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126-527: Historically, the jizya tax has been understood in Islam as a fee for protection provided by the Muslim ruler to non-Muslims, for the exemption from military service for non-Muslims, for the permission to practice a non-Muslim faith with some communal autonomy in a Muslim state, and as material proof of the non-Muslims' allegiance to the Muslim state and its laws. Muslim jurists required adult, free, sane males among

252-752: A gender binary in which man is one of the two genders, the other being woman . Most men are cisgender , and their gender identity aligns with their male sex assignment at birth. Trans men have a male gender identity that does not align with their female sex assignment at birth, and may undergo masculinizing hormone replacement therapy and/or sex reassignment surgery . Intersex men may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology. A 2016 systemic review estimated that 0.256% of people self-identify as female-to-male transgender. A 2017 survey of 80,929 Minnesota students found that roughly twice as many female-assigned adolescents self-identified as transgender, compared to adolescents with

378-639: A gender identity that does not align with their female sex assignment at birth, while intersex men may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology. The English term "man" is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *man- (see Sanskrit / Avestan manu- , Slavic mǫž "man, male"). More directly, the word derives from Old English mann . The Old English form primarily meant "person" or "human being" and referred to men, women, and children alike. The Old English word for "man" as distinct from " woman " or "child"

504-450: A Muslim country is under attack. Also, it is forbidden to disburse zakat funds into investments instead of being given to one of the above eight categories of recipients. The zakat is considered by Muslims to be an act of piety through which one expresses concern for the well-being of fellow Muslims, as well as preserving social harmony between the wealthy and the poor. Zakat promotes a more equitable redistribution of wealth and fosters

630-487: A believed religious obligation (zakat), and a "feeling that those with more should help those with less", referencing again the concept and religious imperative behind Zakat. Today, in most Muslim countries, Zakat is at the discretion of Muslims over how and whether to pay, typically enforced by fear of God, peer pressure and an individual's personal feelings. Among the Sunni Muslims, Zakat committees, linked to

756-432: A careful analysis of the etymology of the term "Jizya", says: "The tax that is taken from the free non-Muslim subjects of a Muslim government whereby they ratify the compact that assures them protection, as though it were compensation for not being slain". According to Abou Al-Fadl and other scholars, classical Muslim jurists and scholars regard the jizya as a special payment collected from certain non-Muslims in return for

882-414: A hermaphrodite, a slave even when partially enfranchised, a minor and a lunatic are exempt from jizya ." The 14th century Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim wrote, "And there is no Jizya upon the aged, one suffering from chronic disease, the blind, and the patient who has no hope of recovery and has despaired of his health, even if they have enough." Ibn Qayyim adds, referring to the four Sunni maddhabs : "There

1008-620: A justification for the use of Jizya in a modern context, including: Jizya is sanctioned by the Qur'an based on the following verse: qātilū-lladhīna lā yuʾminūna bi-llāhi wa-lā bi-l-yawmi-l-ākhir, wa-lā yuḥarrimūna mā ḥarrama-llāhu wa-rasūluh, wa-lā yadīnūna dīna'l-ḥaqq, ḥattā yu'ṭū-l-jizyata 'an yadin, wa-hum ṣāghirūn Fight those who believe not in God and in the Last Day, and who do not forbid what God and His Messenger have forbidden, and who follow not

1134-491: A majority of on the job deaths. Further, medical doctors provide men with less service, less advice, and spend less time with men than they do with women per medical encounter. Male sexuality and attraction varies between individuals, and a man's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including evolved predispositions , personality , upbringing , and culture . While most men are heterosexual , significant minorities are homosexual or bisexual . Most cultures use

1260-414: A male karyotype (XY). The SRY gene is typically found on the Y chromosome and causes the development of the testes, which in turn govern other aspects of male sex differentiation . Sex differentiation in males proceeds in a testes-dependent way while female differentiation is not gonad dependent. Primary sex characteristics (or sex organs) are characteristics that are present at birth and are integral to

1386-400: A male sex assignment. Masculinity (also sometimes called manhood or manliness ) is the set of personality traits and attributes associated with boys and men. Although masculinity is socially constructed , some research indicates that some behaviors considered masculine are biologically influenced. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It

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1512-441: A man's wardrobe include shirts, trousers, suits, and jackets, which are designed to provide both comfort and style while prioritizing functionality. Men's fashion also encompasses more casual garments such as t-shirts , sweatshirts , jeans , shorts , and swimwear , which are typically intended for informal settings. Cultural and regional traditions often influence men's fashion, resulting in diverse styles and garments that reflect

1638-810: A peace treaty with the people of Syria and had collected from them the jizya and the tax for agrarian land ( kharāj ), he was informed that the Romans were readying for battle against him and that the situation had become critical for him and the Muslims. Abu ʿUbaydah then wrote to the governors of the cities with whom pacts had been concluded that they must return the sums collected from jizya and kharāj and say to their subjects: "We return to you your money because we have been informed that troops are being raised against us. In our agreement you stipulated that we protect you, but we are unable to do so. Therefore, we now return to you what we have taken from you, and we will abide by

1764-725: A proactive role, initiate the relationship, plan dates, and propose marriage. Anthropology has shown that masculinity itself has social status , just like wealth, race and social class. In Western culture , for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status. Many English words such as virtue and virile (from the Indo-European root vir meaning man ) reflect this. In most cultures, male privilege allows men more rights and privileges than women. In societies where men are not given special legal privileges, they typically hold more positions of power, and men are seen as being taken more seriously in society. This

1890-496: A religious cause or local mosque, collect zakat. Among the Shia Muslims, deputies on behalf of Imams collect the zakat. In six of the 47 Muslim-majority countries—Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen—zakat is obligatory and collected by the state. In Jordan , Bahrain , Kuwait , Lebanon , and Bangladesh , the zakat is regulated by the state, but contributions are voluntary. The states where Zakat

2016-574: A sense of solidarity amongst members of the Ummah . Zakat, an Islamic practice initiated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad , was first collected on the first day of Muharram . It has played an important role throughout its history. Schact suggests that the idea of zakat may have entered Islam from Judaism, with roots in the Hebrew and Aramaic word zakut . However, some Islamic scholars disagree that

2142-456: A similar vein, Mahmud Shaltut states that "jizya was never intended as payment in return for one's life or retaining one's religion, it was intended as a symbol to signify yielding, an end of hostility and a participation in shouldering the burdens of the state." Modern scholars have also suggested other rationales for the Jizya, both in a historic context, and, among modern Islamist thinkers, as

2268-485: A tax if they were exempted from military service, like non-Muslims. Thus, the Shafi'i scholar al-Khaṭīb ash-Shirbīniy states: "Military service is not obligatory for non-Muslims – especially for dhimmis since they give jizya so that we protect and defend them, and not so that he defends us." Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani states that there is a consensus amongst Islamic jurists that jizya is in exchange for military service. In

2394-508: A tax. The payment and disputes on zakat have played a major role in the history of Islam , notably during the Ridda wars . Zakat on wealth is based on the value of all of one's possessions. It is customarily 2.5% (or 1 ⁄ 40 ) of a Muslim's total savings and wealth above a minimum amount known as nisab each lunar year, but Islamic scholars differ on how much nisab is and other aspects of zakat. According to Islamic doctrine,

2520-408: A trade. As for people who seem to be insolvent at the end of the year, the sum of the poll tax remained as debt to their account until they should become solvent." Abu Hanifa , in one of his opinions, and Abu Yusuf held that monks were subject to jizya if they worked. Ibn Qayyim stated that the dhahir opinion of Ibn Hanbal is that peasants and cultivators were also exempted from jizya. Though jizya

2646-480: A woman. Since sperm that enters a woman's uterus and then fallopian tubes goes on to fertilize an egg which develops into a fetus or child, the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during the gestation . The study of male reproduction and associated organs is called andrology . Testosterone stimulates the development of the Wolffian ducts , the penis, and closure of the labioscrotal folds into

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2772-516: Is armed conflicts , where men are often the immediate victims. A study of conflicts in 13 countries from 1955 to 2002 found that 81% of all violent war deaths were male. Apart from armed conflicts, areas with high incidence of violence, such as regions controlled by drug cartels , also see men experiencing higher mortality rates. This stems from social beliefs that associate ideals of masculinity with aggressive, confrontational behavior. Lastly, sudden and drastic changes in economic environments and

2898-541: Is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex , as both males and females can exhibit masculine traits. Men generally face social stigma for embodying feminine traits, more so than women do for embodying masculine traits. This can also manifest as homophobia . Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. While the outward signs of masculinity look different in different cultures, there are some common aspects to its definition across cultures. In all cultures in

3024-570: Is "fanciful" and all the historical evidence favours "the conclusion of the French classical scholar Claude de Saumaise " that it is derived from θρ , the contraction of a Greek epithet for Mars, θοῦρος ( Thouros ). Zakat Including: Zakat (or Zakāh ) is one of the five pillars of Islam. Zakat is the Arabic word for "Giving to Charity" or "Giving to the Needy". Zakat

3150-408: Is 'he obeyed', and one of the many meanings of dīn is 'behaviour' ( al-sīra wa'l-ʿāda ). The famous Arabic lexicographer Fayrūzabādī (d. 817/1415), gives more than twelve meanings for the word dīn , placing the meaning 'worship of God, religion' lower in the list. Al-Muʿjam al-wasīṭ gives the following definition: "'dāna' is to be in the habit of doing something good or bad; 'dāna bi- something'

3276-439: Is a big distinction between these two words   ... For you say ' qataltu ( قتلت ) so-and-so ' if you initiated the fighting, while you say ' qātaltu ( قاتلت ) him ' if you resisted his effort to fight you by a reciprocal fight, or if you forestalled him in that so that he would not get at you unawares. Muhammad Abdel-Haleem writes that there is nothing in the Qur'an to say that not believing in God and

3402-682: Is a form of almsgiving , often collected by the Muslim Ummah . It is considered in Islam a religious obligation, and by Quranic ranking, is next after prayer ( salat ) in importance. Eight heads of zakat are mentioned in the Quran. As one of the Five Pillars of Islam , zakat is a religious duty for all Muslims who meet the necessary criteria of wealth to help the needy. It is a mandatory charitable contribution, often considered to be

3528-431: Is a sign of hypocrisy , and God will not accept the prayers of such people. The sunna also describes God's punishment for those who refuse or fail to pay zakat. On the day of Judgment , those who did not give the zakat will be held accountable and punished. The hadith contain advice on the state-authorized collection of the zakat. The collectors are required not to take more than what is due, and those who are paying

3654-642: Is associated with a "gender-role strain" in which men face increased societal pressure to conform to gender roles. The earliest known recorded name of a man in writing is potentially Kushim , who would have lived sometime between 3400 and 3000 BC in the Sumerian city of Uruk ; though his name may have been a title rather than his actual name. The earliest confirmed names are that of Gal-Sal and his two slaves named En-pap X and Sukkalgir, from c.  3100 BC . Men may have children, whether biological or adopted ; such men are called fathers. The role of men in

3780-625: Is collected from and paid only by a fraction of Muslim population who can pay. In the United Kingdom, which has a Muslim minority, more than three out of ten Muslims gave to charity (Zakat being described as "the Muslim practice of charitable donations"), according to a 2013 poll of 4000 people. According to the self-reported poll , British Muslims, on average, gave US$ 567 to charity in 2013, compared to $ 412 for Jews , $ 308 for Protestants , $ 272 for Catholics and $ 177 for atheists . The primary sources of sharia also do not specify to whom

3906-479: Is commendable to raise the amount, if it be possible to two dinars, for those possessed of moderate means, and to four for rich persons." Abu 'Ubayd insists that the dhimmis must not be burdened beyond their capacity, nor must they be caused to suffer. Scholar Ibn Qudamah (1147 – 7 July 1223) narrates three views on what the rates of jizya should be. Scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332 – 17 March 1406) states that jizya has fixed limits that cannot be exceeded. In

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4032-609: Is compulsory differ in their definition of the base for zakat computation. Zakat is generally levied on livestock (except in Pakistan) and agricultural produce, although the types of taxable livestock and produce differ from country to country. Zakat is imposed on cash and precious metals in four countries with different methods of assessment. Income is subject to zakat in Saudi Arabia and Malaysia, while only Sudan imposes zakat on "wealth that yields income". In Pakistan, property

4158-611: Is due to him'. Al-Shafi'i , the founder of the Shafi'i school of law, wrote that a number of scholars explained this last expression to mean that "Islamic rulings are enforced on them." This understanding is reiterated by the Hanbali jurist Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya , who interprets wa-hum ṣāghirūn as making all subjects of the state obey the law and, in the case of the People of the Book , pay

4284-591: Is due to others. His Messenger in this verse has been interpreted by exegetes as referring to Muḥammad or the People of the Book 's own earlier messengers, Moses or Jesus. According to Abdel-Haleem, the latter must be the correct interpretation as it is already assumed that the People of the Book did not believe in Muḥammad or forbid what he forbade, so that they are condemned for not obeying their own prophet, who told them to honour their agreements. 3. "Who do not embrace

4410-519: Is exempt from the zakat calculation basis, and the compulsory zakat is primarily collected from the agriculture sector. Under compulsory systems of zakat tax collection, such as Malaysia and Pakistan, evasion is very common and the zakat (alms tax) is regressive . A considerable number of Muslims accept their duty to pay zakat, but deny that the state has a right to levy it, and they may pay zakat voluntarily while evading official collection. In discretion-based systems of collection, studies suggest zakat

4536-546: Is given for the sake of salvation. Muslims believe those who give zakat can expect reward from God in the afterlife, while neglecting to give zakat can result in damnation. Zakat is considered part of the covenant between God and a Muslim. Verse 2:177 (the Clear Qur'an translation) sums up the Quranic view of charity and almsgiving (another name for zakat is the poor due ): Righteousness is not in turning your faces towards

4662-485: Is in return for the protection of the Muslim state with all the accruing benefits and exemption from military service, and such taxes on Muslims as zakat . The historian al-Tabari and the hadith scholar al-Bayhaqi relate that some members of the Christian community asked ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab if they could refer to the jizya as sadaqah , literally 'charity', which he allowed. Based on this historical event,

4788-515: Is mandated and collected by the state (as of 2015). Shias , unlike Sunnis , have traditionally regarded zakat as a private action, and they give zakat to imam -sponsored rather than state-sponsored collectors, but it is also obligatory for them. It came from Arabic root z-k-w (ز ك و), meaning to purify. Zakat is considered a way to purify one's income and wealth from sometimes worldly, impure ways of acquisition. According to Sachiko Murata and William Chittick , "Just as ablutions purify

4914-550: Is no Jizya on the kids, women and the insane. This is the view of the four imams and their followers. Ibn Mundhir said, 'I do not know anyone to have differed with them.' Ibn Qudama said in al-Mughni, 'We do not know of any difference of opinion among the learned on this issue." In contrast, the Shāfi'ī jurist Al-Nawawī wrote: "Our school insists upon the payment of the poll-tax by sickly persons, old men, even if decrepit, blind men, monks, workmen, and poor persons incapable of exercising

5040-414: Is only for the poor and the needy, for those employed to administer it, for those whose hearts are attracted ˹to the faith˺, for ˹freeing˺ slaves, for those in debt, for Allah's cause, and for ˹needy˺ travellers. ˹This is˺ an obligation from Allah. And Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise. Islamic scholars have traditionally interpreted this verse as identifying the following eight categories of Muslim causes to be

5166-503: Is only mentioned by the scholars of Khurasan. The majority of scholars say that the jizya is to be taken with gentleness, as one would receive a debt. The reliably correct opinion is that this practice is invalid and those who devised it should be refuted. It is not related that the Prophet or any of the rightly-guided caliphs did any such thing when collecting the jizya." Ibn Qudamah also rejected this practice and noted that Muhammad and

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5292-778: Is overwhelmingly discriminatory , currently only ten countries include women in their conscription programs. Men continue to hold more dangerous jobs than women, even in developed countries. In the United States in 2020, ten times as many men died on the job as women, and a man was ten times more likely to die on the job than a woman. Media portrayals of men often replicate traditional understanding of masculinity. Men are portrayed more frequently in television than women and most commonly appear as leads in action and drama programming. Men are typically more active in television programming than women and typically hold more power and status. Due to their prominence, men are more likely to be both

5418-523: Is stigmatized. Domestic violence against men is similarly stigmatized, although men make up half of the victims in heterosexual couples. Opponents of circumcision describe it as a human rights violation. The fathers' rights movement seeks to support separated fathers that do not receive equal rights to care for their children. The men's movement is the response to issues faced by men in Western countries. It includes pro-feminist groups such as

5544-413: Is the tax that is taken from the free non-Muslim subjects of an Islamic government, whereby they ratify the pact that ensures them protection. Michael G. Morony states that: [The emergence of] protected status and the definition of jizya as the poll tax on non-Muslim subjects appears to have been achieved only by the early eighth century. This came as a result of growing suspicions about the loyalty of

5670-414: Is they who are true ˹in faith˺, and it is they who are mindful ˹of Allah˺. – 2:177 According to Yusuf al-Qaradawi , verse 9.5 of the Quran makes zakat one of three prerequisites for pagans to become Muslims: "but if they repent, establish prayers, and practice zakat they are your brethren in faith". The Quran also lists who should receive the benefits of zakat, discussed in more detail below . Each of

5796-407: Is to take it as a religion and worship God through it." Thus, when the verb dāna is used in the sense of 'to believe' or 'to practise a religion', it takes the preposition bi - after it (e.g. dāna bi'l-Islām ) and this is the only usage in which the word means religion. The jizya verse does not say lā yadīnūna bi- dīni'l-ḥaqq , but rather lā yadīnūna dīna'l-ḥaqq . Abdel-Haleem thus concludes that

5922-709: The jizyah tax. Depending on the region, the dominant portion of zakat went typically to Amil (the zakat collectors) or Sabīlillāh (those fighting for religious cause, the caretaker of local mosque, or those working in the cause of God such as proselytizing non-Muslims to convert to Islam). According to the researcher Russell Powell in 2010, zakat was mandatory by state law in Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan , Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen. There were government-run voluntary zakat contribution programs in Bahrain, Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Maldives and

6048-677: The Hanafi school permits zakat to be distributed to all the categories, some of them, or just one of them. Classical schools of Islamic law , including Shafi'i , are unanimous that collectors of zakat are to be paid first, with the balance to be distributed equally amongst the remaining seven categories of recipients, even in cases where one group's need is more demanding. Muslim scholars disagree whether zakat recipients can include non-Muslims. Islamic scholarship, historically, has taught that only Muslims can be recipients of zakat. In recent times, some state that zakat may be paid to non-Muslims after

6174-468: The Rashidun caliphs encouraged that jizya be collected with gentleness and kindness. Men A man is an adult male human . Before adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent ). Like most other male mammals , a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromosome from the father. Sex differentiation of

6300-646: The male reproductive system , which includes the testicles , sperm ducts , prostate gland and epididymides , and penis . Secondary sex characteristics include a narrower pelvis and hips , and smaller breasts and nipples . Throughout human history , traditional gender roles have often defined men's activities and opportunities. Men often face conscription into military service or are directed into professions with high mortality rates . Many religious doctrines stipulate certain rules for men, such as religious circumcision . Men are over-represented as both perpetrators and victims of violence . Trans men have

6426-487: The men's liberation movement , and anti-feminist groups such as the manosphere . The Mars symbol (♂) is a common symbol that represents the male sex. The symbol is identical to the planetary symbol of Mars . It was first used to denote sex by Carl Linnaeus in 1751. The symbol is sometimes seen as a stylized representation of the shield and spear of the Roman god Mars . According to Stearn, however, this derivation

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6552-412: The nisab , a minimum monetary value. However, Islamic scholars have disagreed on this issue. For example, Abu Hanifa did not regard the nisab limit to be a pre-requisite for zakat, in the case of land crops, fruits and minerals. Other differences between Islamic scholars on zakat and nisab are acknowledged as follows by Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Unlike prayers, we observe that even the ratio, the exemption,

6678-438: The sexually dimorphic phenotypic traits that distinguish between the sexes, but—unlike the primary sex characteristics—are not directly part of the reproductive system . Secondary sexual characteristics that are specific to men include: Men weigh more than women. On average, men are taller than women by about 10%. On average, men have a larger waist in comparison to their hips (see waist–hip ratio ) than women. In women,

6804-410: The vasa deferentia and ejaculatory ducts , tubular structures that transfer the mature sperm to the urethra. The external male genitalia consist of the penis , an organ that expels semen , and the scrotum , a pouch of skin housing the testicles. The male reproductive system's function is to produce semen , which carries sperm and thus genetic information that can unite with an egg within

6930-552: The "head of household" and held additional social privileges. Men have traditionally held jobs that were not available to women. Such jobs tended to be either more strenuous, more prestigious, or more dangerous. Modern men increasingly take untraditional career paths, such as staying home and raising children while their partner works. Modern men tend to work longer than women, which impacts their ability to spend time with their families. Even in modern times, some jobs remain available only to men, such as military service. Conscription

7056-515: The "surplus" of one's income. But the customary practice in the Islamic world has been that the amount of zakat paid on capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5% ( 1 ⁄ 40 ). Zakat is additionally payable on agricultural goods, precious metals , minerals , and livestock at a rate varying between 2.5% and 20% (1/5), depending on the type of goods. Zakat is usually payable on assets continuously owned over one lunar year that are in excess of

7182-466: The 20th century with the disappearance of Islamic states and the spread of religious tolerance . The tax is no longer imposed by nation states in the Islamic world, although there are reported cases of organizations such as the Pakistani Taliban and ISIS attempting to revive the practice. Commentators disagree on the definition and derivation of the word jizya . Ann Lambton writes that

7308-467: The Islamic community ( ummah ) in general. In 2012, Islamic financial analysts estimated annual zakat spending between US$ 200 billion and US$ 1 trillion per year, which would be at least 15 times more than global humanitarian aid tracked by the United Nations . Islamic scholars and development workers state that much of this zakat practice is mismanaged, wasted or ineffective. About a quarter of

7434-620: The Jizya. Together with kharāj , a term that was sometimes used interchangeably with jizya, taxes levied on non-Muslim subjects were among the main sources of revenues collected by some Islamic polities, such as the Ottoman Empire and Indian Muslim Sultanates . Jizya rate was usually a fixed annual amount depending on the financial capability of the payer. Sources comparing taxes levied on Muslims and jizya differ as to their relative burden depending on time, place, specific taxes under consideration, and other factors. The term appears in

7560-452: The Last Day is in itself grounds for fighting anyone. Whereas Abū Ḥayyān states "they are so described because their way [of acting] is the way of those who do not believe in God," Ahmad Al-Maraghī comments: [F]ight those mentioned when the conditions which necessitate fighting are present, namely, aggression against you or your country, oppression and persecution against you on account of your faith, or threatening your safety and security, as

7686-495: The Muslim world continues to live on $ 1.25 a day or less, according to the 2012 report. A 1999 study of Sudan and Pakistan, where zakat is mandated by the state, estimated that zakat proceeds ranged between 0.3 and 0.5 percent of GDP, while a more recent report put zakat proceeds in Malaysia at 0.1% of GDP. These numbers are far below what was expected when the governments of these countries tried to Islamize their economies, and

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7812-456: The Qur'anic verses on zakat (or zakah) have roots in Judaism. The caliph Abu Bakr , believed by Sunni Muslims to be Muhammad's successor, was the first to institute a statutory zakat system. Abu Bakr established the principle that the zakat must be paid to the legitimate representative of Muhammad's authority (i.e. himself). However certain tribes refused to pay zakat while staying under

7938-514: The Quran itself does not prescribe humiliating treatment for the dhimmi when paying Jizya, but some later Muslims interpreted it to contain "an equivocal warrant for debasing the dhimmi (non-Muslim) through a degrading method of remission". In contrast, the 13th century hadith scholar and Shafi'ite jurist Al-Nawawī , comments on those who would impose a humiliation along with the paying of the jizya, stating, "As for this aforementioned practice, I know of no sound support for it in this respect, and it

8064-573: The Quran referring to a tax or tribute from People of the Book , specifically Jews and Christians. Followers of other religions like Zoroastrians and Hindus too were later integrated into the category of dhimmis and required to pay jizya. In the Indian Subcontinent the practice stopped by the 18th century with Muslim rulers losing their kingdoms to the Maratha Empire and British East India Company. It almost vanished during

8190-462: The Religion of Truth among those who were given the Book, till they pay the jizyah with a willing hand, being humbled. 1. "Fight those who believe not in God and the Last Day" ( qātilū-lladhīna lā yuʾminūna bi-llāhi wa-lā bi-l-yawmi-l-ākhir ). Commenting on this verse, Muhammad Sa'id Ramadan al-Buti says: [T]he verse commands qitāl ( قتال ) and not qatl ( قتل ), and it is known that there

8316-604: The United Arab Emirates. In a 2019 study conducted by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding that examined philanthropy for American Muslims in comparison to other faith and non-faith groups, it was found that for American Muslims, Zakat was an important driver of charitable giving. This results in American Muslims being the most likely faith group studied to be motivated to donate based on

8442-515: The affluence of the people of the region and their ability to pay. In this regard, Abu Ubayd ibn Sallam comments that the Prophet imposed 1 dinar (then worth 10 or 12 dirhams) upon each adult in Yemen. This was less than what Umar imposed upon the people of Syria and Iraq, the higher rate being due to the Yemenis greater affluence and ability to pay. The rate of jizya that were fixed and implemented by

8568-493: The body and salat purifies the soul (in Islam), so zakat purifies possessions and makes them pleasing to God." The Quran discusses charity in many verses, some of which relate to zakat. The word zakat, with the meaning used in Islam now, is found, for example, in suras : 7:156, 9:60, 19:31, 19:55, 21:73, 23:4, 27:3, 30:39, 31:4, and 41:7. Zakat is found in the early Medinan suras and described as obligatory for Muslims. It

8694-508: The capitation-tax, "as the fiscal system of the new rulers became fixed." Arthur Stanley Tritton states that both jizya in west, and kharaj in the east Arabia meant 'tribute'. It was also called jawali in Jerusalem. Shemesh says that Abu Yusuf , Abu Ubayd ibn al-Sallām, Qudama ibn Jaʿfar, Khatib, and Yahya ibn Adam used the terms Jizya , Kharaj , Ushr and Tasq as synonyms. The Arabic lexicographer Edward William Lane , after

8820-441: The case of war, jizya is seen as an option to end hostilities . According to Abu Kalam Azad , one of the main objectives of jizya was to facilitate a peaceful solution to hostility, since non-Muslims who engaged in fighting against Muslims were thereby given the option of making peace by agreeing to pay jizya. In this sense, jizya is seen as a means by which to legalize the cessation of war and military conflict with non-Muslims. In

8946-680: The choice of conversion to avoid death. The sources of jizya and the practices varied significantly over Islamic history. Shelomo Dov Goitein states that the exemptions for the indigent, the invalids and the old were no longer observed in the milieu reflected by the Cairo Geniza and were discarded even in theory by the Shāfi'ī jurists who were influential in Egypt at the time. According to Kristen A. Stilt , historical sources indicate that in Mamluk Egypt , poverty did "not necessarily excuse"

9072-492: The classical manual of Shafi'i fiqh Reliance of the Traveller it is stated that, "[t]he minimum non-Muslim poll tax is one dinar (n: 4.235 grams of gold) per person (A: per year). The maximum is whatever both sides agree upon." According to Al-Ghazali jizya was "to establish liberty of conscience in the world" and not for "compelling people to embrace Islam; that would be an unholy war." According to Mark R. Cohen ,

9198-547: The collected amount is too small to have a sizeable macroeconomic effect. In a 2014 study, Nasim Shirazi states widespread poverty persists in Islamic world despite zakat collections every year. Over 70% of the Muslim population in most Muslim countries is impoverished and lives on less than US$ 2 per day. In over 10 Muslim-majority countries, over 50% of the population lived on less than $ 1.25 per day income, states Shirazi. Zakat has so far failed to relieve large scale absolute poverty among Muslims in most Muslim countries. Zakat

9324-469: The collected amount should be paid to the poor and the needy, Zakat collectors, orphans, widows, those to be freed from slavery, the aged who cannot work to feed themselves, those in debt, in the cause of God and to benefit the stranded traveller. Today, in most Muslim-majority countries , zakat contributions are voluntary, while in Libya , Malaysia , Pakistan , Saudi Arabia , Sudan and Yemen , zakat

9450-432: The common cold found that doctors underrate the symptoms of men, and are more willing to attribute symptoms and illness to women than men. Women live longer than men in all countries, and across all age groups, for which reliable records exist. In the United States, men are less healthy than women across all social classes. Non-white men are especially unhealthy. Men are over-represented in dangerous occupations and represent

9576-425: The concealment of property from him is allowed. If, on the other hand, the collector is just in the collection but unjust in the distribution, the concealment of property from him is an obligation ( wajib ). Furthermore, if the zakat is concealed from a just collector because the property owner wanted to pay his zakat to the poor himself, they held that he should not be punished for it. If collection of zakat by force

9702-466: The dhimma community to pay the jizya, while exempting women, children, elders , handicapped , the ill, the insane , monks , hermits , slaves , and musta'mins —non-Muslim foreigners who only temporarily reside in Muslim lands. In regimes that allowed dhimmis to serve in Muslim armies those who chose to join military service were also exempted from payment, some Muslim scholars claim that some Islamic rulers exempted those who could not afford to pay from

9828-402: The dhimmi from paying the tax, and boys as young as nine years old could be considered adults for tax purposes, making the tax particularly burdensome for large, poor families. Ashtor and Bornstein-Makovetsky infer from Geniza documents that jizya was also collected in Egypt from the age of nine in the 11th century. The rates of jizya were not uniform, as Islamic scripture gave no fixed limits to

9954-407: The disbursement of zakat.  – Shiekh Mahmud Shaltut The consequence of failure to pay zakat has been a subject of extensive legal debate in traditional Islamic jurisprudence, particularly when a Muslim is willing to pay zakat but refuses to pay it to a certain group or the state. According to classical jurists, if the collector is unjust in the collection of zakat but just in its distribution,

10080-523: The east or the west. Rather, the righteous are those who believe in Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the Books, and the prophets; who give charity out of their cherished wealth to relatives, orphans, the poor, ˹needy˺ travellers, beggars, and for freeing captives; who establish prayer, pay alms-tax, and keep the pledges they make; and who are patient in times of suffering, adversity, and in ˹the heat of˺ battle. It

10206-555: The family has shifted considerably in the 20th and 21st centuries, taking on a more active role in raising children in most societies. Men would traditionally marry a woman when raising children, but in modern times many countries now allow for same-sex marriage , and for those couples to raise children either via adoption or surrogacy . Men may be single parents , and are increasingly so in modern times, though women are three times more likely to be single parents than men. In paternal societies, men have typically have been regarded as

10332-465: The functions of an Islamic state; this view has continued in modern Islamic countries. Zakat is one of the five pillars of Islam , and in various Islamic polities of the past was expected to be paid by all practising Muslims who have the financial means ( nisab ). In addition to their zakat obligations, Muslims were encouraged to make voluntary contributions ( sadaqat ). The zakat was not collected from non-Muslims, although they were required to pay

10458-451: The index and ring fingers tend to be either more similar in size or their index finger is slightly longer than their ring finger, whereas men's ring finger tends to be longer. The internal male genitalia consist of the testicles , gonads that produce male gametes called sperm , the prostate , seminal vesicles , and bulbourethral glands , accessory glands that partake in sperm health, the epididymides , organs that store sperm cells, and

10584-442: The insane, slaves, as well as musta'mins (non-Muslim foreigners who only temporarily reside in Muslim lands) and converts to Islam. Dhimmis who chose to join military service were exempted from payment. If anyone could not afford this tax, they would not have to pay anything. Sometimes a dhimmi was exempted from jizya if he rendered some valuable services to the state. The Hanafi scholar Abu Yusuf wrote, "slaves, women, children,

10710-402: The jizya. Rules for liability and exemptions of jizya formulated by jurists in the early Abbasid period appear to have remained generally valid thereafter. Islamic jurists required adult, free, sane, able-bodied males of military age with no religious functions among the dhimma community to pay the jizya, while exempting women, children, elders, handicapped, monks, hermits, the poor, the ill,

10836-659: The kinds of wealth that are zakatable are subject to differences among scholars. Such differences have serious implications for Muslims at large when it comes to their application of the Islamic obligation of zakat. For example, some scholars consider the wealth of children and insane individuals zakatable, others don't. Some scholars consider all agricultural products zakatable, others restrict zakat to specific kinds only. Some consider debts zakatable, others don't. Similar differences exist for business assets and women's jewelry. Some require certain minimum (nisab) for zakatability, some don't. etc. The same kind of differences also exist about

10962-436: The loss of social safety nets , in particular social subsidies and food stamps, have also been linked to higher levels of alcohol consumption and psychological stress among men, leading to a spike in male mortality rates. This is because such situations often makes it harder for men to provide for their family, a task that has been long regarded as the "essence of masculinity." A retrospective analyses of people infected with

11088-425: The majority of jurists from Shāfiʿīs, Ḥanafīs and Ḥanbalīs state that it is lawful to take the jizya from ahl al-dhimmah by name of zakāt or ṣadaqah , meaning it is not necessary to call the tax that is taken from them by jizya, and also based on the known legal maxim that states, "consideration is granted to objectives and meanings and not to terms and specific wordings." According to Lane's Lexicon , jizya

11214-464: The male fetus is governed by the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. During puberty, hormones which stimulate androgen production result in the development of secondary sexual characteristics that result in even more differences between the sexes. These include greater muscle mass , greater height, the growth of facial hair and a lower body fat composition. Male anatomy is distinguished from female anatomy by

11340-504: The meaning that fits the jizya verse is thus 'those who do not follow the way of justice ( al-ḥaqq )', i.e. by breaking their agreement and refusing to pay what is due. 4. "Until they pay jizya with their own hands" ( ḥattā yu'ṭū-l-jizyata 'an yadin ). Here ʿan yad (from/for/at hand), is interpreted by some to mean that they should pay directly, without intermediary and without delay. Others say that it refers to its reception by Muslims and means "generously" as in "with an open hand," since

11466-454: The most trusted hadith collections in Islam have a book dedicated to zakat. Sahih Bukhari ' s Book 24, Sahih Muslim ' s Book 12, and Sunan Abu-Dawud ' s Book 9 discuss various aspects of zakat, including who must pay, how much, when and what. The 2.5% rate is also mentioned in the hadiths. The hadiths admonish those who do not give the zakat. According to the hadith, refusal to pay or mockery of those who pay zakat

11592-427: The name of Islam which was considered apostasy and led ultimately, to the Ridda wars . The second and third caliphs, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan , continued Abu Bakr's codification of the zakat. Uthman also modified the zakat collection protocol by decreeing that only "apparent" wealth was taxable, which had the effect of limiting zakat to mostly being paid on agricultural land and produce. During

11718-633: The needs of Muslims have been met, finding nothing in the Quran or sunna to indicate that zakat should be paid to Muslims only. Additionally, the zakat funds may be spent on the administration of a centralized zakat collection system. Representatives of the Salafi movement include propagation of Islam and any struggle in righteous cause among permissible ways of spending, while others argue that zakat funds should be spent on social welfare and economic development projects, or science and technology education. Some hold spending them for defense to be permissible if

11844-540: The nobles, clergy, landowners ( dehqāns ), and scribes (or civil servants, dabirān) were exempted. Muslim Arab conquerors largely retained the taxation systems of the Sasanian and Byzantine empires they had conquered. Shakir 's English translations of the Qur'an render jizya as 'tax', while Pickthall and Arberry translate it as " tribute ". Yusuf Ali prefers to transliterate the term as jizyah . Yusuf Ali considered

11970-497: The non-Muslim population during the second civil war and of the literalist interpretation of the Quran by pious Muslims. Jane Dammen McAuliffe states that jizya , in early Islamic texts, was an annual tribute expected from non-Muslims, and not a poll tax. Similarly, Thomas Walker Arnold writes that jizya originally denoted tribute of any type paid by the non-Muslim subjects of the Arab empire, but that it came later on to be used for

12096-407: The objects and instigators of humorous or disparaging content. Fathers are often portrayed in television as either idealized and caring or clumsy and inept. In advertising, men are disproportionately featured in advertisements for alcohol, vehicles, and business products. Men's clothing typically encompasses a range of garments designed for various occasions, seasons, and styles. Fundamental items of

12222-400: The old, the sick, monks, hermits, the insane, the blind and the poor, were exempt from the tax" and states that jizya should not be collected from those who have neither income nor any property, but survive by begging and from alms. The Hanbali jurist al-Qāḍī Abū Yaʿlā states, "there is no jizya upon the poor, the old, and the chronically ill". Historical reports tell of exemptions granted by

12348-542: The origins of jizya are extremely complex, regarded by some jurists as "compensation paid by non-Muslims for being spared from death" and by others as "compensation for living in Muslim lands." According in Encyclopedia Iranica , the Arabic word jizya is most likely derived from Middle Persian gazītak , which denoted a tax levied on the lower classes of society in Sasanian Persia , from which

12474-750: The past, and still among traditional and non-Western cultures, getting married is the most common and definitive distinction between boyhood and manhood. In the late 20th century, some qualities traditionally associated with marriage (such as the "triple Ps" of protecting, providing, and procreating ) were still considered signs of having achieved manhood. Platonic relationships are not significantly different between men and women, though some differences do exist. Friendships involving men tend to be based more on shared activities than self-disclosure and personal connection. Perceptions of friendship involving men varies among cultures and time periods. In heterosexual romantic relationships, men are typically expected to take

12600-491: The person who fails to pay Zakat should have the payment taken from them, along with half of his wealth. Additionally, those who failed to pay the zakat would face God's punishment in the afterlife on the day of Judgment. In modern states where zakat payment is compulsory, failure to pay is regulated by state law similarly to tax evasion. According to the Quran's Surah Al-Tawba , there are eight categories of people ( asnaf ) who qualify to benefit from zakat funds. Alms-tax

12726-543: The proper recipients of zakat: Zakat should not be given to one's own parents, grandparents, children, grandchildren, spouses or the descendants of Muhammad . Neither the Quran nor the Hadiths specify the relative division of zakat into the above eight categories. According to the Reliance of the Traveller , the Shafi'i school requires zakat is to be distributed equally among the eight categories of recipients, while

12852-722: The reign of Ali ibn Abu Talib , the issue of zakat was tied to legitimacy of his government. After Ali, his supporters refused to pay zakat to Muawiyah I , as they did not recognize his legitimacy. The practice of Islamic state-administered zakat was short-lived in Medina. During the reign of Umar bin Abdul Aziz (717–720 CE), it is reported that no one in Medina needed the zakat. After him, zakat came more to be considered as an individual responsibility. This view changed over Islamic history. Sunni Muslims and rulers, for example, considered collection and disbursement of zakat as one of

12978-592: The reproductive process. For men, primary sex characteristics include the penis and testicles . Adult humans exhibit sexual dimorphism in many other characteristics, many of which have no direct link to reproductive ability. Humans are sexually dimorphic in body size, body structure, and body composition. Men tend to be taller and heavier than women, and adjusted for height, men tend to have greater lean and bone mass than women, and lower fat mass. Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear during puberty in humans . Such features are especially evident in

13104-448: The responsibility of protection fulfilled by Muslims against any type of aggression, as well as for non-Muslims being exempt from military service, and in exchange for the aid provided to poor dhimmis. In a treaty made by Khalid with some towns in the neighborhood of Hirah, he writes: "If we protect you, then jizya is due to us; but if we do not, then it is not due." Early Hanafi jurist Abu Yusuf writes: 'After Abu ʿUbaydah concluded

13230-453: The root meaning of jizya to be "compensation," whereas Muhammad Asad considered it to be "satisfaction." Al-Raghib al-Isfahani (d. 1108), a classical Muslim lexicographer , writes that jizya is a "tax that is levied on Dhimmis, and it is so named because it is in return for the protection they are guaranteed." He points out that derivatives of the word appear in some Qurʾānic verses as well, such as: Muhammad Abdel-Haleem states that

13356-504: The scrotum. Another significant hormone in sexual differentiation is the anti-Müllerian hormone , which inhibits the development of the Müllerian ducts . For males during puberty, testosterone, along with gonadotropins released by the pituitary gland , stimulates spermatogenesis . While a majority of the global health gender disparities is weighted against women, there are situations in which men tend to fare poorer. One such instance

13482-403: The second caliph ' Umar to an old blind Jew and others like him. The Maliki scholar Al-Qurtubi writes that, "there is a consensus amongst Islamic scholars that jizya is to be taken only from heads of free men past puberty, who are the ones fighting, but not from women, the children, the slaves, the insane, and the dying old." The 13th century Shafi'i scholar Al-Nawawī wrote that a "woman,

13608-489: The second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate , namely 'Umar bin al-Khattab , during the period of his Khilafah, were small amounts: four dirhams from the rich, two dirhams from the middle class and only one dirham from the active poor who earned by working on wages, or by making or vending things. The 13th-century scholar Al-Nawawī writes, "The minimum amount of the jizya is one dinar per person per annum; but it

13734-570: The stipulation and what has been written down, if God grants us victory over them."' In accordance with this order, enormous sums were paid back out of the state treasury, and the Christians called down blessings on the heads of the Muslims, saying, "May God give you rule over us again and make you victorious over the Romans; had it been they, they would not have given us back anything, but would have taken all that remained with us." Similarly, during

13860-418: The taking of the jizya is a form of munificence that averted a state of conflict. al-Ṭabarī gives only one explanation: that 'it means "from their hands to the hands of the receiver" just as we say "I spoke to him mouth to mouth", we also say, "I gave it to him hand to hand"'. M.J. Kister understands ' an yad to be a reference to the "ability and sufficient means" of the dhimmi . Similarly, Rashid Rida takes

13986-399: The tax. By the time of Mohammed, the jiyza rate was one dinar per year imposed on male dhimmis in Medina, Mecca, Khaibar, Yemen, and Nejran. According to Muhammad Hamidullah , the rate was ten dirhams per year "in the time of the Prophet", but this amounted to only "the expenses of an average family for ten days". Abu Yusuf , the chief qadhi of the caliph Harun al-Rashid , states that there

14112-495: The term poll tax does not translate the Arabic word jizya , being also inaccurate in light of the exemptions granted to children, women, etc., unlike a poll tax, which by definition is levied on every individual (poll = head) regardless of gender, age, or ability to pay. He further adds that the root verb of jizya is j-z-y, which means 'to reward somebody for something', 'to pay what is due in return for something' and adds that it

14238-542: The time of the Crusades , Saladin returned the jizya to the Christians of Syria when he was compelled to retract from it. The Christian tribe of al-Jurajima, in the neighborhood of Antioch , made peace with the Muslims, promising to be their allies and fight on their side in battle, on condition that they should not be called upon to pay jizya and should receive their proper share of the booty. The orientalist Thomas Walker Arnold writes that even Muslims were made to pay

14364-403: The true faith" or "behave according to the rule of justice" ( wa-lā yadīnūna dīna'l-ḥaqq ). A number of translators have rendered the text as "those who do not embrace the true faith/follow the religion of truth" or some variation thereof. Muhammad Abdel-Haleem argues against this translation, preferring instead to render dīna'l-ḥaqq as 'rule of justice'. The main meaning of the Arabic dāna

14490-531: The unique characteristics of different parts of the world. Men traditionally received more education than women as a result of single-sex education . Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender, is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries. In the 21st century, the balance has shifted in many developed nations, and men now lag behind women in education. Men are more likely than women to be faculty at universities. In 2020, 90% of

14616-438: The view that any Muslim who consciously refuses to pay zakat is an apostate, since the failure to believe that it is a religious duty ( fard ) is a form of unbelief ( kufr ), and should be killed. However, prevailing opinion among classical jurists prescribed sanctions such as fines, imprisonment or corporal punishment. Some classical and contemporary scholars such as Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh and Yusuf al-Qaradawi have stated that

14742-452: The word Yad in a metaphorical sense and relates the phrase to the financial ability of the person liable to pay jizya. 5. "While they are subdued" ( wa-hum ṣāghirūn ). Mark R. Cohen writes that 'while they are subdued' was interpreted by many to mean the "humiliated state of the non-Muslims". According to Ziauddin Ahmed, in the view of the majority of Fuqahā (Islamic jurists), the jizya

14868-472: The world's men were literate , compared to 87% of women. But sub-Saharan Africa, and southwest Asia lagged behind the rest of the world; only 72% of men in sub-Saharan Africa were literate. In most societies, men have more legal and cultural rights than women. and misogyny is far more prevalent than misandry in society. While one in six male experiences sexual assault , men typically receive less support after being victims of it, and rape of males

14994-487: The zakat are asked not to evade payment. The hadith also warn of punishment for those who take zakat when they are not eligible to receive it (see Distribution below). The amount of zakat to be paid by an individual depends on the amount of money and the type of assets the individual possesses. The Quran does not provide specific guidelines on which types of wealth are taxable under the zakat, nor does it specify percentages to be given. However, it clearly indicates to donate

15120-645: The zakat should be paid – to zakat collectors claiming to represent one class of zakat beneficiary (for example, poor), collectors who were representing religious bodies, or collectors representing the Islamic state. This has caused significant conflicts and allegations of zakat abuse within the Islamic community, both historically and in modern times. Fi Sabillillah is the most prominent asnaf in Southeast Asian Muslim societies, where it broadly construed to include funding missionary work, Quranic schools and anything else that serves

15246-464: Was wer . Mann only came to mean "man" in Middle English, replacing wer , which survives today only in the compounds " werewolf " (from Old English werwulf , literally "man-wolf"), and " wergild ", literally "man-payment". In humans, sperm cells carry either an X or a Y sex chromosome. If a sperm cell carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes the female ovum , the offspring will have

15372-534: Was committed against you by the Byzantines , which was what led to Tabuk . 2. "Do not forbid what God and His Messenger have forbidden" ( wa-lā yuḥarrimūna mā ḥarrama-llāhu wa-rasūluh ). The closest and most viable cause must relate to jizya , that is, unlawfully consuming what belongs to the Muslim state, which, al-Bayḍāwī explains, "it has been decided that they should give," since their own scriptures and prophets forbid breaking agreements and not paying what

15498-461: Was levied on non-Muslims in order to humiliate them for their unbelief. In contrast, Abdel-Haleem writes that this notion of humiliation runs contrary to verses such as, Do not dispute with the People of the Book except in the best manner (Q 29:46), and the Prophetic ḥadīth , 'May God have mercy on the man who is liberal and easy-going ( samḥ ) when he buys, when he sells, and when he demands what

15624-568: Was mandated initially for People of the Book (Judaism, Christianity, Sabianism ), it was extended by Islamic jurists to all non-Muslims. Thus Muslim rulers in India, with the exception of Akbar , collected jizya from Hindus , Buddhists , Jains and Sikhs under their rule. While early Islamic scholars like Abu Hanifa and Abu Yusuf stated that jizya should be imposed on all non-Muslims without distinction, some later and more extremist jurists do not permit jizya for idolators and instead only allowed

15750-547: Was no amount permanently fixed for the tax, though the payment usually depended on wealth: the Kitab al-Kharaj of Abu Yusuf sets the amounts at 48 dirhams for the richest (e.g. moneychangers), 24 for those of moderate wealth, and 12 for craftsmen and manual laborers. Moreover, it could be paid in kind if desired; cattle, merchandise, household effects, even needles were to be accepted in lieu of specie (coins), but not pigs, wine, or dead animals. The jizya varied in accordance with

15876-458: Was not possible, use of military force to extract it was seen as justified, as was done by Abu Bakr during the Ridda Wars , on the argument that refusing to submit to just orders is a form of treason. However, Abu Hanifa, the founder of the Hanafi school, disapproved of fighting when the property owners undertake to distribute the zakat to the poor themselves. Some classical jurists held

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