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54-417: The fields have suffered a coal bed fire since at least 1916, resulting in 37 millions tons of coal consumed by the fire, and significant ground subsidence and water and air pollution in local communities including the city of Jharia . The resulting pollution has led to a government agency designated for moving local populations, however, little progress has been made in the relocation. The coal field lies in

108-609: A Gujarati school named the Jharia Anglo-Gujarati School at Jharia in 1905. He also owned more than 500 acres farm-lands, the produce of which was given away to poor and needy. In the year 1920, when he held a large public charity event and a yagna at Sinugra. At the time of this event, Seth Khora Ramji was honoured by Maharao of Cutch, Sir Khengarji III Sawai Bahadur , who sent him a Paghdi by hands of royal messenger. Further, at Mathura he along with Jetha Lira Jethwa of Sinugra had built and donated

162-444: A Dharamashala now named Kutch Kadia Kshatriya Dharamshala in the year 1889–1900, when they were stationed there for railway contract job. The several mines were owned jointly as HUF by the family of 5 brothers of Seth Khora Ramji, which were divided among the family mutually after his death. Ambalal Khora also carried on father's legacy as a railway contractor, who died in a railway accident. His eldest son Karamshi Khora took over

216-630: A comparative analysis of various land subsidence monitoring techniques. The results indicated that InSAR offered the highest coverage, lowest annual cost per point of information and the highest point density. Additionally, they found that, aside from continuous acquisition systems typically installed in areas with rapid subsidence, InSAR had the highest measurement frequencies. In contrast, leveling, non-permanent GNSS, and non-permanent extensometers generally provided only one or two measurements per year. These methods project future land subsidence trends by extrapolating from existing data, treating subsidence as

270-840: A few lines are quoted – Seth Khora Ramji have done works of great magnitude :- Hundred Miles of Railway in Sindh & North west India. Twenty Miles of Railway lines on Southern Mahratta Railway . Twenty two miles of railway line on East Bengal Railway , loco quarters at Hubli including several bridges of great magnitude. His elder brothers were also carrying on at the same time railway works in Southern India and they also won name as successful contractors. All them joined hands in business and formed themselves in syndicate and completed works in Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway but later unfortunately he lost all brothers but one. So he

324-645: A financing member of about eight collieries. Several district officials have remarked him as multi-millionaire, one of the first class parties in Jharia. The life sketch of Govamal Jivan Chauhan is also another miner mentioned by the British in Gazetteer who founded collieries at Teesra , Budroochuck and Pandeberra around 1908–10, Jagmal Raja Chauhan owned Rajapore colliery with Manji Jeram of Madhapar , while Khimji Walji owned Tisra mines The migrants took on lease

378-459: A function solely of time. The extrapolation can be performed either visually or by fitting appropriate curves. Common functions used for fitting include linear, bilinear, quadratic, and/or exponential models. For example, this method has been successfully applied for predicting mining-induced subsidence. These approaches evaluate land subsidence based on its relationship with one or more influencing factors, such as changes in groundwater levels,

432-514: A new approach for tackling nonlinear problems. It has emerged as a promising method for simulating and predicting land subsidence. 80 (1921-1960) 6.5 (1952-1968) 4 (2003-2010) 100 (1997-2002) Seth Khora Ramji Khora Ramji Chawda (1860–1924), better known as Seth Khora Ramji , was a reputed railway contractor, coal mines owner, banker and philanthropist of the early 20th century in India , who worked from Jharia near Dhanbad . He

486-431: A number of years, a cumulative drying occurs as the tree grows. That can lead to the opposite of subsidence, known as heave or swelling of the soil, when the tree declines or is felled. As the cumulative moisture deficit is reversed, which can last up to 25 years, the surface level around the tree will rise and expand laterally. That often damages buildings unless the foundations have been strengthened or designed to cope with

540-736: A perceived lackadaisical attitude towards the safety of the people of Jharia. Heavy fumes emitted by the fires lead to severe health problems such as breathing disorders and skin diseases among the local population. Subsidence Subsidence is a general term for downward vertical movement of the Earth's surface, which can be caused by both natural processes and human activities. Subsidence involves little or no horizontal movement, which distinguishes it from slope movement . Processes that lead to subsidence include dissolution of underlying carbonate rock by groundwater ; gradual compaction of sediments ; withdrawal of fluid lava from beneath

594-437: A result of increased effective stress . In this way, land subsidence has the potential of becoming self-perpetuating, having rates up to 5 cm/yr. Water management used to be tuned primarily to factors such as crop optimization but, to varying extents, avoiding subsidence has come to be taken into account as well. When differential stresses exist in the Earth, these can be accommodated either by geological faulting in

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648-409: A shipping business for a couple of decades until 1945. Khora Ramji died in year 1924 at Jharia . As a philanthropist, in his native village Sinugra, he had built and donated a Hindu temple, wells, welcome-gate, Chabutro and a primary school, which is now named Seth Khora Ramji Prathmik Shala in the year 1910 . He also donated major fund along with some other Mistri colliery owners to start

702-555: A solidified crust of rock; mining; pumping of subsurface fluids, such as groundwater or petroleum ; or warping of the Earth's crust by tectonic forces. Subsidence resulting from tectonic deformation of the crust is known as tectonic subsidence and can create accommodation for sediments to accumulate and eventually lithify into sedimentary rock . Ground subsidence is of global concern to geologists , geotechnical engineers , surveyors , engineers , urban planners , landowners, and

756-783: Is famous for a coal field fire that has burned underground for nearly a century. A 2007 estimate, described 37 million tons of coal consumed by the fires since their start. The first fire was detected in 1916 at Bhowrah colliery owned by Eastern Coal Co Limited. First incidence of fire was reported on 1916 in XIV seam of Bhowra Colliery. Since then a number of fires have occurred in U/G, Opencast and in OCM debris. Due to unscientific mining undergroung fire spread to other mines According to records, almost fifteen years later after first fire incident occurred at Bhowra Collliery owned by Eastern Coal Company, one of

810-451: Is relatively predictable in its magnitude, manifestation and extent, except where a sudden pillar or near-surface tunnel collapse occurs (usually very old workings ). Mining-induced subsidence is nearly always very localized to the surface above the mined area, plus a margin around the outside. The vertical magnitude of the subsidence itself typically does not cause problems, except in the case of drainage (including natural drainage)–rather, it

864-415: Is the associated surface compressive and tensile strains, curvature, tilts and horizontal displacement that are the cause of the worst damage to the natural environment, buildings and infrastructure. Where mining activity is planned, mining-induced subsidence can be successfully managed if there is co-operation from all of the stakeholders. This is accomplished through a combination of careful mine planning,

918-714: The Damodar River Valley , and covers about 110 square miles (280 square km), and produces bituminous coal suitable for coke. Most of India's coal comes from Jharia. Jharia coal mines are India's most important storehouse of prime coke coal used in blast furnaces, it consists of 23 large underground and nine large open cast mines. The mining activities in these coalfields started in 1894 and had really intensified in 1925. The first Indians to arrive and break monopoly of British in Coal mining were Gujarati railway contractors from Kutch some of whom decided to plunge into

972-437: The Jharia coal fields were being exploited by Europeans and Seth Khora Ramji was first Indian to seize the opportunity. He purchased two collieries to begin with. Gradually others from Kutch and Gujarat followed suit and now Jharia has been changed into a Gujarati settlement with about 50 Kutchi out of 92 Gujarati collieries proprietors with Seth Khora Ramji as head of them all. He is now sole proprietor of two collieries and

1026-409: The area. The subsidence was brought to a halt when secondary recovery wells pumped enough water into the oil reservoir to stabilize it. Land subsidence can occur in various ways during an earthquake. Large areas of land can subside drastically during an earthquake because of offset along fault lines. Land subsidence can also occur as a result of settling and compacting of unconsolidated sediment from

1080-422: The asthenosphere. If mass is added to a local area of the crust (e.g., through deposition ), the crust subsides to compensate and maintain isostatic balance . The opposite of isostatic subsidence is known as isostatic rebound —the action of the crust returning (sometimes over periods of thousands of years) to a state of isostacy, such as after the melting of large ice sheets or the drying-up of large lakes after

1134-442: The authorities had declared that there is raging fire beneath the town with 42 collieries out of 133 on fire. In 1972, more than 70 mine fires were reported in this region. As of 2007, more than 400,000 people who live in Jharia are living on land in danger of subsidence due to the fires, and according to Satya Pratap Singh , "Jharia township is on the brink of an ecological and human disaster". The government has been criticized for

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1188-489: The book Diary of Golden Days at Jharia – A Memoir & History of Gurjar Kashtriya Samaj of Kutch in Coalfields of Jharia – written by Natwarlal Devram Jethwa & Pawan Jethwa -Quote: The East Indian Railway in 1894–95 extended its line from Barakar to Dhanbad via Katras and Jharia . Messrs. Khora Ramji in 1894 was working on railway lines contract of Jharia branch line and with his brother Jetha Lira . He

1242-401: The brittle crust , or by ductile flow in the hotter and more fluid mantle . Where faults occur, absolute subsidence may occur in the hanging wall of normal faults. In reverse, or thrust, faults, relative subsidence may be measured in the footwall. The crust floats buoyantly in the asthenosphere , with a ratio of mass below the "surface" in proportion to its own density and the density of

1296-694: The coal mining business and were thus the pioneers in starting coal mining in Jharia coalfields belt around 1890–95. In Jharia-Dhanbad belt Seth Khora Ramji Chawda was the first Indian to break monopoly of Europeans and founded Khas Jharia, Golden Jharia, Fatehpur, Balihari, Khas Jeenagora,East Bagatdih Collieries with their brothers Teja Ramji Chawda, Jetha Lira Jethwa , Akhoy Ramji Chawda, Pachan Ramji Chowra between 1894 and 1910. In Pure Jharia Colliery Khora Ramji and brothers were partners with Diwan Bahadur D.D. Thacker . The Encyclopaedia of Bengal, Bihar & Orissa (1920) by British Gazetteer mentions about Seth Khora Ramji as under :- ..at that time (in 1890s)

1350-461: The coal mining fields from Raja of Jharia at various locations to start collieries at Khas Jharia , Jamadoba , Balihari , Tisra , Katrasgarh , Kailudih , Kusunda, Govindpur , Sijua , Sijhua , Loyabad , Joyrampur , Bhaga , Matadih , Mohuda , Dhansar , Bhuli , Bermo , Mugma , Chasnala - Bokaro , Bugatdih , Putki , Pandibri, Rajapur, Jeenagora , Gareria , Chirkunda , Bhowrah , Sinidih , Kendwadih , Dumka , etc. Source: Jharia

1404-507: The effect. High buildings can create land subsidence by pressing the soil beneath with their weight. The problem is already felt in New York City , San Francisco Bay Area , Lagos . Land subsidence leads to the lowering of the ground surface, altering the topography. This elevation reduction increases the risk of flooding , particularly in river flood plains and delta areas. Earth fissures are linear fractures that appear on

1458-673: The excessive extraction of groundwater, making it a growing problem throughout the world. Groundwater fluctuations can also indirectly affect the decay of organic material. The habitation of lowlands , such as coastal or delta plains, requires drainage . The resulting aeration of the soil leads to the oxidation of its organic components, such as peat , and this decomposition process may cause significant land subsidence. This applies especially when groundwater levels are periodically adapted to subsidence, in order to maintain desired unsaturated zone depths, exposing more and more peat to oxygen. In addition to this, drained soils consolidate as

1512-571: The first association as mentioned by British authorities in Encyclopaedia Bengal, Bihar & Orissa (1920) ." Seth Khora Ramji and his brothers also owned a fleet of ships based in Cutch State , which was used to deal in importing and exporting dry fruits and spices, trading from Tuna Port and Mandvi with Muscat , Mombasa , Mzizima , Zanzibar . After the death of Khora Ramji, one of his grandsons, Jivram Jeram carried on

1566-1052: The first class parties in Jharia." Some of the works done by Khora Ramji Chawda of Sinugra are : 1880 : Hubli Loco Shed & other Works, 100 Miles work in NWSR , 20 Miles Work in SMR , 177 miles in 1882–84 Hotgi to Gadag with his brothers in SMR, 22 Miles Railway in East Bengal Railway and a bridge in ABR , 1888 – 128 miles in Bilaspur to Jharsuguda with fellow Mistris section including Bridge over Hasdeo River at Champa in BNR , in 1894 Jharia Branch line of EIR , 1895: Railway line in ECoSR & Bridge over Rushikulya near Ganjam . His last Railway work

1620-521: The ground level. Since exploitation of the Slochteren ( Netherlands ) gas field started in the late 1960s the ground level over a 250 km area has dropped by a current maximum of 30 cm. Extraction of petroleum likewise can cause significant subsidence. The city of Long Beach, California , has experienced 9 meters (30 ft) over the course of 34 years of petroleum extraction, resulting in damage of over $ 100 million to infrastructure in

1674-578: The land and even financed them to do so. He later approached Raja of Jharia for lease of mining rights and laid foundation of his colliery business. The location of his three collieries named Jeenagora, Khas Jherria, Gareria is mentioned also in 1917 Gazetteers of Bengal, Assam, Bihar & Orissa. As per details given in Diary of Golden Days at Jharia – A Memoir & History of Gurjar Kashtriya Samaj of Kutch in Coalfields of Jharia – written by Natwarlal Devram Jethwa & Pawan Jethwa – "Seth Khora Ramji headed

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1728-402: The land surface, characterized by openings or offsets. These fissures can be several meters deep, several meters wide, and extend for several kilometers. They form when the deformation of an aquifer, caused by pumping, concentrates stress in the sediment. This inhomogeneous deformation results in the differential compaction of the sediments. Ground fissures develop when this tensile stress exceeds

1782-443: The last ice age. Lake Bonneville is a famous example of isostatic rebound. Due to the weight of the water once held in the lake, the earth's crust subsided nearly 200 feet (61 m) to maintain equilibrium. When the lake dried up, the crust rebounded. Today at Lake Bonneville , the center of the former lake is about 200 feet (61 m) higher than the former lake edges. Many soils contain significant proportions of clay. Because of

1836-807: The major mines which collapsed due to underground fire was the Khas Jharia mines of Seth Khora Ramji (1860–1924), who was a pioneer of Indian coalmines. His Khas Jharia mine was one of the firsts to collapse in underground fire in 1930. Two of his collieries, Khas Jharia and Golden Jharia, which worked on maximum 260-foot-deep shafts, collapsed due to now infamous underground fires, in which their house and bungalow also collapsed on 8 November 1930, causing 18 feet subsidence and widespread destruction. The fire never stopped despite sincere efforts by mines department and railway authorities and in 1933 flaming crevasses lead to exodus of many residents. The 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake led to further spread of fire and by 1938

1890-1209: The management of Khas Jharia and Golden Jharia mines. Karamshi Khora was among the dignitaries, who shared dais in historic All India Trade Union Congress meeting held at Jharia in 1928 by prominent labor leaders like Swami Viswananda and Swami Darsanananda. It was hosted by Ramjush Agarwalla and diginatories present on dais were Karamshi Khora, D. D. Thacker , Hardevdas Aagarwal, Chhaganlal Karamshi Parekh , Babu Shyam Sunder Chakravarty, Keshavji Pitambar, Diwan Chaman Lall , Madhavji Jiwan, Savitri Devi and others. Several after his death two of his collieries, Khas Jharia & Golden Jharia, which worked on maximum 260-foot-deep shafts, collapsed due to now infamous underground fires, in which their house and bungalow also collapsed on 8 November 1930, causing 18 feet subsidence and widespread destruction. The coal mines at that time were run by his sons Karamshi Khora, Ambalal Khora and others. Jivram Jeram, who carried on his legacy of Shipping business in Cutch until in 1945 when he came to Calcutta in year 1946. He, Devram Jethabhai & others invested in fresh coal mines business. Jivram Jeram

1944-608: The monopoly of British in Jharia Coalfields goes to Seth Khora Ramji of Sinugra . In the life sketch of Khora Ramji given in Encyclopedia of Bengal, Bihar & Orissa – the British have noted this fact in year 1920 – "In Jharia Coalfield he was first Indian to seize the opportunity and by his prompt entry into colliery business, he was able to remove the stigma that would otherwise be levelled against his community as backward class." Further, details are given in

1998-862: The offer and diverted all his energy to coal mining business, in which he was assisted by his and his brother's son. He also started a new venture as a private banker at Jharia. He rose to such a height by 1920 and became Seth Khora Ramji from Khora Ramji that British had to mention his name in Encyclopaedia of Bengal, Bihar & Orissa. He had studied up to fourth standard in his native village school but still managed to build railway bridges which requires technical knowledge and mathematical calculations. Khora Ramji and Brothers established collieries at Khas Jharia , Jeenagora , Jamadoba , Balihari , Fatehpur, Gareria, Bansjora & Bagadih. In Pure Jharia Colliery Khora Ramji and brothers were partners with Diwan Bahadur D.D. Thacker . Khora Ramji

2052-556: The public in general. Pumping of groundwater or petroleum has led to subsidence of as much as 9 meters (30 ft) in many locations around the world and incurring costs measured in hundreds of millions of US dollars. Land subsidence caused by groundwater withdrawal will likely increase in occurrence and related damages, primarily due to global population and economic growth, which will continue to drive higher groundwater demand. Subsidence frequently causes major problems in karst terrains, where dissolution of limestone by fluid flow in

2106-525: The shaking of an earthquake. The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan reported immediate subsidence caused by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake . In Northern Japan, subsidence of 0.50 m (1.64 ft) was observed on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Miyako , Tōhoku , while Rikuzentakata, Iwate measured 0.84 m (2.75 ft). In the south at Sōma, Fukushima , 0.29 m (0.95 ft)

2160-620: The subsurface creates voids (i.e., caves ). If the roof of a void becomes too weak, it can collapse and the overlying rock and earth will fall into the space, causing subsidence at the surface. This type of subsidence can cause sinkholes which can be many hundreds of meters deep. Several types of sub-surface mining , and specifically methods which intentionally cause the extracted void to collapse (such as pillar extraction, longwall mining and any metalliferous mining method which uses "caving" such as "block caving" or "sub-level caving") will result in surface subsidence. Mining-induced subsidence

2214-405: The taking of preventive measures, and the carrying out of repairs post-mining. If natural gas is extracted from a natural gas field the initial pressure (up to 60 MPa (600 bar )) in the field will drop over the years. The pressure helps support the soil layers above the field. If the gas is extracted, the overburden pressure sediment compacts and may lead to earthquakes and subsidence at

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2268-595: The tensile strength of the sediment. Land subsidence can lead to differential settlements in buildings and other infrastructures , causing angular distortions. When these angular distortions exceed certain values, the structures can become damaged, resulting in issues such as tilting or cracking. Land subsidence causes vertical displacements (subsidence or uplift). Although horizontal displacements also occur, they are generally less significant. The following are field methods used to measure vertical and horizontal displacements in subsiding areas: Tomás et al. conducted

2322-399: The transport magnate of East India and noted industrialist and politician-cum-businessman of Lahore , Rai Bahadur Lala Ram Saran Das. Jivram Jeram later also purchased minerals mines of quartz , kayonit and stones at Saraikela . Jetha Lira died in 1932 and Khas Jeenagora's mine was later on run solely by his son Devram Jethabhai Jethwa until 1938–39, after which the mine was sold due to

2376-441: The very small particle size, they are affected by changes in soil moisture content. Seasonal drying of the soil results in a lowering of both the volume and the surface of the soil. If building foundations are above the level reached by seasonal drying, they move, possibly resulting in damage to the building in the form of tapering cracks. Trees and other vegetation can have a significant local effect on seasonal drying of soils. Over

2430-665: The volume of groundwater extraction , and clay content. This model assumes that changes in piezometric levels affecting aquifers and aquitards occur only in the vertical direction. It allows for subsidence calculations at a specific point using only vertical soil parameters. Quasi-three-dimensional seepage models apply Terzaghi 's one-dimensional consolidation equation to estimate subsidence, integrating some aspects of three-dimensional effects. The fully coupled three-dimensional model simulates water flow in three dimensions and calculates subsidence using Biot's three-dimensional consolidation theory. Machine learning has become

2484-430: Was also a financing partner in many coalfields of Jharia coal belt and additionally worked as a Private Banker. Seth Khora Ramji and Jethabhai were all together five brothers and all were partners as HUF in the colliery and railway contract business With his brother, Jethabhai Lira Jethwa (1862–1932) he owned Khas Jinagora Colliery, which operated under name & style of J. & K. Ramji. As per British records –

2538-419: Was also building Jharia railway station. The Jharia coalfields was discovered while digging up the earth for laying this railway line. Khora Ramji while working near Jharia Railway station immediately realized the gold he had struck and purchased the lands from Raja of Jharia . He similarly purchased about eight coal-fields from years 1895–1909. Further, he also encouraged fellow Mistri contractors to purchase

2592-579: Was also partner in Khimji Walji & Company 's Indian Jharia Colliery located at Tisra . Seth Khora Ramji was also held partnership stake in Goa Petha Chawda & Co's Khas Jeenagora Colliery. The GPC & Co was partnership between Goa Petha, Seth Khora Ramji, Bishram Karman & Seth Tricumji Jiwandas , in 1930 after death of Khora Ramji, the successors sold their stake in the colliery. The credit of being first Indian to break

2646-572: Was born in the year 1860 in a small village called Sinugra in Cutch and belonged to small but enterprising KGK community. He was one of the reputed Railway Contractors of his times and his exploits were mentioned by British authorities. He is also credited by them to be the first Indian to break monopoly of Europeans in Jharia coalfields. He established his first Colliery name Khas Jharia Colliery in 1895 and moved on to establish five more by 1910. He

2700-477: Was first Indian to seize the opportunity. He purchased two collieries to begin with. Gradually others from Kutch and Gujarat followed suite and now Jharia has been changed into a Gujarati settlement with about 50 Kutchi out of 92 Gujarati collieries proprietors with Seth Khora Ramji as head of them all. He is now sole proprietor of two collieries and a financing member of about eight collieries. Several District official have remarked him as "Multi-millionaire, one of

2754-526: Was in 1903: Bridge over Ganges river in Allahabad – Lucknow section 32 Miles Railway in GIPR . While working for this bridge, he was harassed by Engineer-in-Charge A. B. Gale, so he decided to stop railway contracts. By this time since 1895 to 1901 he had already started two collieries in Jharia. A. B. Gale later realised his mistake and offered him contracts in other section. But Khora Ramji declined

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2808-516: Was left almost single handed. Seth Khora Ramji deserved much credit for the satisfactory completion of the above works because they involve much skill and labour and many mathematical calculations. Though uneducated he grasped clearly all the principals underlying these constructions and worked all the contracts entrusted to him to the satisfaction of railway authorities. In 1900 there was a turn in his business life. Just at that time Jharia coal fields were being exploited by Europeans and Seth Khora Ramji

2862-672: Was observed. The maximum amount of subsidence was 1.2 m (3.93 ft), coupled with horizontal diastrophism of up to 5.3 m (17.3 ft) on the Oshika Peninsula in Miyagi Prefecture . Groundwater-related subsidence is the subsidence (or the sinking) of land resulting from groundwater extraction. It is a growing problem in the developing world as cities increase in population and water use, without adequate pumping regulation and enforcement. One estimate has 80% of serious land subsidence problems associated with

2916-477: Was one of the founders and director of Khas Shampore Coal Company founded in 1946 having head office at Calcutta and mines at Mohuda near Jharia. It was a joint venture in which other partners were the family of Nagalpar based Dhanaji Ratanji Rathor, who owned the Diamond Coal Coampany of Tisra , Jayantilal Ojha from the noted industrialist and miner concern of Amritlal Ojha , R. K. Jaidka

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