118-543: Jesse Woodson James (September 5, 1847 – April 3, 1882) was an American outlaw , bank and train robber , guerrilla and leader of the James–Younger Gang . Raised in the " Little Dixie " area of Missouri , James and his family maintained strong Southern sympathies. He and his brother Frank James joined pro- Confederate guerrillas known as " bushwhackers " operating in Missouri and Kansas during
236-659: A Rock Island Line train west of Adair, Iowa , and stealing approximately $ 3,000 (equivalent to $ 76,000 in 2023). For this, they wore Ku Klux Klan masks. By this time, the Klan had been suppressed in the South by President Grant's use of the Enforcement Acts . Former rebels attacked the railroads as symbols of threatening centralization. The gang's later train robberies had a lighter touch. The gang held up passengers only twice, choosing in all other incidents to take only
354-549: A general and provincial governor during the Gallic Wars . It fell out of use during the early Empire . In English common law , an outlaw was a party who had defied the laws of the realm by such acts as ignoring a summons to court or fleeing instead of appearing to plead when charged with a crime . The earliest reference to outlawry in English legal texts appears in the 8th century. The term outlawry refers to
472-482: A glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small-scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000 the inflation-adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37%. Tobacco production requires the use of a large amount of pesticides to fight various pests and diseases . Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in
590-731: A lawyer who practiced in Kansas City, Missouri, and Los Angeles, California . In 1874, the Adams Express Company turned to the Pinkerton National Detective Agency to stop the James–Younger Gang . The Chicago -based agency worked primarily against urban professional criminals, as well as providing industrial security, such as strike breaking . Because the gang received support by many former Confederate soldiers in Missouri, they eluded
708-453: A pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested by a single piece of farm equipment, though topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand. Some farmers still use "tobacco harvesters". They are not very efficient yet highly cost-effective for harvesting premium and rare strains of tobacco. Modern harvester trailers for in-demand crops are pulled by diesel-fueled tractors. "Croppers" or "primers" pull
826-599: A student at William Jewell College , was shot dead on the street. It remains unclear whether Jesse and Frank took part in the Clay County robbery. After the James brothers successfully conducted other robberies and became legendary, some observers retroactively credited them with being the leaders of the robbery. Others have argued that Jesse was at the time still bedridden with his wound and could not have participated. No evidence has been found that connects either brother to
944-537: A tent saloon in Creede, Colorado . On June 8, 1892, Edward O'Kelley went to Creede, loaded a double-barrel shotgun, entered Ford's saloon and said "Hello, Bob" before shooting Ford in the throat, killing him instantly. O'Kelley was sentenced to life in prison, but his sentence was subsequently commuted because of a 7,000-signature petition in favor of his release, as well as a medical condition. The Governor of Colorado pardoned him on October 3, 1902. James's original grave
1062-616: A total of seven slaves, who served mainly as farmhands in tobacco cultivation . The approach of the American Civil War loomed large in the James–Samuel household. Missouri was a border state , sharing characteristics of both North and South, but 75% of the population was from the South or other border states. Clay County in particular was strongly influenced by the Southern culture of its rural pioneer families. Farmers raised
1180-411: A wolf or other wild animal. Women were declared "waived" rather than outlawed, but it was effectively the same punishment. Among other forms of exile , Roman law included the penalty of aquae et ignis interdictio ("interdiction of water and fire"). Such people penalized were required to leave Roman territory and forfeit their property. If they returned, they were effectively outlaws; providing them
1298-546: A younger sister, Susan Lavenia James. He was of English and Scottish descent. His father, Robert S. James , farmed commercial hemp in Kentucky and was a Baptist minister before coming to Missouri. After he married, he migrated to Bradford, Missouri and helped found William Jewell College in Liberty, Missouri . He held six slaves and more than 100 acres (0.40 km) of farmland. Robert traveled to California during
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#17327754003221416-480: Is a great pest to the tobacco plant. The caterpillar's vigorous eating habits can cause up to 23-50% in yield losses, resulting in economic strain to the local agricultural economies. The cabbage looper is also known to have caused damage to tobacco plants in North Carolina, which became a concern as farmers lacked a suitable method for controlling the caterpillars. Shade tobacco is the practice of growing
1534-455: Is an outlaw in the second sense but not the first ( Sándor Rózsa was tried and sentenced merely to a term of imprisonment when captured). In the common law of England , a "writ of outlawry" made the pronouncement Caput lupinum ("[Let his be] a wolf's head"), equating that person with a wolf in the eyes of the law. Not only was the subject deprived of all legal rights, being outside the "law", but others could kill him on sight as if he were
1652-412: Is declared outside protection of law in one jurisdiction but who receives asylum and lives openly and obedient to local laws in another jurisdiction is an outlaw in the first meaning but not the second (one example being William John Bankes ). A fugitive who remains formally entitled to a form of trial if captured alive but avoids capture because of the high risk of conviction and severe punishment if tried
1770-571: Is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded the State Tobacco Monopoly Administration (STMA) in 1982. STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports; and contributed 1.3% to national income between 1982 and 2004. In Brazil around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity. Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7% of
1888-457: Is no evidence his gang shared any loot from their robberies with anyone outside their network. Scholars and historians have characterized James as one of many criminals inspired by the regional insurgencies of ex-Confederates following the Civil War, rather than as a manifestation of alleged economic justice or of frontier lawlessness. James continues to be one of the most famous figures from
2006-433: Is the 2nd largest producer and exporter (in quantity terms) after China and Brazil, respectively. The production of Flue-Cured Virginia (FCV) tobacco is about 300 million kg from an area of 0.20 M ha while 450 M kg non-FCV tobacco is produced from an area of 0.25 M ha. In the global scenario, Indian tobacco accounts for 10% of the area and 9% of the total production. By virtue of the dominant role played by this commercial crop,
2124-402: Is the removal of the tobacco flowers while "suckering" is the pruning out of leaves that are otherwise unproductive. Both procedures ensure that as much of the plant's energy as possible focuses on producing the large leaves that are harvested and sold. "Cropping", "Pulling", and "Priming" are terms for removing mature leaves from tobacco plants. Leaves are cropped as they ripen, from the bottom to
2242-520: Is thought that he took part in the notorious massacre of some two hundred men and boys in Lawrence, Kansas , a center of abolitionists . Frank followed Quantrill to Sherman, Texas , over the winter of 1863–1864. In the spring he returned in a squad commanded by Fletch Taylor. After they arrived in Clay County, 16-year-old Jesse James joined his brother in Taylor's group. Taylor was severely wounded in
2360-403: Is unlikely that he ever collected the money due. The 1869 robbery marked the emergence of Jesse James as the most famous survivor of the former Confederate bushwhackers. It was the first time he was publicly labeled an "outlaw"; Missouri Governor Thomas T. Crittenden set a reward for his capture. This was the beginning of an alliance between James and John Newman Edwards , editor and founder of
2478-482: Is used for tobacco production. Since 1947, in Gujarat's Charotar Region Known as Kheda district and Anand Famous For Tobacco Farming.he Indian government has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers that are located in: Jeelugumilli, A.P., Kandukuru, A.P., Guntur, A.P., Kalavacherla, A.P., Hunsur, Karnataka, Vedasandur, Tamil Nadu, Dinhata, West Bengal; and Rajamundry houses
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#17327754003222596-529: Is widespread use of children on farms in the United States, Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi and Zimbabwe. While some of these children work with their families on small family-owned farms, others work on large plantations. In late 2009 reports were released by the London-based human-rights group Plan International, claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8% of
2714-656: The Kansas City Times . Edwards, a former Confederate cavalryman, was campaigning to return former secessionists to power in Missouri. Six months after the Gallatin robbery, Edwards published the first of many letters from Jesse James to the public asserting his innocence. Over time, the letters gradually became more political in tone and James denounced the Republicans and expressed his pride in his Confederate loyalties. Together with Edwards's admiring editorials,
2832-546: The American Civil War . As followers of William Quantrill and "Bloody Bill" Anderson , they were accused of committing atrocities against Union soldiers and civilian abolitionists, including the Centralia Massacre in 1864. After the war, as members of various gangs of outlaws , Jesse and Frank robbed banks, stagecoaches, and trains across the Midwest , gaining national fame and often popular sympathy despite
2950-652: The Confederate cause . In the 1880s, after James's death, the James Gang became the subject of dime novels that represented the bandits as pre-industrial models of resistance . During the Populist and Progressive eras, James became an icon as America's Robin Hood , standing up against corporations in defense of the small farmer, robbing from the rich and giving to the poor. There is no evidence that he shared
3068-535: The Gold Rush to minister to those searching for gold; he died there when James was three years old. After Robert's death, his widow Zerelda remarried twice, first to Benjamin Simms in 1852 and then in 1855 to Dr. Reuben Samuel , who moved into the James family home. Jesse's mother and Samuel had four children together: Sarah Louisa, John Thomas, Fannie Quantrell, and Archie Peyton Samuel. Zerelda and Samuel acquired
3186-527: The James–Younger Gang . With Jesse James as the most public face of the gang (though with operational leadership likely shared among the group), the gang carried out a string of robberies from Iowa to Texas , and from Kansas to West Virginia . They robbed banks, stagecoaches, and a fair in Kansas City , often carrying out their crimes in front of crowds, and even hamming it up for the bystanders. On July 21, 1873, they turned to train robbery , derailing
3304-724: The Pinkertons in the January 1875 arson of the James house. On September 7, 1876, the opening day of hunting season in Minnesota, the James–Younger gang attempted a raid on the First National Bank of Northfield, Minnesota . The robbery quickly went wrong, however, and after the robbery only Frank and Jesse James remained alive and free. Cole and Bob Younger later said they selected the bank because they believed it
3422-503: The State Opening of Parliament ), romanticised outlaws became stock characters in several fictional settings. This was particularly so in the United States, where outlaws were popular subjects of 19th-century newspaper coverage and stories and 20th-century fiction and Western movies . Thus, "outlaw" is still commonly used to mean those violating the law or, by extension, those living that lifestyle, whether actual criminals evading
3540-531: The Cartagena fleet to be " piratic ", which allowed any nation to prey on it. Taking the opposite road, some outlaws became political leaders, such as Ethiopia 's Kassa Hailu who became Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia . Though the judgment of outlawry is now obsolete (even though it inspired the pro forma Outlawries Bill which is still to this day introduced in the British House of Commons during
3658-502: The Democrats, especially in the southern part of the state. The Republican-dominated Reconstruction legislature passed a new state constitution that freed Missouri's slaves. It temporarily excluded former Confederates from voting, serving on juries, becoming corporate officers, or preaching from church pulpits. The atmosphere was volatile, with widespread clashes between individuals and between armed gangs of veterans from both sides of
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3776-533: The Fords and Jameses went into the living room before traveling to Platte City for a robbery. From the newspaper, James had just learned that gang member Dick Liddil had confessed to participating in Wood Hite 's murder. He was suspicious that the Fords had not told him about it. Robert Ford later said he believed that James had realized they were there to betray him. Instead of confronting them, James walked across
3894-802: The Indian Central Tobacco Committee (ICTC) established Central Tobacco Research Institute (CTRI) in Rajahmundry (Andhra Pradesh) in 1947. The institute was under the administrative control of ICTC, Madras from 1947 to 1965 and subsequently transferred to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi. ICAR acts as a repository of information and provides consultancy on agriculture, horticulture, resource management, animal sciences, agricultural engineering, fisheries, agricultural extension, agricultural education, home science, and agricultural communication. It has
4012-429: The James Gang's exploits. Frank Triplett wrote about James as a "progressive neo-aristocrat" with "purity of race". Some historians credit James's myth as contributing to the rise of former Confederates to dominance in Missouri politics. In the 1880s, both U.S. Senators from the state, former Confederate military commander Francis Cockrell , and former Confederate Congressman George Graham Vest , were identified with
4130-635: The Pinkertons. Joseph Whicher, an agent dispatched to infiltrate Zerelda Samuel's farm, was soon found killed. Two other agents, Captain Louis J. Lull and John Boyle, were sent after the Youngers; Lull was killed by two of the Youngers in a roadside gunfight on March 17, 1874. Before he died, Lull fatally shot John Younger . A deputy sheriff named Edwin Daniels also died in the skirmish. Allan Pinkerton ,
4248-703: The Queen's subjects, "whether a constable or not", and without "being accountable for using of any deadly weapon in aid of such apprehension." Similar provisions were passed in Victoria and Queensland . Although the provisions of the New South Wales Felons Apprehension Act were not exercised after the end of the bushranging era, they remained on the statute book until 1976. There have been several instances in military and political conflicts throughout history whereby one side declares
4366-505: The Republican government, to the extent of occupying the town of Lexington, Missouri , on election day in 1866. Shortly afterward, the state militia shot Clement dead. James wrote about this death with bitterness a decade later. The survivors of Clement's gang continued to conduct bank robberies during the next two years, though their numbers dwindled through arrests , gunfights, and lynchings . While they later tried to justify robbing
4484-473: The U.S. tobacco crops in 1876. In the years afterward, many experiments were attempted and discussed to control the flea beetle. By 1880, growers discovered that replacing the branches with a frame covered with thin fabric effectively protected plants from the beetle. This practice spread, becoming ubiquitous in the 1890s. In Asia, Oceania, and the Indian subcontinent, the tobacco cutworm ( Spodoptera litura )
4602-504: The UN, tobacco leaf production is expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record high production of 1992, during which 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced. The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128%. During that same time period, production in developed countries actually decreased. China's increase in tobacco production
4720-407: The added weight of soil; slaves lugged each stack to the "stringer" or "looper", typically a female slave, who bundled each stack of leaves. Eventually, workers carried the tobacco and placed it on sleds or trailers. As the industrial revolution approached America, the harvesting wagons that transported leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to
4838-476: The adoption of international extradition pacts. It was obsolete when the offence was abolished in 1938. Outlawry was, however, a living practice as of 1855: in 1841, William John Bankes , who had previously been an MP for several different constituencies between 1810 and 1835, was outlawed by due process of law for absenting himself from trial for homosexuality and died in 1855 in Venice as an outlaw. There
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4956-434: The agency's founder and leader, took on the case as a personal vendetta. He began to work with former Unionists who lived near the James family farm. On the night of January 25, 1875, he staged a raid on the homestead. Detectives threw an incendiary device into the house; it exploded, killing James's young half-brother Archie (named for Archie Clement) and blowing off one of Zerelda Samuel's arms. Afterward, Pinkerton denied that
5074-1039: The ancient Norse and Icelandic legal code . In early modern times, the term Vogelfrei and its cognates came to be used in Germany, the Low Countries , and Scandinavia , referring to a person stripped of his civil rights being "free" for the taking like a bird. In Germany and Slavic countries during the 15th to 19th centuries, groups of outlaws were composed of former prisoners, soldiers, etc. Hence, they became an important social phenomenon. They lived off of robbery, and local inhabitants from lower classes often supported their activity. The best known are Juraj Jánošík and Jakub Surovec in Slovakia, Oleksa Dovbush in Ukraine, Rózsa Sándor in Hungary, Schinderhannes and Hans Kohlhase in Germany. The concept of outlawry
5192-555: The banks, most of their targets were small, local banks based on local capital, and the robberies only penalized the locals they claimed to support. On May 23, 1867, for example, they robbed a bank in Richmond, Missouri , in which they killed the mayor and two others. It remains uncertain whether either of the James brothers took part, although an eyewitness who knew the brothers told a newspaper seven years later "positively and emphatically that he recognized Jesse and Frank James... among
5310-478: The bounty. Later, the Ford brothers starred in a touring stage show in which they reenacted the shooting. Public opinion was divided between those against the Fords for murdering Jesse and those of the opinion that it had been time for the outlaw to be stopped. Suffering from tuberculosis (then incurable) and a morphine addiction, Charley Ford committed suicide on May 6, 1884, in Richmond, Missouri . Bob Ford operated
5428-414: The brothers intended to kill James rather than capture him. The implication that the chief executive of Missouri conspired to kill a private citizen startled the public and added to James's notoriety. After receiving a small portion of the reward, the Fords fled Missouri. Sheriff James Timberlake and Marshal Henry H. Craig, who were law enforcement officials active in the plan, were awarded the majority of
5546-513: The brutality of their crimes. The James brothers were most active as members of their own gang from about 1866 until 1876, when as a result of their attempted robbery of a bank in Northfield, Minnesota , several members of the gang were captured or killed. They continued in crime for several years afterward, recruiting new members, but came under increasing pressure from law enforcement seeking to bring them to justice. On April 3, 1882, Jesse James
5664-945: The cheap labor that children provide. In December 2022, the UN special report showed that 3000 children were working in Malawi ’s tobacco industry, despite last years’ abolition of an employment system accused of fostering child labor in the tobacco industry. The government of Malawi was implementing programs aimed at ending child labor and ensuring its protection. A large percent of the profits from tobacco production go to large tobacco companies rather than local tobacco farmers. Also many countries have government subsidies for tobacco farming. Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. Philip Morris, British American Tobacco and Japan Tobacco each own or lease tobacco manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries. This encouragement, along with government subsidies has led to
5782-635: The contents of the express safe in the baggage car. John Newman Edwards made sure to highlight such techniques when creating an image of James as a kind of Robin Hood . Despite public sentiment toward the gang's crimes, there is no evidence that the James gang ever shared any of the robbery money outside their personal circle. Jesse and his cousin Zee married on April 24, 1874. They had two children who survived to adulthood: Jesse Edward James (b. 1875) and Mary Susan James (later Barr, b. 1879). Twins Gould and Montgomery James (b. 1878) died in infancy. Jesse Jr. became
5900-534: The contractor or grower for drinking water or for reasons that were not explained to them. In United States children were found to be working for twelve hours in Tobacco Fields. Families that farm tobacco often have to make the difficult decision between having their children work or go to school. Unfortunately working often beats education because tobacco farmers, especially in the developing world, cannot make enough money from their crop to survive without
6018-443: The core research institute. The government has set up Tobacco Board Guntur which works to increase production, sale and exports of Indian tobacco. Guntur is also well known for its tobacco plantations. The Central Tobacco Research Institute works under the aegis of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Tobacco crop is cultivated in an area of 0.45 M ha (0.27% of the net cultivated area) producing ≈750 M kg of tobacco leaf. India
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#17327754003226136-427: The country's total cultivated area. In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia and Amarelinho flue-cured tobacco as well as Burley and Dark (Galpão Comum) air-cured tobacco are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air-cured and sun-cured tobacco are grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists and dark-cigarettes. Brazil's government has made attempts to reduce
6254-568: The crime or that conclusively rules them out. On June 13, 1866, in Jackson County, Missouri , the gang freed two jailed members of Quantrill's gang, killing the jailer in the effort. Historians believe that the James brothers were involved in this crime. Local violence continued to increase in the state; Governor Thomas Clement Fletcher had recently ordered a company of militia into Johnson County to suppress guerrilla activity. Archie Clement continued his career of crime and harassment of
6372-625: The dead. The Union presence enforced martial law with raids on homes, arrests of civilians, summary executions , and banishment of Confederate sympathizers from the state. The James–Samuel family sided with the Confederates at the outbreak of war. Frank James joined a local company recruited for the secessionist Drew Lobbs Army, and fought at the Battle of Wilson's Creek in August 1861. He fell ill and returned home soon afterward. In 1863, he
6490-640: The dramatic build-up to the Civil War centered on the violence that erupted on the Kansas–Missouri border between pro- and anti-slavery militias. After a series of campaigns and battles between conventional armies in 1861, guerrilla warfare gripped Missouri, waged between secessionist " bushwhackers " and Union forces which largely consisted of local militias known as " jayhawkers ". A bitter conflict ensued, resulting in an escalating cycle of atrocities committed by both sides. Confederate guerrillas murdered civilian Unionists, executed prisoners, and scalped
6608-540: The end of the Reconstruction era helped cement his place in American life and memory as a simple but remarkably effective bandit. After 1873, he was covered by the national media as part of social banditry. During his lifetime, James was celebrated chiefly by former Confederates, to whom he appealed directly in his letters to the press. Displaced by Reconstruction, the antebellum political leadership mythologized
6726-569: The era, and his life has been dramatized and memorialized numerous times. Jesse Woodson James was born on September 5, 1847, in Clay County, Missouri , near the site of present-day Kearney . This area of Missouri was largely settled by people from the Upper South, especially Kentucky and Tennessee , and became known as Little Dixie for this reason. James had two full siblings: his elder brother, Alexander Franklin "Frank" James , and
6844-458: The famous outlaw. Crittenden had made capture of the James brothers his top priority; in his inaugural address he declared that no political motives could be allowed to keep them from justice. Barred by law from offering a large reward, he had turned to the railroad and express corporations to put up a $ 5,000 bounty for the delivery of each of them and an additional $ 5,000 for the conviction of either of them. On April 3, 1882, after eating breakfast,
6962-415: The first pull of the large, dirty, base leaves. The leaves slapped their faces and dark tobacco sap, which dries into a dark gum, covered their bodies, and then soil stuck to the gum. The croppers were men, and the stringers, who were seated on the higher elevated seats, were women and children. The harvesters had places for one team of ten workers: eight people cropping and stringing, plus a packer who moved
7080-445: The formal procedure of declaring someone an outlaw, i.e., putting him outside legal protection. In the common law of England , a judgment of (criminal) outlawry was one of the harshest penalties in the legal system since the outlaw could not use the legal system for protection, e.g., from mob justice . To be declared an outlaw was to suffer a form of civil or social death. The outlaw was debarred from all civilized society. No one
7198-443: The gang divided into two groups. Three men entered the bank, two guarded the door outside, and three remained near a bridge across an adjacent square. The robbers inside the bank were thwarted when acting cashier Joseph Lee Heywood refused to open the safe, falsely claiming that it was secured by a time lock even as they held a Bowie knife to his throat and cracked his skull with a pistol butt. Assistant cashier Alonzo Enos Bunker
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#17327754003227316-484: The governor to claim his reward. Crowds pressed into the little house in St. Joseph to see the dead bandit. The Ford brothers surrendered to the authorities and were dismayed to be charged with first-degree murder . In the course of a single day, the Ford brothers were indicted, pleaded guilty, were sentenced to death by hanging , and were granted a full pardon by Governor Crittenden. The governor's quick pardon suggested he knew
7434-506: The guerrillas scalped and dismembered some of the dead. The guerrillas also ambushed and defeated a pursuing regiment of Major A. V. E. Johnson's Union troops, killing all who tried to surrender, who numbered more than 100. Frank later identified Jesse as a member of the band who had fatally shot Major Johnson. As a result of the James brothers' activities, Union military authorities forced their family to leave Clay County. Though ordered to move South beyond Union lines, they moved north across
7552-578: The harshest penalties in the legal system. In early Germanic law , the death penalty is conspicuously absent, and outlawing is the most extreme punishment, presumably amounting to a death sentence in practice. The concept is known from Roman law , as the status of homo sacer , and persisted throughout the Middle Ages . A secondary meaning of outlaw is a person systematically avoiding capture by evasion and violence. These meanings are related and overlapping but not necessarily identical. A fugitive who
7670-450: The harvester tipping over especially when turning around at the end of a row. Water tanks were a common feature on the harvester due to heat and danger of dehydration. Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40% between 1971, during which 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, during which 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced. According to the Food and Agriculture organization of
7788-450: The heavy strung poles of wet green tobacco from the stringers and packed them onto the pallet section of the harvester, plus a horseman. The outer seats were suspended from the harvester - slung out over to fit into the rows of tobacco. As these seats were suspended it was important to balance the weight of the two outside teams (similar to a playground see-saw ). Having too heavy or light a person in an unbalanced combination often resulted in
7906-583: The law or those merely opposed to "law-and-order" notions of conformity and authority (such as the " outlaw country " music movement in the 1970s). Cultivation of tobacco The cultivation of tobacco usually takes place annually. The tobacco is germinated in cold frames or hotbeds and then transplanted to the field until it matures. It is grown in warm climates with rich, well-drained soil . About 4.2 million hectares of tobacco were under cultivation worldwide in 2000, yielding over seven million tonnes of tobacco. Tobacco seeds are scattered onto
8024-419: The leaves off in handfuls and pass these to the "stringer" or "looper", which bundles the leaves to a four-sided pole with twine. These poles are hung until the harvester is full. The poles are then placed in a much larger wagon to be pulled by diesel tractors to their destination. For rare tobaccos they are often cured on the farm. Traditionally, the slaves who cropped and pulled had a particularly tough time with
8142-570: The legislature voted to limit the size of rewards the governor could offer for fugitives. This extended a measure of protection over the James–Younger gang by minimizing the incentive for attempting to capture them. The governor had offered rewards higher than the new limit only on Frank and Jesse James. Across a creek and up a hill from the James house was the home of Daniel Askew, who is thought to have been killed by James or his gang on April 12, 1875. They may have suspected Askew of cooperating with
8260-475: The letters helped James become a symbol of Confederate defiance of federal Reconstruction policy. James's initiative in creating his rising public profile is debated by historians and biographers. The high tensions in politics accompanied his outlaw career and enhanced his notoriety. Meanwhile, the James brothers joined with Cole Younger and his brothers John , Jim , and Bob , as well as Clell Miller and other former Confederates, to form what came to be known as
8378-544: The likely culprits in the first daylight armed bank robbery in the United States during peacetime, the robbery of the Clay County Savings Association in the town of Liberty, Missouri , on February 13, 1866. The bank was owned by Republican former militia officers who had recently conducted the first Republican Party rally in Clay County's history. During the gang's escape from the town, an innocent bystander, 17-year-old George C. "Jolly" Wymore,
8496-463: The living room and laid his revolvers on a sofa. He turned around and noticed a dusty picture above the mantle, and stood on a chair to clean it. Robert Ford drew his weapon and shot the unarmed Jesse James in the back of the head. James's two previous bullet wounds and partially missing middle finger served to positively identify the body. The death of Jesse James became a national sensation. The Fords made no attempt to hide their role. Robert Ford wired
8614-399: The loot of his robberies with anyone other than his gang members; they alone enjoyed the riches with him. Outlaw An outlaw , in its original and legal meaning, is a person declared as outside the protection of the law . In pre-modern societies, all legal protection was withdrawn from the criminal, so anyone was legally empowered to persecute or kill them. Outlawry was thus one of
8732-508: The mandate to co-ordinate agricultural research and development programmes and to develop linkages at the national and international levels with related organisations to enhance the quality of life of the farming community. Bangladesh had 84,919 registered tobacco farmers in 2009, which are seen as "first tier" farmers with access to formal contract farming systems. In addition to that, approximately 250,000 unregistered farmers are believed to have tobacco as their main crop. This makes Bangladesh
8850-458: The militia officer who had killed "Bloody Bill" Anderson during the Civil War. James claimed he was taking revenge, and the daring escape he and Frank made through the middle of a posse shortly afterward attracted newspaper coverage for the first time. An 1882 history of Daviess County said, "The history of Daviess County has no blacker crime in its pages than the murder of John W. Sheets." The only known civil case involving Frank and Jesse James
8968-602: The mtDNA recovered from the remains was consistent with the mtDNA of one of James's relatives in the female line. The theme of survival was featured in a 2009 documentary, Jesse James' Hidden Treasure , which aired on the History Channel . The documentary was dismissed as pseudo history and pseudoscience by historian Nancy Samuelson in a review she wrote for the Winter 2009–2010 edition of The James-Younger Gang Journal . J. Frank Dalton claimed to be Jesse James. Dalton
9086-494: The names of Thomas Howard and B. J. Woodson, respectively. Frank seemed to settle down, but Jesse remained restless. He recruited a new gang in 1879 and returned to crime, holding up a train at Glendale, Missouri (now part of Independence ), on October 8, 1879. The robbery was the first in a spree of crimes, including the holdup of the federal paymaster of a canal project in Killen, Alabama , and two more train robberies. However,
9204-485: The nearby state border into Nebraska Territory . After "Bloody Bill" Anderson was killed in an ambush in October, the James brothers separated. Frank followed Quantrill into Kentucky , while Jesse went to Texas under the command of Archie Clement , one of Anderson's lieutenants. He is known to have returned to Missouri in the spring. At the age of 17, Jesse suffered the second of two life-threatening chest wounds when he
9322-536: The new gang was not made up of battle-hardened guerrillas; they soon turned against each other or were captured. James grew suspicious of other members; he scared away one man and some believe that he killed another gang member. In 1879, the James gang robbed two stores in far western Mississippi , at Washington in Adams County and Fayette in Jefferson County . The gang left with $ 2,000 cash from
9440-553: The newspapers announced his death. Some said that Robert Ford killed someone other than James in an elaborate plot to allow him to escape justice. These tales have received little credence, then or since. None of James's biographers accepted them as plausible. The body buried in Kearney, Missouri, marked "Jesse James" was exhumed in 1995 and subjected to mitochondrial DNA typing. The report, prepared by Anne C. Stone, Ph.D., James E. Starrs, L.L.M., and Mark Stoneking, Ph.D., confirmed that
9558-754: The other as being "illegal", notorious cases being the use of proscription in the civil wars of the Roman Republic . In later times there was the notable case of Napoleon Bonaparte whom the Congress of Vienna , on 13 March 1815, declared had "deprived himself of the protection of the law" . In modern times, the government of the First Spanish Republic , unable to reduce the Cantonal rebellion centered in Cartagena, Spain , declared
9676-470: The peak of global tobacco production, there were 20 million rural Chinese households producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land. The vast majority of tobacco production is intended for the national market. While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugar cane. This is because the Chinese government sets the market price. While this price
9794-432: The period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field. Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce bigger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides as well as fertilizers, end up in
9912-468: The plants under a screen of cheesecloth fabric. The thin leaves were used for the outer wrappings of cigars. Tobacco can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a sickle. In the nineteenth century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. As the plants grow, they usually require topping and suckering. "Topping"
10030-667: The possibility of being declared an outlaw for derelictions of civil duty continued to exist in English law until the passing of the Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879 ( 42 & 43 Vict. c. 59) in 1879 and in Scots law until the late 1940s. Since then, failure to find the defendant and serve process is usually interpreted in favour of the plaintiff, and harsh penalties for mere nonappearance (merely presumed flight to escape justice) no longer apply. Outlawry also existed in other ancient legal codes, such as
10148-479: The production of tobacco but has not had a successful systematic anti-tobacco farming initiative. Brazil's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar (PRONAF). India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers and many more who are not registered. Around 0.25% of India's cultivated land
10266-489: The raid's intent was arson . But biographer Ted Yeatman found a letter by Pinkerton in the Library of Congress in which Pinkerton declared his intention to "burn the house down." Many residents were outraged by the raid on the family home. The Missouri state legislature narrowly defeated a bill that praised the James and Younger brothers and offered them amnesty . Allowed to vote and hold office again, former Confederates in
10384-713: The robbers." In 1868, Frank and Jesse James allegedly joined Cole Younger in robbing a bank in Russellville, Kentucky . Jesse James did not become well known until December 7, 1869, when he (and most likely Frank) robbed the Daviess County Savings Association in Gallatin, Missouri . The robbery netted little money. Jesse is believed to have shot and killed the cashier, Captain John Sheets, mistakenly believing him to be Samuel P. Cox ,
10502-523: The robbery. The James brothers eventually split from the others and escaped to Missouri. The militia soon discovered the Youngers and one other bandit, Charlie Pitts. Pitts died in a gunfight and the Youngers were taken prisoner. Except for Frank and Jesse James, the James–Younger Gang was destroyed. Later in 1876, Jesse and Frank James surfaced in the Nashville, Tennessee , area, where they went by
10620-419: The same crops and livestock as in the areas from which they had migrated. They brought slaves with them and purchased more according to their needs. The county counted more slaveholders and more slaves than most other regions of the state; in Missouri as a whole, slaves accounted for only 10 percent of the population, but in Clay County, they constituted 25 percent. Aside from slavery , the culture of Little Dixie
10738-409: The second largest tobacco producer in terms of workforce, just after China. It is also the third largest in terms of percentage of registered farm land dedicated to tobacco cultivation with 0.4%. The International Labour Office reported that the most child-laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work. The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. There
10856-903: The second robbery and took shelter in abandoned cabins on the Kemp Plantation south of St. Joseph , Louisiana . A law enforcement posse attacked and killed two of the outlaws but failed to capture the entire gang. Among the deputies was Jefferson B. Snyder , later a long-serving district attorney in northeastern Louisiana. By 1881, with local Tennessee authorities growing suspicious, the brothers returned to Missouri, where they felt safer. James moved his family to St. Joseph , Missouri, in November 1881, not far from where he had been born and reared. Frank, however, decided to move to safer territory and headed east to settle in Virginia . They intended to give up crime. The James gang had been reduced to
10974-715: The skin and causes nausea, vomiting and dizziness. Children were exposed to 50-cigarettes worth of nicotine through direct contact with tobacco leaves. This level of nicotine in children can permanently alter brain structure and function. In 2014, Human Rights Watch released a report detailing child labor on U.S. tobacco farms. The report states 73% of the children they interviewed reported getting sick with nausea, headaches, respiratory illnesses, and skin conditions, while 66% reported symptoms consistent with acute nicotine poisoning. The report states most children they interviewed worked between 10 and 12 hours per day and some children reported earning less than minimum wage with deductions by
11092-546: The soil, the waterway and the food chain. Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child's lifelong cancer risk as well as harm his or her nervous and immune systems. Tobacco is often heavily fertilized . Some of the mineral apatite in Florida used to produce phosphate for American tobacco crops contains uranium, radium, lead-210, polonium-210 and radon. The radioactive smoke from tobacco fertilized this way
11210-525: The summer of 1864, losing his right arm to a shotgun blast. The James brothers then joined the bushwhacker group led by William "Bloody Bill" Anderson . Jesse suffered a serious wound to the chest that summer. The Clay County provost marshal reported that both Frank and Jesse James took part in the Centralia Massacre in September, in which guerrillas stopped a train carrying unarmed Union soldiers returning home from duty and killed or wounded some 22 of them;
11328-499: The surface of the soil , as their germination is activated by light. In colonial Virginia, seedbeds were fertilized with wood ash or animal manure (frequently powdered horse manure). Seedbeds were then covered with branches to protect the young plants from frost damage, and the plants were left alone until around April. In the 19th century, young plants came under increasing attack from certain types of flea beetles , Epitrix cucumeris or Epitrix pubescens , which destroyed half
11446-400: The top of the stalk. The first crop of leaves located near the base of the tobacco stalk are called "sand lugs" in more rural southern tobacco states. They are called "sand lugs" because these leaves are close to the ground and get splashed with sand and clay when heavy rains hit the soil. Sand lugs weigh the most, and are most difficult to work with. Their weight is due to their large size and
11564-516: The two of them. With his gang nearly annihilated, James trusted only the Ford brothers, Charley and Robert . Although Charley had been out on raids with James, Bob Ford was an eager new recruit. For protection, James asked the Ford brothers to move in with him and his family. James had often stayed with their sister Martha Bolton and, according to rumor, he was "smitten" with her. By that time, Bob Ford had conducted secret negotiations with Missouri Governor Thomas T. Crittenden , planning to bring in
11682-487: The unarmed cashier Heywood in the head. Historians have speculated about the identity of the shooter but have not reached consensus. The gang barely escaped Northfield, leaving two dead companions behind. They killed Heywood and Nicholas Gustafson , a Swedish immigrant from the Millersburg community west of Northfield. A substantial manhunt ensued. It is believed that the gang burned 14 Rice County mills shortly after
11800-578: The use of fire or water was illegal, and they could be killed at will without legal penalty. The interdiction of water and fire was traditionally imposed by the tribune of the plebs and is attested to have been in use during the First Punic War of the third century BC by Cato the Elder . It was later also applied by many other officials, such as the Senate , magistrates , and Julius Caesar as
11918-688: The war. Jesse recovered from his chest wound at his uncle's boardinghouse in Harlem, Missouri (north across the Missouri River from the City of Kansas's River Quay [changed to Kansas City in 1889]). He was tended to by his first cousin, Zerelda "Zee" Mimms , named after Jesse's mother. Jesse and his cousin began a nine-year courtship that culminated in their marriage. Meanwhile, his former commander Archie Clement kept his bushwhacker gang together and began to harass Republican authorities. These men were
12036-416: The world's tobacco ) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full-time on farms during the 2007-2008 growing season. The child-laborers complained of low pay, long hours as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors. They also reported suffering from green tobacco sickness , a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in
12154-680: The world. The top producers of tobacco are China (39.6%), India (8.3%), Brazil (7.0%) and the United States (4.6%). In the United States, as of 2014 North Carolina was the largest producer of tobacco, with around 1,800 tobacco farms employing 30,000 workers yielding in 400 million pounds of the crop annually. In the US, the decline in the number of smokers, the end of the Tobacco Transition Payment Program in 2014, and competition from growers in other countries, made tobacco farming economics more challenging as of 2015. At
12272-494: Was Southern in other ways as well. This influenced how the population acted during and for a period of time after the war. After the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854, Clay County became the scene of great turmoil as the question of whether slavery would be expanded into the neighboring Kansas Territory bred tension and hostility. Many people from Missouri migrated to Kansas to try to influence its future. Much of
12390-637: Was allegedly 101 years old at the time of his first public appearance, in May 1948. Dalton died August 15, 1951, in Granbury, Texas . Oran Baker, Hood County sheriff, conducted a visual postmortem exam and found he had thirty-two bullet wounds and a rope burn around his neck. He was buried in Granbury Cemetery, where the headstone bears the name of "Jesse Woodson James". Dalton's story was disputed by James's surviving relatives. James's turn to crime after
12508-400: Was allowed to give him food, shelter, or any other sort of support—to do so was to commit the crime of aiding and abetting , and to be in danger of the ban oneself. A more recent concept of " wanted dead or alive " is similar but implies that a trial is desired (namely if the wanted person is returned alive), whereas outlawry precludes a trial. An outlaw might be killed with impunity, and it
12626-502: Was also a doctrine of civil outlawry. Civil outlawry did not carry the sentence of capital punishment. It was, however, imposed on defendants who fled or evaded justice when sued for civil actions like debts or torts. The punishments for civil outlawry were harsh, including confiscation of chattels (movable property) left behind by the outlaw. In the civil context, outlawry became obsolete in civil procedure by reforms that no longer required summoned defendants to appear and plead. Still,
12744-462: Was an outlaw. If a man was accused of treason or felony but failed to appear in court to defend himself, he was deemed convicted. If he was accused of a misdemeanour , then he was guilty of a serious contempt of court which was itself a capital crime. In the context of criminal law , outlawry faded out, not so much by legal changes as by the greater population density of the country, which made it harder for wanted fugitives to evade capture, and by
12862-565: Was associated with the Republican politician Adelbert Ames , the governor of Mississippi during Reconstruction, and Union general Benjamin Butler , Ames's father-in-law and the Union commander of occupied New Orleans . Ames was a stockholder in the bank, but Butler had no direct connection to it. The gang attempted to rob the bank in Northfield at about 2 p.m. To carry out the robbery,
12980-656: Was filed in the Common Pleas Court of Daviess County in 1870. In the case, Daniel Smoote asked for $ 223.50 from Frank and Jesse James to replace a horse, saddle, and bridle stolen as they fled the robbery of the Daviess County Savings Bank. The brothers denied the charges, saying they were not in Daviess County on December 7, the day the robbery occurred. Frank and Jesse failed to appear in court, and Smoote won his case against them. It
13098-443: Was identified as a member of a guerrilla squad that operated in Clay County. In May of that year, a Union militia company raided the James–Samuel farm looking for Frank's group. They tortured Reuben Samuel by briefly hanging him from a tree. According to legend, they lashed young Jesse. Frank James eluded capture and was believed to have joined the guerrilla organization led by William C. Quantrill known as Quantrill's Raiders . It
13216-402: Was not only lawful but meritorious to kill a thief fleeing from justice—to do so was not murder . A man who slew a thief was expected to declare the fact without delay; otherwise, the dead man's kindred might clear his name by their oath and require the slayer to pay weregild as for a true man. By the rules of common law, a criminal outlaw did not need to be guilty of the crime for which he
13334-473: Was on his family property, but he was later moved to a cemetery in Kearney. The original footstone is still there, although the family has replaced the headstone. James's mother Zerelda Samuel wrote the following epitaph for him: "In Loving Memory of my Beloved Son, Murdered by a Traitor and Coward Whose Name is not Worthy to Appear Here." James's widow Zerelda Mimms James died alone and in poverty . Rumors of Jesse James's survival proliferated almost as soon as
13452-482: Was reintroduced to British law by several Australian colonial governments in the late 19th century to deal with the menace of bushranging . The Felons Apprehension Act (1865 No 2a) of New South Wales provided that a judge could, upon proof of sufficiently notorious conduct, issue a special bench warrant requiring a person to submit themselves to police custody before a given date, or be declared an outlaw. An outlawed person could be apprehended "alive or dead" by any of
13570-468: Was shot and killed by Robert Ford , a new recruit to the gang who hoped to collect a reward on James's head and a promised amnesty for his previous crimes. Already a celebrity in life, James became a legendary figure of the Wild West after his death. Popular portrayals of James as an embodiment of Robin Hood , robbing from the rich and giving to the poor, are a case of romantic revisionism as there
13688-599: Was shot while trying to surrender after they ran into a Union cavalry patrol near Lexington, Missouri . At the end of the Civil War, Missouri remained deeply divided. The conflict split the population into three bitterly opposed factions: anti-slavery Unionists identified with the Republican Party ; segregationist conservative Unionists identified with the Democratic Party ; and pro-slavery, ex-Confederate secessionists, many of whom were also allied with
13806-508: Was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China's share of the world market increased from 17% in 1971 to 47% in 1997. This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a high import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff has been reduced from 64% in 1999 to 10% in 2004, it still has led to local, Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost. Every year 6.7 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout
13924-445: Was wounded in the shoulder as he fled through the back door of the bank. Meanwhile, the citizens of Northfield grew suspicious of the men guarding the door and raised the alarm. The five bandits outside fired into the air to clear the streets, driving the townspeople to take cover and fire back from protected positions. They shot two bandits dead and wounded the rest in the barrage. Inside, the outlaws turned to flee. As they left, one shot
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