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33-995: Commercial aviation began in Japan with the privately held Japan Air Transport Institute , which pioneered passenger service between Sakai, Osaka and Tokushima on Shikoku island on 12 November 1922. On 30 October 1928, the Japanese government established the Japan Air Transport Corporation (JAT) as the national flag carrier under the Ministry of Communications . JAT absorbed the Japan Air Transport Institute and two other small companies and began scheduled passenger services in 1929; international service from Fukuoka to Dalian via Korea commenced in September 1929. It initially used

66-643: A commercial pilot licence , and some require an airline transport pilot licence (ATPL). In the US, the pilot in command of a scheduled air carriers' aircraft must hold an ATPL. In the UK, pilots must hold an ATPL before they be pilot in command of an aircraft with 9 or more passenger seats. Not all activities involving pilot remuneration require a commercial pilot licence. For example, in European Union Aviation Safety Agency states and

99-459: A space weather event causes radiation exposure to exceed the safe level set by aviation authorities, the aircraft's flight path is diverted. While the most significant — but highly unlikely — health consequences of atmospheric radiation exposure include death from radiation-induced cancer due to long-term exposure, many lifestyle-degrading and career-impacting cancer forms can also occur. A cancer diagnosis can have significant career impact for

132-511: A commercial pilot. A cancer diagnosis can ground a pilot temporarily or permanently. International guidelines from the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) have been developed to mitigate this statistical risk. The ICRP recommends effective dose limits of a 5-year average of 20 mSv per year with no more than 50 mSv in a single year for nonpregnant, occupationally exposed persons, and 1 mSv per year for

165-407: A private flight. Conversely, a private pilot could legally fly a multi-engine complex aircraft carrying passengers for non-commercial purposes (no compensation paid to the pilot, and a pro rata or larger portion of the aircraft operating expenses paid by the pilot). The magnetosphere guides cosmic ray and solar energetic particles to polar latitudes, while high-energy charged particles enter

198-430: Is affiliated with 6 countries which are Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Chile, and Peru. LATAM accounts for 95% of South America's air traffic. Pilot in command The pilot in command ( PIC ) of an aircraft is the person aboard an aircraft who is ultimately responsible for its operation and safety during flight. This would be the captain in a typical two- or three- pilot aircrew , or "pilot" if there

231-638: Is only one certificated and qualified pilot at the controls of an aircraft. The PIC must be legally certificated (or otherwise authorized) to operate the aircraft for the specific flight and flight conditions, but need not be actually manipulating the controls at any given moment. The PIC is the person legally in charge of the aircraft and its flight safety and operation, and would normally be the primary person liable for an infraction of any flight rule. The strict legal definition of PIC may vary slightly from country to country. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) definition is: "The pilot responsible for

264-849: Is the first industry inspired by hero-worship and built upon heros". He cited the promotion in South America by Herbert Dargue in early 1927. After his 1927 trans-Atlantic flight, Charles Lindbergh made a tour of the contiguous United States , paid for by the Daniel Guggenheim Foundation for the Promotion of Aeronautics . From that point, commercial aviation took off: Roads were choked on Sundays, for weeks afterward, by motorists trying to get to Lambert Field , Lindbergh's home port in Saint Louis, to buy their first air hop. Hundreds of thousands of you went aloft for

297-459: Is to produce profit and maximize the growth of an organization. Second, legal responsibility of an organization is to be compliant with all the laws and regulations. Third, ethical responsibility of an organization to create and follow standards of right decision-making considering how it affects all the stakeholders. Fourth, philanthropic responsibility of an organization to help the community and stakeholders by "giving back". The extent of fulfilling

330-664: The Imperial Japanese Army air base at Tachikawa as its terminal in Tokyo . JAT later moved to Haneda Airport , which was completed in August 1931. JAT was heavily subsidized by the Japanese government, receiving the equivalent of $ 1 billion in today's currency prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor . During the early 1930s, its aircraft were often chartered (for free) by the military for missions in Asia, especially during

363-443: The mesosphere , stratosphere , and troposphere . These energetic particles at the top of the atmosphere shatter atmospheric atoms and molecules, creating harmful lower-energy particles that penetrate deep into the atmosphere and create measurable radiation. All aircraft flying above 8 km (26,200 feet) altitude are exposed to these particles. The dose exposure is greater in polar regions than in mid-latitude and equatorial regions. When

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396-651: The "airline capacity regulation, regulation of non-scheduled operations, tariff enforcement, high operating costs, passenger and cargo rates." Corporate social responsibility comprises an umbrella of responsibilities of an organization towards its community, stakeholders and shareholders. Organizations who are socially responsible fulfill their triple bottom line obligations and dedicate efforts to minimize negative impact on stakeholders and shareholders. According to "The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility" by Archie B. Carroll, there are four steps of social responsibility. First, economic responsibility of an organization

429-525: The 1931 invasion of Manchuria . This role declined as military transport missions in China were taken over by three new carriers that JAT helped to establish: Manchukuo National Airways in 1932, Huitong Airways in 1936 and China Airways in 1938. These subsidiary companies were joint ventures between JAT and the puppet governments of Manchukuo and the Provisional Government of

462-507: The NASA Automated Radiation Measurements for Aerospace Safety (ARMAS) program. ARMAS has flown hundreds of flights since 2013, mostly on research aircraft, and sent the data to the ground through Iridium satellite links. The goal is to assimilate this data into physics-based global radiation models, e.g., NASA's Nowcast of Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation System ( NAIRAS ), so as to provide the weather of

495-670: The Republic of China . JAT's network connected to the Manchukuo network at Sinuiju in Korea. JAT began service from Fukuoka to Naha and Taipei (Taihoku) in October 1935, providing the first same-day connection between the Japanese home islands and Taiwan. JAT shifted its focus to the civilian passenger market and began using new 14-passenger Douglas DC-2s on new, more commercially profitable routes between Japan and Manchukuo in 1936. With

528-422: The UK it is possible to become a paid flight instructor with only a private pilot licence . Nonetheless, in the UK, flight instruction is considered a commercial operation. It is the purpose of the flight, not the aircraft or pilot, that determines whether the flight is commercial or private. For example, if a commercially licensed pilot flies a plane to visit a friend or attend a business meeting, this would be

561-680: The US in 1945 pushed the Latin American countries even further away from development of aviation industry because it was simply expensive to recreate the sophisticated technology of F-80. The Latin American Civil Aviation Commission (LACAC) was formed in December 1973 "intended to provide civil aviation authorities in the region with an adequate framework for cooperation and coordination of activities related to civil aviation". In 1976, about seven percent of

594-542: The authority given to the captains of ships at sea, with similar justifications. It essentially gives the PIC the final authority in any situation involving the safety of a flight, irrespective of any other law or regulation. Logging flight time as a PIC is distinct from acting as the legal PIC of a flight. The PIC of a given flight may always log his or her flying time as such. Other crew members may or may not be authorized to log their time on that flight as PIC time, depending on

627-598: The best interests of the aviation industry. Amidst these obstacles, Argentina and the Dominican Republic made efforts in creating jet aviation rather than creating and using propeller planes. In 1944, the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation attended by all Latin American countries except Argentina drafted the clauses of aviation law. The introduction of the jet fighter F-80 by

660-654: The first time that summer. The Aeronautical Branch was charged with issuing commercial pilot licenses , airworthiness certificates , and with investigating air accidents . After World War II, commercial aviation grew rapidly, using mostly ex-military aircraft to transport people and cargo. The experience used in designing heavy bombers such as the Boeing B-29 Superfortress and Avro Lancaster could be used for designing heavy commercial aircraft. The Douglas DC-3 also made for easier and longer commercial flights. The first commercial jet airliner to fly

693-452: The flight of the aircraft." It is logged in the pilot's logbook as PIC but must be countersigned by the flight instructor . SPIC time may be partially used by the holder of a multi-crew pilot licence towards the issuance of a commercial pilot licence . Time logged as "pilot-in-command under supervision" (PICUS) may be partly used towards the hour requirements for the issue of an airline transport pilot licence (ATPL). In EASA states,

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726-535: The four responsibilities defines the corporate citizenship of an organization. Delta and LATAM Airlines were the only two airlines listed on the Dow Jones Sustainability Index , LATAM being the only airline company in the world to achieve 100% scores for efficiency, reliability and climate strategy in their corporate sustainability assessment. LATAM promotes their corporate citizenship in their 2016 Sustainability report. LATAM

759-433: The general public. Radiation dose limits are not engineering limits. In the U.S., they are treated as an upper limit of acceptability and not a regulatory limit. Measurement of radiation at altitudes above 8 km (26,000 ft) has historically been done by instruments that record the data on board where the data are then processed later on the ground. However, a system of real-time radiation measurement has been developed through

792-427: The interests of safety. In Annex 2, par. "2.4 Authority of pilot-in-command of an aircraft", ICAO adds: The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall have final authority as to the disposition of the aircraft while in command. ICAO Annex 2, par. 2.3.1, specifically empowers the PIC to override any other regulation in an emergency, and to take the safest course of action at his/her sole discretion. This provision mirrors

825-510: The new company. JAT flew to the following destinations prior to its merger into IJA in 1938. Commercial aviation Commercial aviation is the part of civil aviation that involves operating aircraft for remuneration or hire, as opposed to private aviation . Commercial aviation is not a rigorously defined category. All commercial air transport and aerial work operations are regarded as commercial aviation, as well as some general aviation flights. An aircraft operation involving

858-522: The operation and safety of the aircraft during flight time." In Annex 2, "Rules of the Air", under par. "2.3.1 Responsibility of pilot-in-command", ICAO declares: The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall, whether manipulating the controls or not, be responsible for the operation of the aircraft in accordance with the rules of the air, except that the pilot-in-command may depart from these rules in circumstances that render such departure absolutely necessary in

891-635: The radiation environment rather than the climatology . Harry Bruno and Juan Trippe were early promoters of commercial aviation. The Air Commerce Act of 1926 began to regularize commercial aviation by establishing standards, facilitation, and promotion. An Aeronautical Branch was established in the Department of Commerce with William P. MacCracken Jr. as director. To promote commercial aviation, he told town fathers that "Communities without airports would be communities without airmail." Writing for Collier's in 1929, he noted "Commercial aviation

924-634: The skies. Inspired by the major players such as the United States , the Soviet Union , Russia , France and Britain in the aviation industry . In the 1910s, Brazil and Argentina were among the first Latin American countries to possess the instruments of aircraft that were not all locally made, yet the aircraft was locally congregated. At that time, many individuals were interested to be pilots in Latin American countries, yet there were not sufficient resources and funding to support and promote

957-421: The specific circumstances and the controlling jurisdiction. Time logged as "student pilot in command" (SPIC) can sometimes be partly used towards the hour requirements for the issue of a commercial pilot licence (CPL). In EASA states, SPIC time means "a student pilot acting as pilot-in-command on a flight with an instructor where the latter will only observe the student pilot and shall not influence or control

990-479: The start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, JAT benefited from a resurgence in military passenger traffic. In 1938, JAT carried nearly 70,000 passengers, representing 2.6 percent of the world's passenger traffic. In December 1938, the government established a new airline, Imperial Japanese Airways , as a monopoly for all civil aviation and Japan Air Transport Corporation was merged into

1023-630: The transportation of people, goods, or mail for payment or hiring is referred to as commercial air transport. Both scheduled and unscheduled air transport operations are included. An aircraft used for specialized services including agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, advertising, etc. is referred to as aerial work. General aviation includes commercial activities such as flight instruction , aerial work, and corporate and business aviation, as well as non-commercial activities such as recreational flying. Most commercial aviation activities require at minimum

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1056-404: The world logged in the Latin American and Caribbean region. This contributed to the increase of average annual rate of air traffic. Subsequently, higher passenger load factor decided the profitability of these airlines. According to C. Bogolasky, airline pooling agreements between Latin American airlines contributed to better financial performance of the airlines. The economic problems related to

1089-534: Was the British de Havilland DH.106 Comet . By 1952, the British state airline British Overseas Airways Corporation had introduced the Comet into scheduled service. While a technical achievement, the plane suffered a series of highly public failures, including the crashing of BOAC Flight 781 and South African Airways Flight 201 . By the time the problems were overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to

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