when they switch to attending
2645-643: Is a requirement of Islam, though immersion in a pool used to be customary in the hammams of some regions such as Iran . While hammams everywhere generally operate in fairly similar ways, there are some regional differences both in usage and architecture. The word "hammam" ( حَمَّام ) is a noun meaning "bath", "bathroom", "bathhouse", "swimming pool", etc. derived from the Arabic triconsonantal root H-M-M ( ح م م ) which yields meanings related to heat or heating. From Arabic حمّام , it passed on to Persian ( حمام ) and Turkish ( hamam ). In English,
2760-493: Is also required before or after sexual intercourse. Knowing that, May Telmissany , a professor at the University of Ottawa , argues that the image of a hyper-sexualised woman leaving the hammam is an Orientalist way of looking at things that sees leaving or attending the hammam as an indicator of sexual behaviour. Most hammams expect their clients to undress down to a modesty garment or loincloth , before proceeding from
2875-641: Is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and it is customary to perform ablutions before praying. The two Islamic forms of ablution are ghusl , a full-body cleansing, and wudu , a cleansing of the face, hands, and feet. In the absence of water, cleansing with pure soil or sand is also permissible. Mosques always provide a place to wash, but hammams are often located nearby for deeper cleansing. Many are actually part of mosque complexes. Hammams, particularly in Morocco, evolved from their Roman origins to meet
2990-460: The firman ( patent of nobility ) issued by the Sultan carrying the tughra (imperial seal). The title did not bestow rank or title to the wife nor was any religious leader elevated to the title. In contrast to western nobility titles, where the title normally is added before the given name, Ottoman titles followed the given name. In contacts with foreign emissaries and representatives, holders of
3105-737: The Banat region of the Balkans. There is no indication he acted against the Ottomans in Temeşvar, but the province's local elites worked against his rule in much the same way they were opposed to his predecessor Deli Hasan (d. 1605). The Janissaries of the province may have planned to eliminate him and the threat to his life was considerable enough to have prompted his flight to Belgrade in April 1609. Upon returning to Constantinople from his campaigns against
3220-496: The Ceyhan River at Misis, but took an alternative northern route instead of the road leading through Bakras; the alternative route was about 100 kilometers (62 mi) longer than the southern Bakras route. Ali was taken by surprise upon Murad Pasha's arrival in the plains north of Kilis and compelled him to revise his strategy away from the familiar hilly terrain of Bakras where his sekbans were most accustomed to fighting to
3335-746: The Chouf village of Mazraa . Janbulad and his sons became close associates of Fakhr al-Din and the Khazens , a Maronite family in Keserwan , from 1631 until Fakhr al-Din's demise four years later. The family, which intermarried with the local Druze and converted to the Druze religion, became known as the Junblat (or Jumblatt), the Arabicized version of Janbulad. In the version of the 17th-century historian and associate of Fakhr al-Din, al-Khalidi al-Safadi ,
3450-587: The Euphrates valley . Through the mediation of his uncle Haydar ibn Janbulad and other representatives, he was pardoned by the sultan in 1608 and appointed beylerbey of Temeşvar several months later. Machinations against him by the local elites and Janissaries there compelled him to seek refuge in Belgrade in April 1609. Murad Pasha ordered his arrest there in the summer and he was executed in March 1610. Ali
3565-540: The Indian subcontinent , and in Southeastern Europe under Ottoman rule . In Islamic cultures the significance of the hammam was both religious and civic: it provided for the needs of ritual ablutions but also provided for general hygiene in an era before private plumbing and served other social functions such as offering a gendered meeting place for men and for women. Archeological remains attest to
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3680-652: The Kılıç Ali Pasa Hamamı and the Hürrem Sultan Hamamı being renovated and returned to their original function, while others were abandoned or repurposed. In Morocco, many hammams continue to serve locals in historic cities such as Fes and Marrakesh , where they are especially useful to the urban poor residing in the old cities ( medina s). In many other regions, however, hammams have become obsolete and have either been abandoned or converted to other uses. In Iran, some baths continue to operate in
3795-686: The Mahmut Pasha Hamam (built in 1466), and the Bayezid II Hamam (built some time between 1500 and 1507). The monumental hammams designed by the 16th-century Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan (1489–1588), such as the Çemberlitaş Hamamı , the Süleymaniye Hamam (in the complex of the Süleymaniye Mosque ), and the Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamam , are major examples of hammams that were built later in
3910-531: The Mediterranean world. They remained important in the cities of the early Byzantine Empire up to around the mid-6th century, after which the construction of new bathhouses declined and existing ones were gradually abandoned. Following the expansion of Arab Muslim rule over much of the Middle East and North Africa in the 7th and 8th centuries, the emerging Islamic societies were quick to adapt
4025-636: The Osman Dynasty in Constantinople (now Istanbul ), and sought to style his Egyptian realm as a successor sultanate to the Ottoman Empire. As such, he bore the title of Pasha , in addition to the official title of Wāli , and the self-declared title of Khedive . His successors to the Egyptian and Sudanese throne , Ibrahim , Abbas , Sa'id , and Isma'il also inherited these titles, with Pasha , and Wāli ceasing to be used in 1867, when
4140-537: The Ottoman Sultan , Abdülaziz officially recognised Isma'il as Khedive. The title Pasha appears originally to have applied exclusively to military commanders and only high ranking family of the sultans, but subsequently it could distinguish any high official, and also unofficial persons whom the court desired to honour. It was also part of the official style of the Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral of
4255-965: The Ottomans became prolific patrons of hammams. Since they were social centres as well as baths, they were built in almost every city across their European, Asian, and African territories. The Ottomans were thus responsible for introducing hammams to much of eastern and central Europe, where many still exist today in various states of restoration or disrepair. Such Turkish baths are found as far as Bosnia and Herzegovina , Greece , and Hungary . Many early Ottoman hammams survive in Bursa and Edirne , as well as in Eastern Europe and Anatolia , but hammams became even more numerous and architecturally ambitious in Constantinople (Istanbul) , thanks to its royal patronage, its large population and its access to plentiful water. The city's Greek inhabitants had retained
4370-640: The sanjak-beys of Kostendil and Selanik , his important lieutenant Jin Ali Bolukbashi was slain. Many other leading figures in Ali's army were taken captive in the battle and revealed to Murad Pasha, Ali's explicit intentions to establish a sovereign state of his own based in Aleppo. Murad Pasha sent patrols to gauge Ali's strength and positions and on 24 October Ali, realizing the almost two-to-one disadvantage in strength, sent letters proclaiming his loyalty to
4485-531: The 10th century many places started to provide separate hours (or separate facilities) for men and women. The hammam then took on an important role in women's social life as one of the few public spaces where they could gather and socialise apart from men. Some hammams were privately owned or formed parts of palaces and mansions, but in many cases they were civic or charitable institutions which formed part of larger religious/civic complexes. Such complexes were governed by waqf agreements, and hammams often acted as
4600-481: The 17th–19th centuries. Pasha The English word pasha comes from Turkish pasha ( pāşā ; also basha ( bāşā )). The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the origin of the English borrowing to the mid-17th century. The etymology of the Turkish word itself has been a matter of debate. Contrary to titles like emir ( amīr ) and bey ( beg ), which were established in usage much earlier,
4715-425: The 20th century. A massage in a hammam is likely to involve not just vigorous muscle kneading, but also joint cracking - "not so much a tender working of the flesh as a pummelling, a cracking of joints, a twisting of limbs". Hammams aiming for a tourist clientele are likely to also offer an array of different types of massage similar to what might be offered in a spa. Arab hammams are gendered spaces where being
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4830-535: The Celali rebels in Anatolia in the summer, Murad Pasha learned of Ali's circumstances and ordered his imprisonment in the Belgrade fortress. After several months the grand vizier was able to obtain a death sentence for Ali. The latter staved off the execution for at least forty days through his appeals but was decapitated on 1 March 1610. As customary, his head was publicly displayed in Constantinople. Ali's family,
4945-493: The Duke's representatives that he was poised to become an independent sultan of Syria . Ottoman and Safavid sources do not mention ties formed between Ali and Shah Abbas, who adopted a policy of allowing Celali rebels safe haven in his territory. Non-Ottoman and non-Safavid diplomats maintained that Ali sent the shah gifts to elicit Safavid sympathy. All of Ali's communications with non-Ottoman regional powers were kept secret, though
5060-432: The Janbulads, at least partly remained in their home region of Kurd-Dagh where until the present day traditional ballads are sung celebrating Ali. Part of the family may have been reestablished in Mount Lebanon where, according to the 19th-century chronicler Tannus al-Shidyaq , a certain Janbulad ibn Sa'id, possibly Ali's grandson, and his sons Sa'id and Rabah were received by Ali's old ally Fakhr al-Din in 1630 and settled in
5175-672: The Mediterranean ports of Acre , Haifa and Caesarea . With northern and central Syria under his control, Ali demanded from the beylerbey of Damascus, Seyyed Mehmed Pasha , control of certain areas of Seyyid Mehmed's eyalet under Ali and his allies: he sought the Hauran for Amr al-Badawi, chief of the Bedouin Mafarija tribe of Jabal Ajlun , the southern Beqaa Valley to the Bedouin chief Mansur ibn Bakri Furaykh , and
5290-589: The Muslim world, with hammams appearing as far west as Volubilis (itself a former Roman colony) in Morocco during the Idrisid period (late 8th to early 9th centuries). Historical texts and archeological evidence also indicate the existence of hammams in Cordoba and other cities of al-Andalus in the 8th century. In Iran , which did not previously have a strong culture of public bathing, historical texts mention
5405-502: The Ottoman fleet). Pashas ranked above Beys and Aghas , but below Khedives and Viziers . Three grades of Pasha existed, distinguished by the number of horse tails (three, two, and one respectively; a symbol of Turco-Mongol tradition) or peacock tails that the bearers were entitled to display on their standard as a symbol of military authority when on campaign. Only the sultan himself was entitled to four tails, as sovereign commander in chief . The following military ranks entitled
5520-590: The Porte acceded to his request for the governorship of Aleppo, appointing him in September; his request for a vizierate was ignored. Ali practically proclaimed his sovereignty by having the Friday prayers read in his name, and likely minting coins as well. To enforce his control over the Syrian emirs, Ali looked for allies among the Celali rebels of Anatolia. The Celali revolts were a series of rebellions beginning in
5635-619: The Porte in Constantinople, and Ferdinand viewed the Aleppine port Iskenderun as a suitable Levantine harbor for his political and economic ambitions. Moreover, for a technologically advancing Tuscany the relationship with Ali and his vulnerable but geographically strategic domains served as an extension of their burgeoning imperialism. Aleppo would serve as the commercial link between Persia and their European domains. Ferdinand's envoys came with significant gifts and proposed an alliance treaty with Ali. It explicitly stipulated joint efforts toward
5750-503: The Porte, and a well-trained and well-compensated army of sekbans , as well as his Kurdish tribesmen and Turkmen and Arab tribal levies from northern Syria. Huseyn was reappointed beylerbey of Aleppo in July 1604. Aleppo was a particularly wealthy city and the revenues of its province amounted to about 3.6 million akces . Around one year later Huseyn was executed in Van by the order of
5865-727: The Safavid Shah Abbas and the Aleppo Janissaries. Ferdinand sought to reconquer Cyprus for the Christians and had similar designs on the Holy Land , while also seeking commercial ties with Aleppo, the principal outlet for the export of Iranian silk and other commodities to European markets. The Tuscans had also been refused the capitulations and trading rights maintained by the French, English and Venetians with
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#17327732875005980-417: The appointment of his enemy as beylerbey there, Sinan Pasha's son Mahmud Pasha. Military assistance from Tuscany in the relatively modest form of five cannons and 1,000 musket barrels was also not slated to arrive for another six to ten months, while a Tuscan attempt to invade Cyprus, partly to support Ali, was repulsed in August. Ali publicly proclaimed in Aleppo that he served only Sultan Ahmed and threatened
6095-413: The appropriate forms of conduct for many aspects of Muslim life and death. One of the volumes, entitled The Mysteries of Purity , details the proper technique for performing ablutions before prayer and the major ablution ( ghusil ) after anything which renders it necessary, such as the emission of semen. For al-Ghazali, the hammam is a primarily male institution, and he cautions that women should only enter
6210-433: The armies of Tripoli, Damascus and Hama , and put Yusuf to flight. While Yusuf escaped to Tripoli , the bulk of his allies joined Ali, who financially rewarded them to ensure their loyalty. He proceeded to plunder the countryside of Tripoli. To destroy Yusuf's remaining influence in Syria, Ali formed an alliance with Fakhr al-Din Ma'n , a Druze chieftain in Mount Lebanon and sanjak-bey of Sidon-Beirut and Safad , who
6325-405: The bathhouse to their own needs. Its importance to Muslim society lay in the religious requirement to perform ablutions ( wudu and ghusl ) before praying and because of the general Islamic emphasis on physical and spiritual purity , although the scholar Mohammed Hocine Benkheira has argued that hammams were not in fact necessary for religious purposes in early Islam and that this relationship
6440-407: The beginning of the 19th century but only eight were still in business by the start of the 21st century, with many others abandoned or neglected. In the former European territories of the Ottoman Empire such as Greece and the Balkans , many hammams became defunct or were neglected in modern times, although some have now been restored and turned into historic monuments or cultural centres. Prayer
6555-485: The city's officials surrendered. Ali's loyalists and associates were executed for treason. The forces in the citadel refused to surrender, compelling Murad Pasha to appeal to its inhabitants, especially Ali's wives, to spare themselves of his army's assaults and offer them clemency. A number of Ali's relatives were pardoned, but the rest of his kinsmen and soldiers were executed immediately after they surrendered. Ali sent his paternal uncle Haydar to Constantinople to arrange
6670-586: The city's suburbs; to avoid Damascus experiencing the same fate, Yusuf and the Damascene authorities, led by the kadi (head judge), and local merchants bribed Ali 125,000 gold piasters to withdraw. Ali agreed and further opened Damascus to free trade with foreign merchants. Meanwhile, Yusuf had escaped and taken refuge in Hisn al-Akrad (Krak des Chevaliers) near Homs . Ali and Fakhr al-Din proceeded north to besiege him, compelling Yusuf to sue for peace. The three leaders formed an alliance sealed by marital ties. Together they held absolute control of Syria, with Ali
6785-497: The city. Although Dervish seized the valuables stockpiled in the inner citadel of Tripoli's castle , Ali strictly forbade the city's plunder in a bid to demonstrate to its inhabitants that his rule would be mild and generous. The minor emirs and sheikhs of Tripoli and its hinterland joined Ali, whose forces swelled to about 60,000 fighters. Yusuf had escaped to Damascus where he raised an army out of its imperial garrisons. On their pursuit of Yusuf, Ali and Fakhr al-Din captured Baalbek ,
6900-446: The era of classical Ottoman architecture . When Sultan Mustafa III issued a decree halting the construction of new public baths in the city in 1768, it seems to have resulted in an increase in the number of private hammams among the wealthy and the elites, especially in the Bosphorus suburbs where they built luxurious summer homes. In Iran, many examples of hammams survive from the Safavid period (16th–18th centuries) onward, with
7015-441: The everyday interactions of Moroccans in the hammam. Staats argues that hammams are places where women can feel more at ease than in many other public interactions. In addition, in his work Sexuality in Islam, Abdelwahab Bouhdiba cites the hammam as a place where homosexual encounters in general can take place. He notes that some historians found evidence of hammams as spaces for sexual expression among women, which they believed
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#17327732875007130-413: The existence of bathhouses in the 10th century as well as the use of hot springs for therapeutic purposes; however, there has been relatively little archeological investigation to document the early presence and development of hammams in this region. Muslims retained many of the main elements of the classical bathhouses while leaving out functions which were less relevant to their practices. For example,
7245-439: The existence of bathhouses in the Islamic world as early as the Umayyad period (7th–8th centuries) and their importance has persisted up to modern times. Their architecture evolved from the layout of Roman and Greek bathhouses and featured a regular sequence of rooms: an undressing room , a cold room , a warm room , and a hot room . Heat was produced by furnaces which provided hot water and steam , while smoke and hot air
7360-482: The general Jigalazade Sinan Pasha for refusing join the campaign against the Safavids. Ali acted as a stand-in for his uncle Huseyn while the latter was fighting on the Safavid front. He had already established a reputation across Syria as "an experienced leader, an able, generous man" according to Griswold. His rebellion against the Ottoman authorities was expressly launched as a bid to avenge his uncle, whom he declared to have been unjustly executed; he insisted that he
7475-526: The grand vizier "would taste the strength of his army" should he proceed toward his domains. Although an opportunity to attack Murad Pasha's army as it crossed eastward past Misis presented itself to Ali, he left such an opportunity open to Kalenderoglu, not knowing the latter had reconciled with Murad Pasha. Ali determined the most favorable place to assault the grand vizier was the mountain pass of Bakras , where he dispatched his sekban to fortify themselves. Murad Pasha departed Adana in late September, crossed
7590-549: The grand vizier and offering to meet him, which Murad Pasha rejected. The two armies encountered at Oruç Ovasi (the Meadow of the Ritual Fasting), a narrow area opening into a plain bound by mountains to the west and the Afrin River to the east. On the same day, Ali's forces charged against Zulfikar Pasha, whose forces absorbed the assault, before counter-charging. The day ended without a decisive victory for either side, though Ali's men had gained an advantage and demonstrated their strength. The following day Tiryaki Hasan Pasha put to use
7705-650: The grand vizier. Although he was afterward authorized to appoint sanjak-beys to the sanjaks of Aleppo, at that point there was little time for the new district governors to consolidate their position. His appointee to Marash , Haydar Bey, was unable to oust the grand vizier's general Zulfikar Pasha from the post and the latter's forces remained positioned north of the Taurus Mountains against Ali. He also could not rely on his ally Tavilahmedoglu Mehmed, who had been besieged in Baghdad by government forces led by Nasuh Pasha in April–July 1607 and eventually killed. Meanwhile, Ali's domination of Damascus had come to an end in April with
7820-410: The hammam experience such as jewel boxes, gilded soap boxes, mirrors, metal henna bowls, perfume bottles and nalın (wooden or mother-of-pearl clogs that prevented slipping on the wet floor) can now only be seen in museums. Traditionally, the bathhouse masseurs ( Turkish : tellak ) were young men who soaped and scrubbed their clients. However, the tellaks were replaced by adult attendants during
7935-458: The headquarters of a locally powerful Shia Muslim chief and old ally of Yusuf, Musa al-Harfush . They cautiously kept Musa on side, sending him to lobby military factions in Damascus to abandon Yusuf, but forced him to step down from his chieftainship in favor of his kinsman Yunus al-Harfush. They proceeded south through the Beqaa Valley and recruited a certain Ahmad of the Shihab clan based in Wadi al-Taym . Fakhr al-Din maintained his control of
8050-458: The hereditary governorships of the sanjaks of Kilis and Ma'arra . According to the historian William Griswold, the hereditary appointments to the militarily strategic and lucrative posts were "generous and represented considerable respect" by the Sublime Porte (imperial Ottoman government in Constantinople ) for Janbulad. He built at least one Sunni Muslim mosque in Kilis in 1562 before his governorship, and he or one of his family members built
8165-480: The historic city of Isfahan in particular containing many examples. The spread of Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent also introduced hammams to this region, with many examples surviving in Mughal architecture (16th–19th centuries). Hammams continued to be a vital part of urban life in the Muslim world until the early 20th century when the spread of indoor plumbing in private homes rendered public baths unnecessary for personal hygiene. This has resulted in
8280-532: The historic districts of cities like Isfahan where they continue to serve religious functions, but there is an overall decline in their numbers. Many surviving Iranian examples have been converted to other uses, most notably as restaurants and teahouses . In Damascus , Syria , only thirteen hammams were still operating in 2004, mostly in the old city; many others had been either demolished or repurposed. Cairo in Egypt contained an estimated 77 operational hammams at
8395-516: The holder to the style Pasha (lower ranks were styled Bey or merely Effendi ): If a Pasha governed a provincial territory , it could be called a pashaluk after his military title, besides the administrative term for the type of jurisdiction, e.g. eyalet , vilayet/walayah . Both beylerbeys (governors-general) and valis/wālis (the most common type of Governor) were entitled to the style of Pasha (typically with two tails). The word pashalik designated any province or other jurisdiction of
8510-400: The imperial army's field artillery, hiding the batteries behind the slopes of Oruç Ovasi. He had the imperial infantry and cavalry feign a slow retreat, thereby encouraging Ali's sekbans to pursue them on the field and expose them to the fire of the hidden artillery. Ali lost significant numbers of soldiers in the artillery barrage, while Murad Pasha's Rumeli cavalry and reserve troops launched
8625-530: The inaccurate term "Turkish bath" is also used to refer to hammams. This stems from the tendency of historical Western writers to conflate ethnic and religious terms by referring to Muslims as "Turk" and because they presented hammams largely as an Ottoman cultural feature. The first recorded use of the term 'Turkish bath' in English was in 1644. Public bathhouses were a prominent civic and urban institution in Roman and Hellenistic culture and were found throughout
8740-708: The inner Citadel of Aleppo with two years-worth of food and supplies. Ali fled toward al-Bira with 2,000 men, hoping to link with the sons of Tavilahmedoglu Mehmed. They lost their power in Mesopotamia, however, and Ali's hope failed to materialize while his offer to join the Safavid shah was rebuffed. As Murad Pasha made his way toward Kilis and Aleppo, Ali attempted to seek the assistance of Sultan Ahmed. Murad Pasha confiscated Ali's lands and money in Kilis and appointed officers to posts once filled by Ali's loyalists. He arrived outside of Aleppo on 8 November and soon after,
8855-410: The late 16th century. The revolts were precipitated by economic pressures in rural Anatolia stemming from overpopulation, a significant drop in the value of local silver and subsequent inflation, the inability of graduates from madrasas to find employment combined with the increasing availability of muskets among the peasantry. They posed a major challenge for the government, which was unable to suppress
8970-459: The latter meaning 'elder brother' and being a title given to some Ottoman provincial officials and janissaries . As first used in western Europe, the title appeared in writing with an initial b . The English forms bashaw , bassaw , bucha , etc., general in the 16th and 17th century, derive through the medieval Latin and Italian word bassa . Due to the Ottoman presence in the Arab world ,
9085-424: The male hammam with their fathers. Women's hammams play a special role in society. Valerie Staats finds that the women's hammams of Morocco serve as a social space where traditional and modern women from urban and rural areas of the country come together, regardless of their religiosity, to bathe and socialise. The bathing regulations laid down by al-Ghazali and other Islamic intellectuals are not usually upheld in
9200-417: The need to avoid touching the penis during bathing and after urination, and wrote that nakedness was decent only when the area between a man's knees and lower stomach was hidden. For women he suggested that only exposure of the face and palms was appropriate. According to al-Ghazali, nakedness in the hammam could incite indecent thoughts and behaviours, hence its controversial nature. In Islam ritual ablution
9315-498: The needs of ritual purification according to Islam. For example, in most Roman-style hammams, there was a cold pool for submersion of the body, a style of bathing that finds less favour with Islam which regards bathing under running water without being fully submerged more appropriate. Al-Ghazali , a prominent Muslim theologian of the 11th century, wrote Revival of the Religious Sciences , a multi-volume work discussing
9430-529: The pashas" for having produced the largest number of nobles holding this title under the Muhammad Ali dynasty and was noted in Egyptian media in 2014 as one of the main "families that rule Egypt" to this day, and as "deeply rooted in Egyptian society and… in the history of the country." As an honorific, the title pasha was an aristocratic title and could be hereditary or non-hereditary, stipulated in
9545-478: The plains of Kirikan or east banks of the Afrin River where the grand vizier's field artillery was most effective. Ali encamped with about 25,000 of his sekbans and other cavalries in the wide Amik Valley near Lake Amik . Zulfikar's patrols engaged with Ali's troops for three days while the grand vizier's army rested until 23 October when clashes culminated into a pitched battle. Although Ali's men killed
9660-584: The post and accumulated debts. Not long after Yerevan, the Porte dismissed Huseyn and Habib from their Kilis and Ma'arra posts for unclear reasons, reassigning control of Kilis to a certain Kurd, Dev Sulayman. The authorities imprisoned Huseyn in Aleppo and sold his assets at a low price to pay back his debts and diminish his strength. Upon his release Huseyn returned to Kilis and with his musketeers drove out Dev Suleyman and reclaimed his former hereditary lands. By 1600 he had accrued significant wealth and influence with
9775-418: The preserve mainly of tourists there is more likelihood that women will bathe naked. Some hammam complexes contain separate sections for men and women; elsewhere men and women are admitted at different times in which case the hours for women are usually far more limited than those for men. Traditionally hammams, especially those for women, doubled as places of entertainment with dancing and food being shared. It
9890-455: The progression from cold room to hot room was maintained, but it was no longer common practice to take a plunge in cold water after leaving the hot room, nor was exercise incorporated into bathing culture as it was in classical gymnasiums . Likewise, Muslim bathers usually washed themselves in running water rather than immersing themselves in standing water. Although in early Islamic history women did not normally patronise hammams, by around
10005-437: The rebel beylerbey of Karaman . Upon arriving at Konya the grand vizier informed troops the target of the campaign was Ali and the speed and severity of their march deep through Celali rebel territory was to avoid Ali's detection and counterattacks by him or his Celali allies. Although the prospect of a winter campaign was daunting, spending the winter months in temperate Aleppo encouraged his troops. He temporarily neutralized
10120-436: The restoration of Kiwan ibn Abdullah to his Janissary post–all of Ali's requests were rejected, though he demonstrated to his allies among the southern Syrian emirs and chieftains the benefits of his rule. Meanwhile, Ali issued excuses for his failure to remit taxes and continued to publicly assert his allegiance to the Ottoman sultan, whose government, unable at the time to rein in Ali's power, sent an envoy named Mehmed Agha with
10235-597: The revolts effectively. The government adopted a strategy in 1600 of temporarily accommodating rebel leaders through bribes or official appointments while making preparations to neutralize them. Ali had maintained friendly ties with certain Celali rebel leaders, including Cemsid Bey of Tarsus , who had taken control of Adana and its vicinity, and Tavil Bey of Bozok , who was a recipient of Ali's financial aid. The Celali leader Tavilahmedoglu Mahmud, who controlled Baghdad Eyalet , made common cause with Ali. Ali saw in Baghdad
10350-621: The root of the Persian word shah , شاه . According to Oxford Dictionaries, the Turkish word from which it was borrowed was formed as a result of the combination of the Pahlavi words pati- 'lord', and shah ( 𐭬𐭫𐭪𐭠 ). According to Josef W. Meri and Jere L. Bacharach , the word is "more than likely derived from the Persian Padishah " ( پادشاه ). The same view is held by Nicholas Ostler , who mentions that
10465-553: The strongest Celali chief of Anatolia, Kalenderoglu Mehmed, by appointing him sanjak-bey of Ankara . Before departing Konya, Murad Pasha sent notice to Ali demanding his loyalty. The grand vizier proceeded toward Adana where he routed the Celali chief and Janbulad ally Cemsid. With his victory he gained control of the Taurus mountain passes, which guarded Ali's north Syrian heartland, and the port of Adana. Ali likely realized upon hearing of Cemsid's defeat his weakened position against
10580-494: The strongest of the three. Nonetheless, Ali's supremacy over the eyalets of Aleppo, Tripoli and Damascus was reliant on his control of the Syrian emirs. Closer to his territorial power base Ali had the absolute loyalty of his Janbulad clan, followed by the Kurdish tribal beys and the nomadic Arabs of Kilis and Azaz . With the prospect of a full-scale civil war brewing in Anatolia and in the face of Ali's practical control of Syria,
10695-496: The ties with Tuscany were likely uncovered by government spies and the failed Tuscan invasion of Chios in 1607 probably riled the new grand vizier, the Empire's most celebrated and feared veteran commander Kuyucu Murad Pasha . The extent to which the Ottomans had become alarmed at Ali's power and alliances compelled them to call a ceasefire with the Habsburgs . Given the approval of Sultan Ahmed I , Murad Pasha kept his plans for
10810-565: The title pasha came into Ottoman usage right after the reign of Osman I (d. 1324), though it had been used before the Ottomans by some Anatolian Turkish rulers of the same era. Old Turkish had no fixed distinction between /b/ and /p/, and the word was spelled başa still in the 15th century. According to Online Etymology Dictionary , the Turkish pasha or basha was itself from Turkish baş / bash ( باش 'head, chief'), itself from Old Persian pati- ('master', from Proto-Indo-European * poti ) and
10925-529: The title ( Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [ˈbæːʃæ] ) came to be used in Egypt, which was conquered by the Ottomans in 1517. The rise to power in Egypt in 1805 by Muhammad Ali , an Albanian military commander, effectively established Egypt as a de facto independent state , however, it still owed technical fealty to the Ottoman Sultan. Moreover, Muhammad Ali harboured ambitions of supplanting
11040-545: The title Pasha were often referred to as "Your Excellency". The sons of a Pasha were styled Pashazada or Pashazade . In modern Egyptian and (to a lesser extent) Levantine Arabic , it is used as an honorific closer to "Sir" than "Lord", especially by older people. Among Egyptians born since the Revolution of 1952 and the abolition of aristocratic titles, it is considered a highly formal way of addressing one's male peers. The Republican Turkish authorities abolished
11155-638: The title became used frequently in Arabic , though pronounced basha due to the absence of the /p/ sound in Arabic. Within the Ottoman Empire , the Sultan had the right to bestow the title of Pasha . Lucy Mary Jane Garnett wrote in the 1904 work Turkish Life in Town and Country that it was the sole "Turkish title which carries with it any definite rank and precedence". It was through this custom that
11270-852: The title circa the 1930s. Although it is no longer an official title, high-ranking officers of the Turkish Armed Forces are often referred to as "pashas" by the Turkish public and media. In the French Navy , "pasha" ( pacha in French) is the nickname of the Commanding Officer , similar to the term "skipper" in the Anglophone navies. The inclusion criterion is that the person held the rank of "pasha" in his society Turkish bath A hammam ( Arabic : حمّام , romanized : ḥammām ), also often called
11385-434: The use of hammams. These scholars viewed hammams as unnecessary for full-body ablutions ( ghusl ) and questioned whether public bathing spaces could be sufficiently clean to achieve proper purification . They also worried that spaces for collective bathing could become spaces for illicit sexual activity. Nevertheless, this opposition progressively faded and by the 9th century most scholars were no longer interested in debating
11500-564: The validity of hammams, although it continued to be seen with suspicion in some conservative circles. The earliest known Islamic hammams were built in Syria and Jordan during the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) as part of palaces and desert castles at Qusayr 'Amra , Hammam al-Sarah , Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi , and Khirbat al-Majfar . Shortly after this period, archaeology reveals the existence of Islamic bathhouses across much of
11615-527: The weakening and eventual destruction of the Ottoman Empire, the strengthening of the Janbulad dynasty and recognition of Ali as "Prince and Protector of the Kingdom of Syria". It mandated a special status for the Tuscans in Syria, including free trade with Iskenderun, authorization for their sale of pirated goods, Tuscan residency rights throughout Syria and their subjects' governance by Florentine law. Janbulad
11730-411: The word was formed as a shortening of the Persian word padishah . Jean Deny also attributed its origin to padishah , while repeating a suggestion by Gerhard Doerfer that it was influenced by Turkic baskak ( bāsqāq ), meaning 'agent, tax collector'. Some theories have posited a Turkish or Turkic origin of the word, claiming it derived from başağa ( bāş āghā ), which denoted
11845-719: Was Yusuf's in-law and principal rival. One of the commanders of the Damascus Janissaries , Kiwan ibn Abdullah, seeking to undermine a rival Damascene commander, encouraged Fakhr al-Din to accept's Ali entreaty. Ali and Fakhr al-Din met in the northeastern Beqaa Valley , at the source of the Orontes River , and devised plans to capture or kill Yusuf. Their first target was Tripoli, the principal source of Yusuf's wealth and strength, against which Ali dispatched his paternal first cousin Dervish ibn Habib, who captured
11960-505: Was a result of the universality of nudity in these spaces. Hammams have also been associated with male homosexuality over the centuries and up to the present day. Features Types Types Features Clothing Genres Art music Folk Prose Islamic Poetry Genres Forms Arabic prosody National literatures of Arab States Concepts Texts Fictional Arab people South Arabian deities The hammam combines
12075-481: Was adamant to bring Ali to Constantinople to prevent his potential stirrings of the Celalis in Anatolia and sent a palace kethuda to summon Haydar and a ship to bring Ali's other envoys to the capital by sea. Once Ali's representatives were notified of Ali's pardon, they returned by ship to Iznikmid with a palace official to meet and transport Ali to the capital. He arrived there on 16 January 1608 to large crowds and
12190-411: Was appointed beylerbey (provincial governor) of Aleppo Eyalet, the first Kurd to attain the rank of beylerbey in Ottoman history and the first local to be appointed governor of Aleppo. In 1585 he was the lieutenant commander of Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha during the capture of Yerevan from the Safavid shah Mohammad Khodabanda . During his governorship Huseyn likely struggled against rivals seeking
12305-470: Was at war with Austria - Hungary in the west and Safavid Iran in the east. The prospect of a foreign-backed, wide-scale rebellion in the Ottoman heartland prompted Grand Vizier Kuyucu Murad Pasha to launch an expedition against Ali. The latter publicly maintained his loyalty to Sultan Ahmed I throughout his rebellion and his practical control of Aleppo was formalized with his appointment as beylerbey in September 1606. Murad Pasha's campaign against Ali
12420-564: Was channeled through conduits under the floor . In a modern hammam visitors undress themselves, while retaining some sort of modesty garment or loincloth , and proceed into progressively hotter rooms, inducing perspiration . They are then usually washed by male or female staff (matching the gender of the visitor) with the use of soap and vigorous rubbing, before ending by washing themselves in warm water. Unlike in Roman or Greek baths, bathers usually wash themselves with running water instead of immersing themselves in standing water since this
12535-440: Was common to visit hammams before weddings or religious holidays, to celebrate births, to swap beauty tips, etc. Women also used visits to the hammam to size up potential wives for their sons. Some accessories from Roman times survive in modern hammams, such as the peştemal (a special cloth of silk and/or cotton to cover the body, like a pareo ) and the kese (a rough mitten used for scrubbing). However, other accoutrements of
12650-449: Was not revolting against the sultan, but rather fighting as a loyal subject against the sultan's advisers and viziers—not least Jigalazade Sinan Pasha—whom he collectively accused of injustice. His cause for revenge gained wide currency among his Kurdish tribal kin and more generally throughout Syria. He engaged in a six-month struggle against local opponents in northern Syria and became the unofficial power in Aleppo. In May 1606 he had lodged
12765-599: Was ostensibly directed against the Safavids to avoid Ali's mobilization; the latter realized he was the grand vizier's target only when Murad Pasha's army routed his Celali allies in Cilicia and approached his north Syrian domains. The grand vizier's army of Rumeli and Anatolian troops routed and mass executed Ali's rebel sekbans (musketeers) at the Amik Valley in October 1607, but Ali escaped, first to Aleppo then to
12880-489: Was partly assumed by later historians. He suggests that the hammam's initial appeal derived at least in part from its convenience for other services (such as shaving ), from its endorsement by some Muslim doctors as a form of therapy, and from the continued popular appreciation of its pleasures in a region where they had already existed for centuries. He also notes that there was initially strong opposition from many Islamic scholars ( ulama ) , especially Maliki scholars, to
12995-612: Was received by the sultan. While the sultan deliberated and questioned Ali for about a week, he resided in the former home of Grand Vizier Dervish Pasha. Upon the sultan's inquiry for why Ali rebelled, the latter replied "I am no rebel. But around me gathered evil ones, from whom I could not escape, so that I led them in their revenge against your troops. Now I am in flight as one laden with guilt. If you forgive, then it will be worthy of you; if you punish, you will surely be within your rights". Sultan Ahmed pardoned Ali and after an unknown period of time appointed him beylerbey of Temeşvar in
13110-538: Was required by the treaty to assist a European conquest of Jerusalem and recognize the city's Christian denominational redirection to Roman Catholicism from the Eastern churches. The Tuscans also called for tax exemptions for Christian pilgrims compensated by Tuscany and permission for the construction of a Roman Catholic church in Aleppo. European signatories would include Ferdinand, Pope Paul V and King Philip III, among other Christian royals and pontiffs. Ali boasted to
13225-603: Was the grandson of Janbulad ibn Qasim al-Kurdi (d. 1572), the sanjak-bey (district governor) of Kilis , part of Aleppo Eyalet . Janbulad suppressed brigandage in the district and took part in the 1571 Ottoman conquest of Cyprus during the war with Venice (1570–1573). He belonged to a family of Kurdish tribal chieftains based in the Kurd-Dagh (Kurd Mountains) west of Kilis and Aleppo . The family name Janbulad translates from Kurdish as "soul of steel". Janbulad and his family were rewarded for their military achievements with
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