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76-486: About 9,350 acres (3,780 ha) are private lands. The national recreation area borders on Valles Caldera National Preserve . About 1.6 million people visit the area each year. Jemez National Recreation Area was established in 1993 by Public Law 103-104. This United States government–related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a protected area in New Mexico

152-527: A grant given to their family near Las Vegas , in northeastern New Mexico. The family was given several other parcels by the US Government as well, including one in Arizona. This area, 100,000 acres (40,000 ha), was called Baca Location number one . Since then, the land has been through a string of exchanges between private owners and business enterprises. Most notably, it was owned by Frank Bond in

228-428: A likely source for renewable geothermal energy. However, some people oppose the development of geothermal energy, considering it destructive to the scenic beauty, recreational and grazing use. Its impact on the hot springs and supplying aquifers is unknown as experiences from other past geothermal projects proved that production of reservoir fluids had dramatic impacts to the surface thermal features. Valles caldera

304-590: A maximum temperature below 300 °C. A number of recreational and/or historical uses take place in Valles Caldera. Many of these uses involve trails. Over two dozen official hiking and biking trails of varying length are available. Maps and trail descriptions may be found in "Hiking Trails in Valles Caldera National Preserve," by Coco Rae. Valles Caldera has many miles of ranch roads, livestock and game trails. These include

380-409: A mixed range of tree species and significant biodiversity . At the time of the purchase, the ranch was home to 40 miles (64 km) of pristine trout streams, 66,118 acres (26,757 ha) of conifer forest , 17 endangered plant and animal species, and 25,000 acres (10,000 ha) of grassland grazed by 8,000 elk , New Mexico's largest herd. The preserve is encircled by federal lands, including

456-419: A network of trails currently designated for horse riding. Historically, Valles Caldera was a location for equestrian endurance races . After establishment of VCNP, the first race in the caldera was held in 2009. The largest grass valley, Valle Grande, is a venue for ski orienteering . Activities are open to the public, though some require reservations. Customer service and concierge services are provided by

532-537: A person or event, though unlike a National Historical Site, may or may not be placed at a specific historical location. Several national memorials are on the National Mall , such as the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial . National seashores and national lakeshores offer preservation of the national coast line, while supporting water–based recreation. Cape Hatteras National Seashore

608-537: A special resource study of a site to determine its national significance and suitability to be part of the National Park System. The NPS uses over 20 different titles for the park units it manages, including national park and national monument . National parks preserve nationally and globally significant scenic areas and nature reserves. National monuments preserve a single unique cultural or natural feature. Devils Tower National Monument

684-676: Is New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve at 1,164,025 acres (4711 km ). The smallest is Benjamin Franklin National Memorial at less than 0.01 acres (40 m ). While there are laws generally covering all units of the National Park System, they are subject to management policies of individual pieces of authorizing legislation or, in the case of national monuments created under the Antiquities Act , Executive Order . For example, because of provisions within their enabling legislation, Congaree National Park

760-521: Is Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve , Alaska. At 13,200,000 acres (53,000 km ), it is over 16 percent of the entire system. The smallest unit in the system is Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial , Pennsylvania , at 0.02 acres (80 m ). In addition to administering its units and other properties, the NPS also provides technical and financial assistance to several affiliated areas authorized by Congress. The largest affiliated area

836-549: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Valles Caldera National Preserve The Valles Caldera (or Jemez Caldera ) is a 13.7-mile (22.0 km) wide volcanic caldera in the Jemez Mountains of northern New Mexico . Hot springs , streams, fumaroles , natural gas seeps, and volcanic domes dot the caldera landscape. The highest point in the caldera is Redondo Peak , an 11,254-foot (3,430 m) resurgent lava dome located entirely within

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912-491: Is almost entirely a wilderness area devoid of development, yet Yosemite allows unique developments such as the Badger Pass Ski Area and the O'Shaughnessy Dam within its boundaries. Such irregularities would not be found in other parks unless specifically provided for with exceptions by the legislation that created them. Most NPS units have been established by an act of Congress, with the president confirming

988-668: Is an agency of the United States federal government , within the US Department of the Interior . The service manages all national parks ; most national monuments ; and other natural, historical, and recreational properties, with various title designations. The United States Congress created the agency on August 25, 1916, through the National Park Service Organic Act . Its headquarters

1064-432: Is essential to a National Park Service that is science-informed at all organizational levels and able to respond with contemporary strategies for resource management and ultimately park stewardship." The "Revisiting Leopold" report mentioned climate change three times and "climate refugia" once, but it did not prescribe or offer any management tactics that could help parks managers with the problems of climate change. Hence,

1140-586: Is in Washington, D.C. , within the main headquarters of the Department of the Interior. The NPS employs about 20,000 people in 431 units covering over 85 million acres (0.34 million km ) in all 50 states , the District of Columbia, and US territories . In 2019, the service had more than 279,000 volunteers. The agency is charged with preserving the ecological and historical integrity of

1216-404: Is increasingly untenable, presenting practical and philosophical challenges for managers. As formerly familiar ecological conditions continue to change, bringing novelty, surprise, and uncertainty, natural resource managers require a new, shared approach to make conservation decisions.... The RAD (Resist-Accept-Direct) decision framework has emerged over the past decade as a simple tool that captures

1292-489: Is not a complicated site. National historical parks are larger areas with more complex subjects. Historic sites may also be protected in other unit types. National military parks , battlefield parks , battlefield sites , and battlefields preserve areas associated with military history. The different designations reflect the complexity of the event and the site. Many of the sites preserve important Revolutionary War battles and Civil War battlefields. Military parks are

1368-469: Is the type locality for a resurgent dome caldera, the formation of which was first developed by C.S. Ross, R.L. Smith, and R.A. Bailey during field work at Valles in the 1960s. This type locality and associated studies have been used to studied other resurgent domes around the world, including Yellowstone Caldera . After the initial caldera-forming eruption at Valles, the Redondo Peak resurgent dome

1444-925: The 2015 National Defense Authorization Act , which transferred administrative jurisdiction of the preserve from the Valles Caldera Trust to the National Park Service. After a brief transition period, the National Park Service assumed day-to-day management on October 1, 2015. On October 10, the preserve held an official dedication with dignitaries including U.S. Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell , U.S. Senator Tom Udall , U.S. Senator Martin Heinrich , former U.S. Senator Jeff Bingaman , National Park Service Intermountain Region Director Sue Masica, and

1520-611: The Apollo Astronauts in recognizing volcanic features, such as ash flow tuffs, pumice air falls, and rhyolite domes. Notable geologist instructors included Roy Bailey. According to the Köppen climate classification , Valles Caldera has a subarctic climate (Dfc), with cold winters and mild summers. The caldera is subject to strong temperature inversions, causing very cold nights year round and high diurnal temperature variation. The volcanic properties of Valles Caldera make it

1596-613: The Bandelier Tuff 1.61 million years ago, which can be seen along canyon walls west of Valles Caldera, including San Diego Canyon . The younger Tshirege Member of the Bandelier Tuff was formed during the Valles Caldera eruption 1.23 million years ago. The now eroded and exposed orange-tan, light-colored Bandelier Tuff from these events creates the stunning mesas of the Pajarito Plateau . Caldera

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1672-747: The Jemez Volcanic Field . This volcanic field lies at the intersection of the Rio Grande Rift , which runs north–south through New Mexico, and the Jemez Lineament , which extends from southeastern Arizona northeast to western Oklahoma . The volcanic activity here is related to the tectonic movements of this intersection. NASA used the caldera in October to November 1964 and again in September 1966 to geologically train

1748-566: The Land and Water Conservation Fund derived from royalties the US government receives from offshore petroleum and natural gas drilling . The Dunigan family sold the entire surface estate of 95,000 acres (380 km ) and seven-eighths of the geothermal mineral estate to the federal government for $ 101 million. As some sites of the Baca Ranch are sacred and of cultural significance to

1824-716: The National Wilderness Preservation System , which consists of federally managed lands that are of a pristine condition, established by the Wilderness Act (Public Law 88-577) in 1964. The National Wilderness Preservation System originally created hundreds of wilderness zones within already protected federally administered property, consisting of over 9 million acres (36,000 km ). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) began with Executive Order 13158 in May 2000, when official MPAs were established for

1900-551: The Native Americans , 5,000 acres (20 km ) of the purchase were obtained by the Santa Clara Pueblo , which borders the property to the northeast. These include the headwaters of Santa Clara Creek, which is sacred to the pueblo. On the southwest corner of the land, 300 acres (1.2 km ) were to be ceded to Bandelier National Monument . The Baca Ranch, also known as Baca Location No. 1, had possessed

1976-605: The Public Lands Interpretive Association . The valley floor is above 8,000 ft (2,400 m) altitude. Throughout the caldera, the grass valleys appear groomed: there are few saplings and mature trees lack lower branches. This is due to heavy browsing by elk and cattle and because of frequent grass fires of human and natural origin which kill the lower branches on the Engelmann spruce , Douglas-fir and Ponderosa pine that populate

2052-700: The Santa Fe National Forest , the Jemez National Recreation Area , and Bandelier National Monument . The Valles Caldera Preservation Act of 2000 also created the Valles Caldera Trust, an experimental management organization consisting of nine board members, including seven appointed by the President of the United States . The Trust combined private-sector practices with federal land management protocol. Under

2128-643: The 1930s. Bond, a businessman based in nearby Española , ran up to 30,000 sheep in the caldera, significantly overgrazing the land and causing damage from which the watersheds of the landscape are still recovering. The land was purchased by the Dunigan family from Abilene, Texas in 1963. Pat Dunigan did not obtain the timber rights, however, and the New Mexico Lumber Company logged the property heavily - removing significant amounts of old-growth douglas fir and ponderosa pine . Dunigan bought out

2204-788: The 2021 report specific to the need for climate adaptation : "Resist-Accept-Direct (RAD): A Framework for the 21st-century Natural Resource Manager." This "Natural Resource Report" has ten authors. Among them are four associated with the National Park Service, three with the US Fish and Wildlife Service , and two with the US Geological Survey — all of which are government agencies within the US Department of Interior. The report's Executive Summary, points to "intensifying global change." "... The convention of using baseline conditions to define goals for today's resource management

2280-583: The Interior Stewart Udall . This report came to be referred to in later years by its chairman and principal author, A. Starker Leopold . The Leopold Report was just fourteen pages in length, but it set forth ecosystem management recommendations that would guide parks policy until it was revisited in 2012. The Leopold Report was the first concrete plan for managing park visitors and ecosystems under unified principles. Park management issues and controversies addressed in this report included

2356-494: The Interior bureau or program. The NPS budget is divided into two primary areas, discretionary and mandatory spending. Within each of these areas, there are numerous specific purposes to which Congress directs the services activities. The NPS budget includes discretionary spending which is broken out into two portions: the direct operations of the National Parks and the special initiatives. Listed separately are

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2432-535: The NPS could not meet. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the NPS and began to bring park facilities up to the standards that the public was expecting. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower , Wirth began Mission 66 , a ten-year effort to upgrade and expand park facilities for the 50th anniversary of the Park Service. New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as

2508-472: The National Park Service, which have a wide variety of titles or designations. The system as a whole is considered to be a national treasure of the United States, and some of the more famous national parks and monuments are sometimes referred to as " crown jewels ". The system encompasses approximately 85.1 million acres (0.344 million km ), of which 2.6 million acres (0.011 million km ) remain in private ownership. The largest unit

2584-582: The National Preserve under certain restrictions and times of the year. Valles Caldera has provided several filming locations , most for films in the Western genre . Some of these locations include exterior sets, such as the weathered "ranch house" that can be seen from the highway in Valle Grande, and a small "town". National Park Service The National Park Service ( NPS )

2660-552: The Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery and unique natural features to making parks accessible to the public. Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas . A 1963 report titled "Wildlife Management in the National Parks" was prepared by a five-member advisory board on Wildlife Management, appointed by United States Secretary of

2736-684: The Redondo Creek Graben as part of the Baca geothermal field, a joint operation by the United States Department of Energy and the Union Oil Company of California. Despite measuring a maximum temperature of 342 °C and having a likely production capacity of 20 MWe, the geothermal field was too small to be economic. Three scientific cores were drilled in Valles Caldera during the mid-1980s as part of

2812-643: The Trust model, but then-Senator Pete Domenici (R) insisted on the experimental approach as a condition for his support for public purchase. Beginning in 2010, US Senator Jeff Bingaman (D) introduced legislation that would transfer the property to the National Park Service as a national preserve . The 2011 bill was supported by the VCNP trustees and a majority of New Mexico's Congressional delegation. On December 19, 2014, President Barack Obama signed

2888-593: The United States Continental Scientific Drilling Program in order to analyze the chemistry of geothermal fluids and the presence of a vapor-dominated cap in the Sulphur Springs region. The maximum bottom hole temperature measured during drilling was 295 °C. Overall, the geothermal reservoir at Valles Caldera is liquid-dominated rather than vapor-dominated and has a neutral-chloride fluid chemistry with

2964-517: The United States acquired New Mexico as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, the caldera became the backdrop for the Indian wars with the U.S. Army . Around the same time, the caldera and its forests began to be used commercially for ranching and logging. The caldera became part of the Baca Ranch in 1876. The Bacas were a wealthy family given the land as compensation for the termination of

3040-401: The action by signing the act into law. The exception, under the Antiquities Act , allows the president to designate and protect areas as national monuments by executive order. Regardless of the method used, all parks are to be of national importance. A potential park should meet all four of the following standards: Before creation of a new unit, Congress typically directs the NPS to conduct

3116-555: The bedrock, thus requiring shallower drill depths. However, the abundance of hydrothermal fluids discharged from the nearby caldera resulted in hydrothermal alteration of the rocks at depth, weakening the sealed nature of the reservoir. The Fenton Hill HDR experiment was finally abandoned in 1998. The experiments demonstrated that a potential EGS reservoir must be characterized by low permeability , crystalline basement rock with no active faults or joints. From 1959 to 1983, approximately 40 exploratory geothermal wells were drilled into

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3192-426: The caldera and surrounded by moat-like flows of rhyolitic solidified lavas. Located within the caldera are several grass valleys , or valles , the largest of which is Valle Grande ( locally / ˈ v aɪ . eɪ ˈ ɡ r ɑː n d eɪ / VY -ay GRAHN -day ), the only one accessible by a paved road. In 1975, Valles Caldera was designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service with much of

3268-560: The caldera being within the Valles Caldera National Preserve , a unit of the National Park System . The area has a varied history involving cultural significance, economic resources, scientific studies, and complex geological setting. Use of Valles Caldera dates back to prehistoric times: spear points dating to 11,000 years ago have been discovered. Several Native American tribes frequented

3344-670: The caldera for hunting prolific game and gathering obsidian that is common in this area. The obsidian was knapped into tools and weapons while wild game was followed and hunted seasonally. Obsidian from the caldera was traded by tribes across much of the Southwest. Eventually, the Spanish, and later Mexican settlers along with the Navajo and other tribes came to the caldera seasonally for grazing livestock. This often resulted in periodic clashes and raids between tribes and cultures. Later, as

3420-538: The concession-run campgrounds (1.42 million). In 2019, the NPS had an annual budget of $ 4.085 billion and an estimated $ 12 billion maintenance backlog. On August 4, 2020, the Great American Outdoors Act was signed into law reducing the $ 12 billion maintenance backlog by $ 9.5 billion over a 5-year period beginning in FY 2021. As of 2022, the NPS had the largest budget allocation of any Department of

3496-415: The creation of the NPS. On August 25, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson signed the National Park Service Organic Act that mandated the agency "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and wildlife therein, and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations". Mather became the first director of

3572-611: The difficulties of managing elk populations in Yellowstone National Park and how "overprotection from natural ground fires" in California's Sequoia National Park , Kings Canyon National Park , and Yosemite National Park had begun to threaten groves of Giant Sequoia with catastrophic wildfires. The report also established a historical baseline that read, "The goal of managing the national parks and monuments should be to preserve, or where necessary to recreate,

3648-413: The ecologic scene as viewed by the first European visitors." This baseline would guide ecological restoration in national parks until a climate change adaptation policy, "Resist-Adapt-Direct", was established in 2021. National Parks director Jonathan Jarvis charged the twelve-member NPS Advisory Board Science Committee to take a fresh look at the ecological issues and make recommendations for updating

3724-655: The entire decision space for responding to ecosystems facing the potential for rapid, irreversible ecological change." Here, the iconic species of Joshua Tree National Park is a leading example. The three RAD options are: The "Resist-Accept-Direct" Framework is first described in a July 2020 paper published in Fisheries Eighteen researchers from federal and state agencies and universities collaborated in this effort, which included short case studies of where and how this framework has already been applied. The National Park System includes all properties managed by

3800-601: The eruption of the Banco Bonito obsidian flow during the youngest eruption of Valles Caldera, at 68,900 ± 1,000 years ago. The caldera and surrounding area continue to be shaped by ongoing volcanic activity. Seismic investigations show that a low-velocity zone lies beneath the caldera, suggesting the presence of partial melt within a remaining magma chamber at between 5 and 15 km depth. An active geothermal system with hot springs and fumaroles exists today. These calderas and associated volcanic structures lie within

3876-533: The first National Park Service Superintendent of Valles Caldera National Preserve, Jorge Silva-Bañuelos. In July 2011, the Las Conchas Fire , started by a power line on nearby private land, burned 30,000 acres (120 km ) of the Valles Caldera National Preserve. The wildfire burned a total of 156,000 acres (630 km ) in the Jemez Mountains , including most of neighboring Bandelier National Monument . The Jemez Mountains and surrounding areas of

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3952-404: The first time. The initial listing of U.S. areas was presented in 2010, consisting of areas already set aside under other legislation. The NPS has 19 park units designated as MPAs. The National Park System received over 325 million recreation visits in 2023. Park visitation grew 64 percent between 1979 and 2015. The 10 most-visited units of the National Park System handle around 30 percent of

4028-492: The most popular areas do charge entrance fees. Fees vary site to site and are charged either on a per-vehicle or per-person basis, with most passes valid for 7 days. The America the Beautiful Pass series waives the per-vehicle fee or per-person fee for the holder and up to 3 other adults (children age 15 and younger are admitted for free at most sites). Annual passes for single areas are also available for those who visit

4104-423: The most thoroughly studied caldera complexes in the United States. Research studies have focused on the fundamental processes of magmatism , hydrothermal systems, ore deposition, and glassy rhyolites. Nearly 40 deep cores have been examined, resulting in extensive subsurface data and geothermal information. Valles Caldera is the younger of two calderas known at this location, having collapsed over and buried

4180-671: The newly formed NPS. On March 3, 1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933. The act gave the president the authority to transfer national monuments from one governmental department to another. Later that summer, new president Franklin D. Roosevelt made use of this power after NPS Deputy Director Horace M. Albright suggested that the NPS, rather than the War Department , should manage historic American Civil War sites. President Roosevelt agreed and issued two executive orders to implement

4256-583: The older Toledo Caldera , which in turn may have collapsed over yet older calderas. The associated Cerros del Rio volcanic field , which forms the eastern Pajarito Plateau and the Caja del Rio , is older than the Toledo Caldera. The Toledo and Valles Calderas formed during eruptions 1.61 million and 1.25 million years ago, respectively. The caldera-forming Toledo eruption emplaced the Otowi member of

4332-553: The original Leopold Report. The committee published their 23-page report in 2012, titled, "Revisiting Leopold: Resource Stewardship in the National Parks". The report recommended that parks leadership "manage for change while confronting uncertainty." "... New and emerging scientific disciplines — including conservation biology, global change science, and genomics — along with new technological tools like high-resolution remote sensing can provide significant information for constructing contemporary tactics for NPS stewardship. This knowledge

4408-400: The overall visits. The top 10 percent of parks (43) handle over 64 percent of all visits, leaving the remaining more than 380 units to accommodate around 36 percent of visits. (Note that only 380 sites recorded visitors during 2021 due to COVID-19-related closures). Most areas of the National Park System do not charge entrance fees and are completely supported by tax dollars, although some of

4484-533: The places entrusted to its management and with making them available for public use and enjoyment. Artist George Catlin , during an 1832 trip to the Dakotas, was perhaps the first to suggest the concept of a national park. Indian civilization, wildlife, and wilderness were all in danger, wrote Catlin, unless they could be preserved "by some great protecting policy of government   ... in a magnificent park   ... A nation's Park, containing man and beast, in all

4560-582: The reorganization. These two executive orders transferred to the NPS all of the War Department's historic sites as well as national monuments that the Department of Agriculture had managed and parks in and around Washington, D.C. that an independent federal office had previously operated. The popularity of the parks after the end of the World War II left them overburdened with demands that

4636-429: The same site often. Over 15 million visitors spent a night in one of the national park units during 2015. The largest number (3.68 million) were tent campers. The second largest group (3.38 million) stayed in one of the lodges, followed by miscellaneous stays (on boats, group sites—2.15 million). The last three groups of over-night visitors included RV campers (2.26 million), backcountry campers (2.02 million) and users of

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4712-425: The site. Big Cypress National Preserve and Big Thicket National Preserve were created in 1974 as the first national preserves. National reserves are similar to national preserves, but the operational authority can be placed with a state or local government. New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve was the first to be established in 1978. National historic sites protect a significant cultural resource that

4788-506: The sites of larger actions, such as Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park , Vicksburg National Military Park , Gettysburg National Military Park , and Shiloh National Military Park —the original four from 1890. Examples of battlefield parks , battlefield sites , and national battlefields include Richmond National Battlefield Park , Brices Cross Roads National Battlefield Site , and Antietam National Battlefield . National memorials are areas that officially memorialize

4864-495: The southwest incorporate dry climates, grasslands, and certain tree species (like Pinon ) that evolved to exist with wildfires. Changes in climate and anthropogenic interference with the fire cycle and habitats, has led to fires that are hotter and more intense. These types of fires are more difficult for ecosystems to recover from. The circular topographic rim of the caldera measures 13.7 miles (22.0 km) in diameter. The caldera and surrounding volcanic structures are one of

4940-526: The terms of the Valles Caldera Preservation Act, the preserve was to become financially self-sustaining by 2015. The experiment was controversial. In 2010, the Trust admitted that it would be unable to achieve financial self-sustainability, having raised only about $ 850,000 of the $ 3 million needed to manage the property each year. Environmentalists lobbied for the more inclusive protections of national park status instead of

5016-506: The timber rights in the 1970s and slowed the logging. He negotiated unsuccessfully with the National Park Service and the US Forest Service for possible sale of the property in the 1980s. The Valles Caldera Preservation Act of 2000 signed by President Clinton on July 25, 2000, created the Valles Caldera National Preserve (VCNP). The legislation provided for the federal purchase of this historical ranch with funds coming from

5092-421: The uplands around the lower-elevation Montane grasslands dominating the bottoms of the calderas. The grasslands were native perennial bunch grass maintained by frequent fire before sheep and cattle grazing. Although the grass appears abundant, it is a limited resource and its growing season is short. Through the VCNP's limited grazing program, it feeds hundreds of cattle in the summer and thousands more of elk in

5168-484: The warm seasons, in drought winters, and during most of the year. The nutritional value of the bunch grasses is considered low or poor quality. Other wildlife that inhabits the area are Golden Eagles , striped Badgers , and the Gunnison Prairie Dog , to name a few. The National Park Service states that elk population in Valles Caldera is the second largest herd in New Mexico. Hunting is permitted within

5244-451: The wild[ness] and freshness of their nature's beauty!" Yellowstone National Park was created as the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no state government to manage it (Wyoming was a U.S. territory at that time), so the federal government managed it directly through the army, including the famed African American Buffalo Soldier units. The movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands

5320-420: Was created in 1937. Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore , created in 1966, were the first national lakeshores. National rivers and wild and scenic riverways protect free-flowing streams over their length. The riverways may not be altered with dams, channelization, or other changes. Recreational pursuits are encouraged along the waterways. Ozark National Scenic Riverways

5396-684: Was created in 1968 and consists of two major components: National scenic trails are long-distance trails through some of the most scenic parts of the country. They received official protection in 1968. The Appalachian Trail is the best known. National historic trails commemorate the routes of major historic events. Some of the best known are the Trail of Tears , the Mormon Trail , and the Santa Fe Trail . These trails are administered by several federal agencies. Wilderness areas are part of

5472-504: Was established in 1964. National recreation areas originally were units surrounding reservoirs impounded by dams built by other federal agencies, the first being Lake Mead National Recreation Area . Some national recreation areas are in urban centers, such as Gateway National Recreation Area and Golden Gate National Recreation Area , which encompass significant cultural as well as natural resources. The National Trails System preserves long-distance routes across America. The system

5548-620: Was home to the first experiments into development of an Enhanced geothermal system (EGS) or Hot-dry-rock (HDR) geothermal system, beginning in 1974 by the Los Alamos National Laboratory at the Fenton Hill reservoir, approximately 3 km west of Valles caldera. Originally, the Fenton Hill site was chosen as an EGS laboratory in hopes that the proximity to Valles caldera would increase the temperature of

5624-401: Was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather . With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard , Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior . They wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in

5700-561: Was the first in 1906. While the National Park Service holds the most national monuments, a monument may be managed or co-managed by a different entity such as the Bureau of Land Management or the Forest Service . National preserves are for the protection of certain resources and operate similar to many National Parks, but allow limited resource extraction. Activities like hunting, fishing, and some mining may be allowed depending on

5776-400: Was uplifted beginning around 1.2 million years ago. Minor eruptions of moat rhyolitic flows occurred from approximately 1.16 million years ago at Cerro del Medio to 0.07 million years ago at Banco Bonito, along a structural ring fracture zone. The El Cajete Pumice and Battleship Rock Ignimbrite were emplaced in a single eruptive event 74,200 ± 1,100 years ago, followed by

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