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102-580: Historically, Japantowns represented the Japanese diaspora and its individual members known as nikkei ( 日系 ) , who are Japanese emigrants from Japan and their descendants that reside in a foreign country. Emigration from Japan first happened and was recorded as early as the 12th century to the Philippines , but did not become a mass phenomenon until the Meiji Era , when Japanese began to go to

204-412: A conspicuous immigration flow. These migratory movements were accompanied by other flows of lesser intensity, such as transfers from the countryside to smaller cities and travel from mountainous areas to the plains. The main reasons that gave rise to this massive migratory flow were linked to the living conditions in the places of origin of the emigrants (which were very harsh), the absence of stable work,

306-444: A diaspora. An academic field, diaspora studies , has become established relating to this sense of the word. William Safran in an article published in 1991, set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities. These included criteria that the group maintains a myth or collective memory of their homeland; they regard their ancestral homeland as their true home, to which they will eventually return; being committed to

408-428: A diasporic group could leave its homeland voluntarily, and assimilate deeply into host cultures. Rogers Brubaker (2005) more inclusively applied three basic definitional criteria: First, geographic dispersion (voluntary or forced) of a people; second, "the orientation to a real or imagined 'homeland' as an authoritative source of value, identity and loyalty"; and third, maintenance of a social boundary corresponding to

510-569: A long vowel in phone numbers (i.e. にい nī and ごお gō). As noted above, yon (4) and nana (7) are preferred to shi and shichi . It is purported that this is because shi is also the reading of the word death ( 死 ) , which makes it an unlucky reading (see tetraphobia ); while shichi may sound too similar to ichi (1), shi or hachi (8). However, in quite a number of established words and phrases, shi and shichi are preferred; additionally, when counting (as in "ichi, ni, san, shi,..."), shi and shichi may be preferred. The number 9

612-650: A million to 3.8 million between the 1979 revolution and 2019, mostly live in United States , Canada and Turkey. According to a 2019 United Nations report, the Indian diaspora is the world's largest diaspora, with a population of 17.5 million, followed by the Mexican diaspora , with a population of 11.8 million, and the Chinese diaspora , with a population of 10.7 million. The term "diaspora"

714-713: A minority in their own country. At least 60,000 ethnic Nepalese from Bhutan have been resettled in the United States. A second wave was driven by British recruitment of mercenary soldiers beginning around 1815 and resettlement after retirement in the British Isles and Southeast Asia. The third wave began in the 1970s as land shortages intensified and the pool of educated labor greatly exceeded job openings in Nepal. Job-related emigration created Nepalese enclaves in India,

816-470: A myriad (万), numbers begin with 一 ( ichi ) if no digit would otherwise precede. That is, 100 is just 百 hyaku , and 1000 is just 千 sen , but 10000 is 一万 ichiman , not just * man . (This differs from Chinese, where numbers begin with 一 if no digit would otherwise precede starting at 100.) And, if 千 sen directly precedes the name of powers of myriad , 一 ichi is normally attached before 千 sen , which yields 一千 issen . That is, 10,000,000 (parsed as 1000,0000)

918-431: A native Japanese reading ( Kun reading ) used somewhat less formally for numbers up to 10. In some cases (listed below) the Japanese reading is generally preferred for all uses. Archaic readings are marked with †. * The special reading 〇 maru (which means "round" or "circle") is also found. It may be optionally used when reading individual digits of a number one after another, instead of as a full number. A popular example

1020-683: A new wave of Greek colonization in Asia and Africa, with Greek ruling classes established in Egypt , southwest Asia and northwest India . Subsequent waves of colonization and migration during the Middle Ages added to the older settlements or created new ones, thus replenishing the Greek diaspora and making it one of the most long-standing and widespread in the world. The Romans also established numerous colonies and settlements outside of Rome and throughout

1122-440: A rate or discount. The bu fractions are also used when talking about fevers—for example 九度二分 ( kudonibu ) for 9 and two parts—referring to the temperature 39.2°C. One system is as follows: This is the system used with the traditional Japanese units of measurement . Several of the names are used "as is" to represent a fraction of a sun . The other system of representing these decimal fractions of rate or discount uses

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1224-483: A separate set of kanji for numerals called daiji (大字) used in legal and financial documents to prevent unscrupulous individuals from adding a stroke or two, turning a one into a two or a three. The formal numbers are identical to the Chinese formal numbers except for minor stroke variations. Today, the numbers for one, two, three, and ten are written only in their formal form in legal documents (the numbers 4 to 9 as well as 100, 1000 and 10000 are written identically to

1326-458: A shared hometown or province, and recruiters and foremen commonly select entire work-crews from the same village. In two separate June 2011 incidents, Sichuanese migrant workers organized violent protests against alleged police misconduct and migrant-labor abuse near the southern manufacturing hub of Guangzhou . Much of Siberia 's population has its origins in internal migration – voluntary or otherwise – from European Russia since

1428-671: A statewide exodus of talent, the State of Michigan continues to host "MichAGAIN" career-recruiting events in places throughout the United States with significant Michigan-diaspora populations. In the People's Republic of China, millions of migrant workers have sought greater opportunity in the country's booming coastal metropolises, though this trend has slowed with the further development of China's interior. Migrant social structures in Chinese megacities are often based on place of origin, such as

1530-566: A system "shifted down" with a bu becoming a "one hundredth" and so on, and the unit for "tenth" becoming wari : This is often used with prices. For example: With the exception of wari , these are rarely seen in modern usage. Decimal fractions are typically written with either kanji numerals (vertically) or Arabic numerals (horizontally), preceded by a decimal point, and are read as successive digits, as in Western convention. Note that, in written form, they can be combined with either

1632-697: Is 四千二 (in contrast, Chinese requires the use of 零 wherever a zero appears, e.g. 四千零二 for 4002). However, when reading out a statement of accounts, for example, the skipped digit or digits are sometimes indicated by tobi ( 飛び ) or tonde ( 飛んで ): e.g. yon-sen tobi ni or yon-sen tonde ni instead of the normal yon-sen ni . Japanese has two systems of numerals for decimal fractions. They are no longer in general use, but are still used in some instances such as batting and fielding averages of baseball players, winning percentages for sports teams, and in some idiomatic phrases such as 五分五分の勝負 ( gobugobu no shōbu , 'fifty-fifty chance') , and when representing

1734-801: Is also considered unlucky; when pronounced ku , it is a homophone for suffering ( 苦 ) . The number 13 is sometimes considered unlucky, though this is a carryover from Western tradition . In contrast, 7 and sometimes 8 are considered lucky in Japanese. In modern Japanese, cardinal numbers except 4 and 7 are generally given the on readings. Alternate readings are used in month names, day-of-month names, and fixed phrases; for instance, April, July, and September are called shi -gatsu (4th month), shichi -gatsu (7th month), and ku -gatsu (9th month) respectively (for further detail see Japanese counter word#Exceptions ). The on readings are also used when shouting out headcounts (e.g. ichi-ni-san-shi). Larger numbers are made by combining these elements: Starting at

1836-502: Is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when inputting Japanese into a computer. The Hindu–Arabic numerals are generally used for numbers, but traditional Sino–Japanese numerals are also common. Japantowns were created because of the widespread immigration of Japanese to America in the Meiji period (1868–1912). At that time, many Japanese were poor and sought economic opportunities in

1938-519: Is derived from the Ancient Greek verb διασπείρω ( diaspeirō ), "I scatter", "I spread about" which in turn is composed of διά ( dia ), "between, through, across" and the verb σπείρω ( speirō ), "I sow, I scatter". The term διασπορά ( diaspora ) hence meant "scattering". There is confusion over the exact process of derivation from these Ancient Greek verbs to the concept of diaspora. Many cite Thucydides (5th century BC) as

2040-793: Is from Sanskrit नयुत/नयुतः nayuta(ḥ) . After that, the numbers are Buddhist terms translated into or coined in Chinese and later assigned numerical values: 不可思議 fukashigi 'unimaginable' and 無量大数 muryōtaisū 'immeasurably large number'. Examples: (spacing by groups of four digits is given only for clarity of explanation) However, numbers written in Arabic numerals are separated by commas every three digits following English-speaking convention. If Arabic numbers and kanji are used in combination, Western orders of magnitude may be used for numbers smaller than 10,000 (e.g. 2,500万 for 25,000,000). In Japanese, when long numbers are written out in kanji, zeros are omitted for all powers of ten. Hence 4002

2142-589: Is in Chinese today), and after 10 they differ in whether they continue increasing by a factor of 10 or switch to 10 . (If by a factor of 10 , the intervening factors of 10 are produced with 万 man . The current edition of the Jinkōki , the 11th, follows a factor of 10 throughout, though some people still use the values from the 8th edition even today.) The first three numbers with multisyllabic names and variation in assigned values ultimately derive from India, though they did not have defined values there. 恒河沙 gōgasha

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2244-448: Is known largely on the basis of its state in the 8th century, when the three major works of Old Japanese were compiled. The earliest attestation of the Japanese language is in a Chinese document from 252 AD. Japanese is written with a combination of three scripts: hiragana , derived from the Chinese cursive script, katakana , derived as a shorthand from Chinese characters, and kanji , imported from China. The Latin alphabet , rōmaji ,

2346-875: Is normally read as 一千万 issenman . But if 千 sen does not directly precede the name of powers of myriad, attaching 一 ichi is optional. That is, 15,000,000 (1500,0000) is read as 千五百万 sengohyakuman or 一千五百万 issengohyakuman , just as 1500 is read as 千五百 sengohyaku or 一千五百 issengohyaku . There are some phonetic modifications to larger numbers involving voicing or gemination of certain consonants, as typically occurs in Japanese (i.e. rendaku ): e.g. roku "six" and hyaku "hundred" yield roppyaku "six hundred". * This also applies to multiples of 10. Change ending -jū to -jutchō or -jukkei . ** This also applies to multiples of 100. Change ending -ku to -kkei . In numbers above 10, elements are combined from largest to smallest, and zeros are implied. Japanese numerals are multiplicative additive rather than positional; to write

2448-537: Is still a major factor in 2012. During this period, Siam decimated the Lao capital, capturing, torturing, and killing the Lao king Anuwongse , who led the lao rebellion in the 19th century . European history contains numerous diaspora-causing events. In ancient times , the trading and colonising activities of the Greek tribes from the Balkans and Asia Minor spread people of Greek culture, religion and language around

2550-649: Is the Irish diaspora , beginning in the mid-19th century and brought about by an Gorta Mór or "the Great Hunger" of the Irish Famine . An estimated 45% to 85% of Ireland's population emigrated to areas including Britain, the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand. The size of the Irish diaspora is demonstrated by the number of people around the world who claim Irish ancestry; some sources put

2652-594: Is the famous 109 store in Shibuya, Tokyo which is read as ichi-maru-kyū (Kanji: 一〇九 ). (It can also be read as 'ten-nine'—pronounced tō-kyū —which is a pun on the name of the Tokyu department store which owns the building.) This usage of maru for numerical 0 is similar to reading numeral 0 in English as oh . However, as a number, it is only written as 0 or rei ( 零 ) . Additionally, two and five are pronounced with

2754-481: Is the third in Asia with approximately 9 million Pakistanis living abroad mostly in middle east, North America and Europe. At least three waves of Nepalese diaspora can be identified. The earliest wave dates back to hundreds of years as early marriage and high birthrates propelled Hindu settlement eastward across Nepal, then into Sikkim and Bhutan. A backlash developed in the 1980s as Bhutan's political elites realized that Bhutanese Buddhists were at risk of becoming

2856-573: Is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently reside elsewhere. Notable diasporic populations include the Jewish diaspora formed after the Babylonian exile ; Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora following the Assyrian genocide ; Greeks that fled or were displaced following the fall of Constantinople and the later Greek genocide as well as

2958-521: The Americas . The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for "work and bread". The second diaspora started after the end of World War II and concluded roughly in the 1970s. Between 1880 and 1980, about 15,000,000 Italians left the country permanently. By 1980, it was estimated that about 25,000,000 Italians were residing outside Italy. In

3060-458: The Athabasca oil sands . With the fall of Fascist regime in 1943, and the end of World War II in 1945, a large internal migratory flow began from one Italian region to another . This internal emigration was sustained and constantly increased by the economic growth that Italy experienced between the 1950s and 1960s. Given that this economic growth mostly concerned Northwest Italy , which

3162-572: The Chinese characters and the Japanese yamato kotoba (native words, kun'yomi readings). There are two ways of writing the numbers in Japanese: in Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) or in Chinese numerals ( 一 , 二 , 三 ). The Arabic numerals are more often used in horizontal writing , and the Chinese numerals are more common in vertical writing . Most numbers have two readings , one derived from Chinese used for cardinal numbers ( On reading ) and

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3264-654: The Indian subcontinent , and their presence in Europe is first attested to in the Middle Ages . The South Asian diaspora as a whole has over 44 million people. The earliest known Asian diaspora of note is the Jewish diaspora . With roots in the Babylonian Captivity and later migrations under Hellenism , the majority of the diaspora can be attributed to the Roman conquest , expulsion, and enslavement of

3366-825: The Indian subcontinent ; the Italian diaspora and the Mexican diaspora ; Circassians in the aftermath of the Circassian genocide ; the Palestinian diaspora ( shatat due to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict ; the Armenian diaspora following the Armenian genocide ; the Lebanese diaspora due to the Lebanese civil war ; and Syrians due to the Syrian civil war ; The Iranian diaspora , which grew from half

3468-761: The Istanbul pogroms ; the emigration of Anglo-Saxons (primarily to the Byzantine Empire ) after the Norman Conquest of England ; the southern Chinese and South Asians who left their homelands during the 19th and 20th centuries; the Irish diaspora after the Great Famine ; the Scottish diaspora that developed on a large scale after the Highland and Lowland Clearances ; Romani from

3570-487: The Japanese culture . Japanese architecture has traditionally been typified by wooden structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs. Sliding doors ( fusuma ) were used in place of walls, allowing the internal configuration of a space to be customized for different occasions. People usually sat on cushions or otherwise on the floor, traditionally; chairs and high tables were not widely used until

3672-792: The Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, establishing Greek city-states in southern Italy (the so-called " Magna Graecia "), northern Libya, eastern Spain, the south of France , and the Black Sea coasts. Greeks founded more than 400 colonies. Tyre and Carthage also colonised the Mediterranean. Alexander the Great 's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period , characterized by

3774-588: The Philippines , North America , and beginning in 1897 with 35 emigrants to Mexico; and later to Peru, beginning in 1899 with 790 emigrants. There was also significant emigration to the territories of the Empire of Japan during the colonial period; however, most such emigrants repatriated to Japan after the end of World War II in Asia . For a brief period in the 16th–17th centuries, Japanese overseas activity and presence in Southeast Asia and elsewhere in

3876-609: The Roman Empire in 70 AD. It subsequently came to be used in reference to the historical movements and settlement patterns of the Jews. In English, capitalized, and without modifiers, the term can refer specifically to the Jewish diaspora . The wider application of diaspora evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part. The oldest known use of

3978-470: The Sengoku period caused a great many people, primarily samurai , commoner merchants, and Christian refugees to seek their fortunes across the seas. Many of the samurai who fled Japan around this time were those who stood on the losing sides of various major conflicts; some were rōnin , some veterans of the Japanese invasions of Korea or of various other major conflicts. As Toyotomi Hideyoshi and later

4080-756: The Tokugawa shōguns issued repeated bans on Christianity, many fled the country; a significant portion of those settled in Catholic Manila. In western countries such as Canada and the United States , the Japanese tended to integrate with society so that many if not all Japantowns are in danger of completely disappearing, with the remaining only existing in San Francisco, San Jose, and Los Angeles, California. The features described below are characteristic of many modern Japantowns. Many historical Japantowns will exhibit architectural styles that reflect

4182-749: The United States . Japanese immigrants initially settled in Western parts of the US and Canada . At one time, there were 43 different Japantowns in California , ranging from several square blocks of Little Tokyo in Los Angeles, to one in the small farming community of Marysville in Yuba County . Besides typical businesses, these communities usually had Japanese language schools for the immigrants' children, Japanese language newspapers, Buddhist and Christian churches, and sometimes Japanese hospitals. After

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4284-529: The World War II internment of the Japanese , most of those communities declined significantly or disappeared altogether. There are currently four recognized Japantowns left in the United States, which are facing issues such as commercialization , reconstruction, gentrification and dwindling Japanese populations. Several Japantowns emerged in the British Columbia 's Lower Mainland during

4386-562: The WorldCat database to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora. The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, but in 2002 only two out of 20 books sampled (out of a total of 253) were about the Jewish case, with a total of eight different diasporas covered. Brubaker outlined the original use of the term diaspora as follows: Most early discussions of

4488-413: The 16th century. In Canada, internal migration has occurred for a number of different factors over the course of Canadian history. An example is the migration of workers from Atlantic Canada (particularly Newfoundland and Labrador ) to Alberta , driven in part by the cod collapse in the early 1990s and the 1992 moratorium on cod fishing. Fishing had previously been a major driver of the economies of

4590-681: The 1950s and 60s. Even the surviving Japantowns are a shadow of their former selves as later generations scattered and dispersed across the country as pre-war housing covenants began to be lifted in the 1960s, and now cater more to tourists and the greater Asian Pacific communities. Designated Japantown areas remain in the following areas: Northern California : In addition to Japantown districts in San Francisco and San Jose, suburbs and neighborhoods with significant Japanese American populations, histories, and/or previously recognized Japantowns included: Southern California : Pacific Islands : Elsewhere in western U.S. Eastern U.S. : In

4692-491: The 19th century to 1949 was caused mainly by wars and starvation in mainland China , as well as political corruption. Most migrants were illiterate or poorly educated peasants, called by the now-recognized racial slur coolies (Chinese: 苦力, literally "hard labor"), who migrated to developing countries in need of labor, such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa, Southeast Asia, Malaya and other places. Pakistani diaspora

4794-417: The 20th century. Since the 19th century, however, Japan has incorporated much of Western, modern , and post-modern architecture into construction and design. Many Japantowns will exhibit the use of the Japanese language in signage existing on road signs and on buildings as Japanese which is the official and primary language of Japan . Japanese has a lexically distinct pitch-accent system. Early Japanese

4896-678: The 600s to mid 3000s. Previously, migrant Africans with national African passports could only enter thirteen African countries without advanced visas. In pursuing a unified future, the African Union (AU) launched an African Union Passport in July 2016, allowing people with a passport from one of the 55 member states of the AU to move freely between these countries under this visa free passport and encourage migrants with national African passports to return to Africa. The largest Asian diaspora in

4998-632: The Aeginetans who did not settle here were scattered over the rest of Hellas.' Dufoix further notes, "Of all the occurrences of diaspora in the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG), which draws upon almost the entire written corpus in the Greek language . . . none refer to colonisation." Dufoix surmises that the confusion may stem from a comment by Jewish historian Simon Dubnow , who wrote an entry on diaspora for

5100-445: The Americas, after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanded. Historian James Axtell estimates that 240,000 people left Europe for the Americas in the 16th century. Emigration continued. In the 19th century alone over 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America. Other Europeans moved to Siberia, Africa, and Australasia. The properly Spanish emigrants were mainly from several parts of Spain, but not only

5202-600: The Atlantic provinces, and this loss of work proved catastrophic for many families. As a result, beginning in the early 1990s and into the late 2000s, thousands of people from the Atlantic provinces were driven out-of-province to find work elsewhere in the country, especially in the Alberta oil sands during the oil boom of the mid-2000s. This systemic export of labour is explored by author Kate Beaton in her 2022 graphic memoir Ducks , which details her experience working in

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5304-810: The British Isles and Greenland. The recent application of the word "diaspora" to the Viking lexicon highlights their cultural profile distinct from their predatory reputation in the regions they settled, especially in the North Atlantic. The more positive connotations associated with the social science term help to view the movement of the Scandinavian peoples in the Viking Age in a new way. Such colonizing migrations cannot be considered indefinitely as diasporas; over very long periods, eventually,

5406-582: The Flock, and to perform the office and work of Bishops among them. The OED records a usage of "diaspora" in 1876, which refers to "extensive diaspora work (as it is termed) of evangelizing among the National Protestant Churches on the continent". The term became more widely assimilated into English by the mid 1950s, with long-term expatriates in significant numbers from other particular countries or regions also being referred to as

5508-686: The Jewish population of Judea , whose descendants became the Ashkenazim , Sephardim , and Mizrahim of today, roughly numbering 15 million of which 8 million still live in the diaspora, though the number was much higher before Zionist immigration to what is now Israel and the murder of 6 million Jews in the Holocaust . Chinese emigration (also known as the Chinese Diaspora; see also Overseas Chinese ) first occurred thousands of years ago. The mass emigration that occurred from

5610-624: The Roman empire. The Migration-Period relocations, which included several phases, are just one set of many in history. The first phase Migration-Period displacement (between 300 and 500 AD) included relocation of the Goths ( Ostrogoths and Visigoths ), Vandals , Franks , various other Germanic peoples ( Burgundians , Lombards , Angles , Saxons , Jutes , Suebi and Alemanni ), Alans and numerous Slavic tribes . The second phase, between 500 and 900 AD, saw Slavic , Turkic , and other tribes on

5712-401: The South and the Northeast , did not easily convince farmers to stay on the land and to work the soil. Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions after Unification . That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to

5814-400: The United States and Canada after the Highland Clearances ; as well as the Lowlanders, becoming the Ulster Scots in Ireland and the Scotch-Irish in America. There were two major Italian diasporas in Italian history . The first diaspora began around 1880, two decades after the Unification of Italy , and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise of Fascist Italy . Poverty was

5916-453: The United States of America, approximately 4.3 million people moved outside their home states in 2010, according to IRS tax-exemption data. In a 2011 TEDx presentation, Detroit native Garlin Gilchrist referenced the formation of distinct "Detroit diaspora" communities in Seattle and in Washington, DC, while layoffs in the auto industry also led to substantial blue-collar migration from Michigan to Wyoming c. 2005. In response to

6018-436: The United States of America. After World War II, the Soviet Union and communist -controlled Poland, Czechoslovakia , Hungary and Yugoslavia expelled millions of ethnic Germans , most of them were the descendants of immigrants who had settled in those areas centuries ago. This expulsion was allegedly carried out in reaction to Nazi Germany's invasions and pan-German attempts to annex Eastern European territory. Most of

6120-419: The Western thousands (1,000): Variation is due to the Jinkōki ( 塵劫記 ), Japan's oldest mathematics text. The initial edition was published in 1627 and had many errors, most of which were fixed in the 1631 edition. In 1634, there was yet another edition which again changed a few values. The above variation is due to inconsistencies in the latter two editions. There are different characters for 10 (of which 秭

6222-429: The aforementioned areas began to emigrate to the large industrial centers of the north-west, especially in the so-called "industrial triangle, or the area corresponding to the three-sided polygon with vertices in the cities of Turin, Milan and Genoa . Even some cities in central and southern Italy (such as Rome , which was the object of immigration due to employment in the administrative and tertiary sectors) experienced

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6324-453: The ancestral lands, maintaining any form of ties with the region of origin as well as relationships with other communities in the diaspora, and lack of full integration into the new host countries. Diasporas often maintain ties to the country of their historical affiliation and usually influence their current host country's policies towards their homeland. "Diaspora management" is a term that Harris Mylonas has "re-conceptualized to describe both

6426-810: The common ones, cf. table below). These numbers' common forms can be changed to a higher value by adding strokes (1 and 2 were explained above, while 3 can be changed to 5, and 10 to 1000). In some cases, the digit 1 is explicitly written like 壱百壱拾 for 110, as opposed to 百十 in common writing. Formal numbers: The four current banknotes of the Japanese yen , 1000-yen, 2000-yen, 5000-yen, and 10000-yen, have formal numbers 千, 弐千, 五千, and 壱万, respectively. Old Japanese shares some vocabulary with later periods, but there are also unique number terms over 10 which are not used any more, aside from being parts of specific lexemes . Notes: Japanese uses separate systems for counting for oneself and for displaying numbers to others, which both proceed up to ten. For counting, one begins with

6528-419: The conservation of a distinctive diasporic identity which differs from the host culture. Brubaker also noted that the use of the term diaspora has been widening. He suggests that one element of this expansion in use "involves the application of the term diaspora to an ever-broadening set of cases: essentially to any and every nameable population category that is to some extent dispersed in space". Brubaker used

6630-652: The creation of communities of African descent in India, most notably the Siddi , Makrani and Sri Lanka Kaffirs . Beginning as early as the 2nd century AD, the kingdom of Aksum (modern-day Ethiopia ) created colonies on the Arabian Peninsula. During the 4th century, Aksum formally adopted Christianity as a state religion, becoming the first to do so along with Armenia . In the 6th century, Kaleb of Axum invaded Himyar (modern-day Yemen ) to aid and defend Christians under religious persecution. During these campaigns, several groups of soldiers chose not to return to Aksum. These groups are estimated to have ranged in size from

6732-451: The current entry on "diaspora" in the Oxford English Dictionary Online dates the first recorded use a century later to 1694, in a work on ordination by the Welsh theologian James Owen. Owen wanted to prove that there is no difference in the Bible between Presbyters and Bishops; he cited the example of the Jews in exile: The Presbyters of the Jewish Diaspora , to whom St. Peter wrote, are requir'd ποιμαίνειν ϗ̀ ἐπισκοπείν, to feed or rule

6834-413: The diaspora were firmly rooted in a conceptual 'homeland'; they were concerned with a paradigmatic case, or a small number of core cases. The paradigmatic case was, of course, the Jewish diaspora; some dictionary definitions of diaspora, until recently, did not simply illustrate but defined the word with reference to that case. Some observers have labeled evacuation from New Orleans and the Gulf Coast in

6936-593: The different kinds of diasporas based on their causes, such as colonialism , trade/labour migrations , or the social coherence which exists within the diaspora communities and their ties to the ancestral lands. With greater migration flows through the world in modern times, the concept of a secondary diaspora (a new diaspora branching out of a previous diaspora) or a sub-diaspora grouping has started being studied. Some diaspora communities maintain strong cultural and political ties to their homelands. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return to

7038-486: The early 20th century, including Japantown, Vancouver . Steveston in Richmond, British Columbia was another community whose population in 1942 was primarily made up of people of Japanese descent. However, these communities were dispersed after Japanese Canadians were interned during World War II. In the early 21st century, a Little Japan has emerged around Bay and Dundas Street in Toronto , Ontario . Canadian municipalities with Japanese populations higher than

7140-438: The fact that they could not afford as high a quality of life in retirement, or indeed to retire at all, were they still living in Japan. Since the late 1970s-early 1980s many Japanese companies chose Spain to set themselves. Diaspora A diaspora ( / d aɪ ˈ æ s p ər ə / dy- ASP -ər-ə ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin . The word

7242-431: The figure at 80 to 100 million. From the 1860s, the Circassian people, originally from Europe, were dispersed through Anatolia, Australia, the Balkans, the Levant, North America, and West Europe, leaving less than 10% of their population in the homeland – parts of historical Circassia (in the modern-day Russian portion of the Caucasus ). The Scottish Diaspora includes large populations of Highlanders moving to

7344-541: The first to use the word. However, sociologist Stéphane Dufoix remarks "not only is the noun diaspora quite absent from the Greek original [Thucydides' Peloponnesian War , II, 27)], but the original does not include the verb diaspeírô either. The verb used is the verb speírô (seed) conjugated in the passive aorist." The passage in Thucydides reads: καὶ οἱ μὲν αὐτῶν ἐνταῦθα ᾤκησαν, οἱ δ᾽ ἐσπάρησαν [esparēsan] κατὰ τὴν ἄλλην Ἑλλάδα , translated to mean 'Those of

7446-459: The high rate of poverty, the poor fertility of many agricultural areas, the fragmentation of land properties, which characterized southern Italy above all, and the insecurity caused by organized crime . Overall, the Italians who moved from southern to northern Italy amounted to 4 million. The migratory flow from the countryside to the big cities also contracted and then stopped in the 1980s. At

7548-827: The impoverished ones (i.e., Basques in Chile ), and the destination varied also along the time. As an example, the Galicians moved first to the American colonies during the XVII-XX (mainly but not only Mexico, Cuba, Argentine and Venezuela, as many writers during the Francoist exile), later to Europe (France, Switzerland) and finally within Spain (to Madrid, Catalonia or the Basque Country). A specific 19th-century example

7650-675: The influential Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences . His entry, published in 1931, includes the following remark: "In a sense Magna Graecia constituted a Greek diaspora in the ancient Roman Empire." "Magna Graecia" refers to ancient Greek colonies established along the Italian coast, which lost their independence following the Second Punic War and their integration into the Roman Empire. The first recorded use of

7752-544: The late 16th century CE and continuing into the 19th. Outside of the Atlantic slave trade, however, African diasporic communities have existed for millennia. While some communities were slave-based, other groups emigrated for various reasons. From the 8th through the 19th centuries, the Arab slave trade dispersed millions of Africans to Asia and the islands of the Indian Ocean. The Islamic slave trade also has resulted in

7854-406: The late 2000s, Malaysia began to become a popular destination for Japanese retirees. Malaysia My Second Home retirement programme received 513 Japanese applicants from 2002 until 2006. Motivations for choosing Malaysia include the low cost of real-estate and of hiring home care workers. Such retirees sometimes refer to themselves ironically as economic migrants or even economic refugees, referring to

7956-587: The main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land as mezzadria sharecropping flourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations. Especially in Southern Italy , conditions were harsh. Until the 1860s to 1950s, most of Italy was a rural society with many small towns and cities and almost no modern industry in which land management practices, especially in

8058-578: The media have used the term corporate diaspora in a rather arbitrary and inaccurate fashion, for example as applied to "mid-level, mid-career executives who have been forced to find new places at a time of corporate upheaval" (10) The use of corporate diaspora reflects the increasing popularity of the diaspora notion to describe a wide range of phenomena related to contemporary migration, displacement and transnational mobility. While corporate diaspora seems to avoid or contradict connotations of violence, coercion, and unnatural uprooting historically associated with

8160-629: The migrants assimilate into the settled area so completely that it becomes their new mental homeland. Thus the modern Magyars of Hungary do not feel that they belong in the Western Siberia that the Hungarian Magyars left 12 centuries ago; and the English descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes do not yearn to reoccupy the plains of Northwest Germany. In 1492 a Spanish-financed expedition headed by Christopher Columbus arrived in

8262-535: The move, resettling in Eastern Europe and gradually leaving it predominantly Slavic, and affecting Anatolia and the Caucasus as the first Turkic tribes ( Avars , Huns , Khazars , Pechenegs ), as well as Bulgars , and possibly Magyars arrived. The last phase of the migrations saw the coming of the Hungarian Magyars. The Viking expansion out of Scandinavia into southern and eastern Europe, Iceland,

8364-627: The national average (0.3%) include: Prior to World War II, there were countless Japantowns across the country with over 40 in California alone. The mass evacuation and incarceration of Japanese Americans in the wake of Executive Order 9066 resulted in the loss of tens of thousands of Japanese American properties and businesses, effectively erasing many of the historic Japantowns across the country as their old neighborhoods were quickly occupied by new families who had moved in during their absence and were further obliterated in urban renewal projects of

8466-444: The notion of diaspora, its scholarly use may heuristically describe the ways in which corporations function alongside diasporas. In this way, corporate diaspora might foreground the racial histories of diasporic formations without losing sight of the cultural logic of late capitalism in which corporations orchestrate the transnational circulation of people, images, ideologies and capital. In contemporary times, scholars have classified

8568-500: The number 20 you get the character for two (二) and then the character for ten (十) to get two tens or twenty (二十). For ordinal numbers , see Japanese counter word#Ordinal numbers . Distributive numbers are formed regularly from a cardinal number, a counter word, and the suffix -zutsu ( ずつ ) , as in hitori-zutsu ( 一人ずつ , one person at a time, one person each) . Following Chinese tradition, large numbers are created by grouping digits into myriads (every 10,000) rather than

8670-669: The other hand against the palm (palms facing each other) – so six has the index finger against the palm, and so forth. To display ten, one presents both hands open and palm outwards. Since the adoption of Arabic numerals , numbers have become written in Arabic numerals more and more often. Counters and ordinal numbers are typically written in Arabic numbers, such as 3人 ( san-nin , three people) , 7月 ( shichigatsu , July, "seventh-month") , 20歳 ( hatachi , age 20) , etc., although 三人 , 七月 and 二十歳 are also acceptable to write (albeit less common). However, numbers that are part of lexemes are typically written in kanji. For example,

8772-437: The palm open, then counts up to five by curling up (folding down) the fingers, starting from the thumb – thus one has just the thumb down (and others extended), while four has only the little finger extended, and five has a fist. One then counts up to ten by proceeding in the reverse order, extending the fingers, starting at the little finger – thus six is the same as four, seven the same as three, and so forth, with ten ending with

8874-422: The palm open. While this introduces ambiguity, it is not used to present to others, so this is generally not a problem. When displaying for others, one starts with the hand closed, and extends fingers, starting with the index, going to the little finger, then ending with the thumb, as in the United States. For numbers above five, one uses an open hand (indicating five) and places the appropriate number of fingers from

8976-495: The persecution and moved to the unoccupied parts of Western Europe or they moved to the Americas before the borders of the Americas were closed. Later, other Eastern European refugees moved west, away from Soviet expansion and from the Iron Curtain regimes established as World War II ended. Hundreds of thousands of these anti-Soviet political refugees and displaced persons ended up in western Europe, Australia, Canada, and

9078-486: The policies that states follow in order to build links with their diaspora abroad and the policies designed to help with the incorporation and integration of diasporic communities when they 'return' home". The diaspora of Africans during the Atlantic slave trade is one of the most notorious modern diasporas. 10.7 million people from West Africa survived transportation to arrive in the Americas as slaves starting in

9180-525: The refugees moved to the West, including western Europe, and with tens of thousands seeking refuge in the United States. Japanese numerals The Japanese numerals are numerals that are used in Japanese . In writing, they are the same as the Chinese numerals , and large numbers follow the Chinese style of grouping by 10,000. Two pronunciations are used: the Sino-Japanese (on'yomi) readings of

9282-465: The region boomed. Sizeable Japanese communities, known as Nihonmachi , could be found in many of the major ports and political centers of the region, where they exerted significant political and economic influence. The Japanese had been active on the seas and across the region for centuries, traveling for commercial, political, religious and other reasons. The 16th century, however, saw a dramatic increase in such travel and activity. The internal strife of

9384-482: The restoration or maintenance of that homeland, and they relate "personally or vicariously" to the homeland to a point where it shapes their identity. Safran's definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora. Safran also included a criterion of having been forced into exile by political or economic factors, followed by a long period of settlement in the new host culture. In 1997, Robin Cohen argued that

9486-650: The same time, migratory movements towards medium-sized cities and those destined for small-sized villages increased. The twentieth century saw huge population movements. Some involved large-scale transfers of people by government action. Some migrations occurred to avoid conflict and warfare. Other diasporas formed as a consequence of political developments, such as the end of colonialism . As World War II (1939–1945) unfolded, Nazi German authorities deported and killed millions of Jews ; they also enslaved or murdered millions of other people , including Romani , Ukrainians , Russians , and other Slavs . Some Jews fled from

9588-601: The specific context of their existence". It has even been noted that as charismatic Christianity becomes increasingly globalized, many Christians conceive of themselves as a diaspora, and form a bond that mimics salient features of some ethnic diasporas. Professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora. For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland and trading diasporas are communities of merchant aliens. In an article published in 1996, Khachig Tölölyan argues that

9690-434: The traditional system of expressing numerals (42.195 kilometers: 四十二・一九五 キロメートル), in which powers of ten are written, or with the place value system, which uses zero (50.04 percent: 五〇・〇四 パーセント.) In both cases, however, the reading follows the traditional system ( yon-jū ni-ten ichi-kyū go kiromētoru for 42.195 kilometers; go ju-tten rei-yon pāsento for 50.04 percent.) As with Chinese numerals, there exists in Japanese

9792-463: The wake of Hurricane Katrina the New Orleans diaspora , since a significant number of evacuees have not been able to return, yet maintain aspirations to do so. Agnieszka Weinar (2010) notes the widening use of the term, arguing that recently, "a growing body of literature succeeded in reformulating the definition, framing diaspora as almost any population on the move and no longer referring to

9894-521: The wealthier countries of the Middle East, Europe, and North America. Current estimates of the number of Nepalese living outside Nepal range well up into the millions. In Siam, regional power struggles among several kingdoms in the region led to a large diaspora of ethnic Lao between the 1700s–1800s by Siamese rulers to settle large areas of the Siamese kingdom's northeast region, where Lao ethnicity

9996-608: The word "diaspora" in English is in 1594 in John Stockwood's translation of Lambert Daneau's commentary on the Twelve Prophets . Daneau writes: This scattering abrode of the Iewes, as it were an heauenly sowing, fell out after their returne from the captiuitie of Babylon. Wherevpon both Acts. 2. and also 1. Pet. 1. and 1. Iam. ver. 1. [sic] they are called Diaspora , that is, a scattering or sowing abrode. However,

10098-713: The word "diaspora" is found in the Septuagint , first in: and secondly in: When the Bible was translated into Greek, the word diaspora was applied in reference to the Kingdom of Samaria which was exiled from Israel by the Assyrians between 740 and 722 BC, as well as Jews, Benjaminites, and Levites who were exiled from the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians in 587 BC, and Jews who were exiled from Roman Judea by

10200-527: The world is the Indian diaspora. The overseas Indian community, estimated to number over 17.5 million, is spread across many regions of the world, on every continent. It is a global community which is diverse, heterogeneous and eclectic and its members represent different regions, languages, cultures, and faiths (see Desi ). Similarly, the Romani , numbering roughly 12 million in Europe trace their origins to

10302-479: Was involved in the birth of many industrial activities, migratory phenomena affected the peasants of the Triveneto and southern Italy , who began to move in large numbers. Other areas of northern Italy were also affected by emigration such as the rural areas of Mantua and Cremona . The destinations of these emigrants were mainly Milan , Turin , Varese , Como , Lecco , and Brianza . The rural population of

10404-591: Was originally used in Buddhist scripture for an indefinitely large quantity; it derives from the Sanskrit गङ्गा gangā ' Ganges ' (which conveniently includes the character 河 ka 'river') and 沙 sha 'sand', referring to the innumerable sands of the Ganges River. 阿僧祇 asōgi , from Sanskrit असंख्येय asaṃkhyeya 'uncountable/innumerable', with the negative prefix 阿 a , and 那由他 nayuta

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