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63-791: Jiandao or Chientao , known in Korean as Gando or Kando , is a historical border region along the north bank of the Tumen River in Jilin Province , Northeast China that has a high population of ethnic Koreans. The word "Jiandao", literally "Middle Island", originally referred to a shoal in Tumen River between today's Chuankou Village, Kaishantun in Longjing , Jilin, China and Chongsŏng, Onsong County in North Korea. The island

126-664: A French diplomat in Joseon. He was the first foreigner to recognize the historical value of Jikji and introduce it to the world through the Exposition Universelle of 1900 . At the suggestion of Victor Collin de Plancy, Emperor Gojong of the Joseon Dynasty participated in the Exposition and made Joseon's history and culture known to the world. Victor Collin de Plancy set up an exhibition hall with hanok at

189-746: A counterinsurgency unit called the Gando Special Force was organized by the Japanese Kwantung Army to combat communist guerrillas within the region. The top commander of this battalion-size force was Japanese. Historian Philip Jowett noted that during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the Gando Special Force had "earned a reputation for brutality and was reported to have laid waste to large areas which came under its rule." On 1 October 1943, Jiandao Province

252-494: A first map exists, showing significant differences in the border. One shows the boundaries similar to modern-day province and country borders, while the other shows the Sino-Korean border significantly further north. Tumen River The river flows in northeast Asia, on the border between China and North Korea in its upper reaches, and between North Korea and Russia in its last 17 kilometers (11 mi) before entering

315-448: A larger Korean population. Lastly, North Korean authorities have been known to infiltrate Russia looking for defectors and those who collaborate to assist them; the 1996 murder of Choe Deok-geun in the border city of Vladivostok prompted South Korean authorities to be very reluctant to provide defectors with any assistance. The Tumen is also crossed illegally by soldiers and others seeking food and money. Some Chinese villagers have left

378-563: A part of the Imperial Japan in 1910. In the early 20th century, Korean immigration to Manchuria steadily increased, either from refugees fleeing Japanese rule, or from encouragement by the Japanese government of Korea of emigration to develop the land. Some local Chinese governments welcomed the Korean immigrants, as they were a source of labor and agricultural skill. In the meantime, Japan began to expand into northeast China. One of

441-523: A tributary of the Songhua River . Under this interpretation, Gando (where the Koreans settled) would be part of Korean territory. This confusion arises as the two names sound identical, and neither name is of Chinese origin. The two rivers can be seen in the following map from the period. Korean claims are based on maps showing the border river as 土門 and the claim that this is a different river than

504-608: A wide range of contacts, Collin de Plancy was the natural hinge for the expansion of French influence. Collin de Plancy helped a certain Mr. Saltarel establish official contacts in Seoul upon his arrival there as representative of several French companies in early 1898. Saltarel eventually gained a mining concession in Korea. In late 1899 a French military attaché in China, Commander Polyeucte Vidal,

567-545: Is very little enthusiasm for irredentism among the Korean minority in China. Although there are occasional arguments over historical interpretation, this issue arouses very little emotion or official interest on the part of any of the parties, and relations between China and both Koreas remain warm. In 2004 the South Korean government issued a statement to the effect that it believed that the Gando Convention

630-514: The Jurchen word tumen , meaning "ten thousand". The official boundary agreement in 1712 identified the Tumen river using the characters 土門 (Tǔmen) for the phonetic transcription. However, the modern Tumen River is written as 圖們 (Túmen) in modern Chinese and as 豆滿 in both modern Korean (두만 Duman) and Japanese (とまん Toman). Some Koreans hence claim that the "Tumen" referred to in the treaty is actually

693-522: The Kangxi Emperor to negotiate the issue, in 1712, the Joseon of Korea and Qing of China agreed to delineate the boundaries of the two countries at the Yalu and Tumen Rivers. The Qing delegation was led by Mukedeng, and the Joseon delegation was led by Pak Kwon, and the two held a joint commission to survey and demarcate the boundaries between the two states. Efforts were taken to locate the sources of

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756-729: The Russo-Japanese War . In 1904, the Japanese embassy in Korea reported the Korean government as claiming that there was no document that explicitly recorded Jiandao as part of the Qing territory. After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan began the process that led to the formal annexation of Korea. In 1905, the Korean Empire became a protectorate of the Empire of Japan , effectively losing diplomatic rights, and became

819-669: The Sino-French War , distinguishing himself by services rendered to a cholera-stricken French fleet harbored in Shanghai during the conflict for which he was made an Officer of the Legion of Honor . It was during this posting that Collin de Plancy served briefly as the first French consul to Korea, when relations were opened with that country in 1887. He would go on to serve as French consul in Japan before returning to Korea in 1896 as

882-558: The "Jiandao Issue" was "unsettled" (see: Gando Massacre ). In the Gando Convention of 1909, Japan affirmed territorial rights of the Qing over Jiandao after the Chinese foreign ministry issued a thirteen-point refutation statement asserting its rightful ownership. Japan agreed to withdraw its invading troops back to Korea in two months. The treaty also contained provisions for the protection and rights of ethnic Koreans under Chinese rule. Nevertheless, there were large Korean settlements and

945-561: The "only fitting homage" to the man who had contributed so much to making the service a reality. The French consul also proved instrumental in paving the way for Korea's participation at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1900 . In 1906, shortly after Korea became a protectorate of Japan, Collin de Plancy left Korea for a posting in Bangkok, Thailand. He went into retirement the following year. After his death in 1924,

1008-408: The 18th century to the 19th century, show Sino-Korean borders to be aligned along the Yalu and Tumen Rivers, essentially the same as those today (between China and North Korea): However there is an exception in the last map, as it shows the border visibly protruding north of the Tumen River. Some Korean claims to Gando are based on other maps. The following were made by western missionaries. However,

1071-555: The Chinese-North Korean border are not patrolled at all", according to a New York Times article. Refugees rarely cross the Tumen into Russia. This is because Russia's short stretch of the river is far better patrolled than China's stretch. In addition, the rewards for doing so are not as high since the ethnic Korean community in Russia is far smaller to receive sufficient support from, as opposed to China, which has

1134-737: The French Bibliothèque Nationale , and his accumulated artworks became part of the core of the Musée Guimet in Paris. Collin de Plancy was born on November 22, 1853, in Plancy, a small town near Troyes in the Champagne region of eastern France, the son of Jacques Collin de Plancy , a former freethinker and occultist who had converted to Catholicism. Despite the name, Collin de Plancy was not of noble pedigree. Against

1197-477: The French Foreign Ministry notes the qualities for which Collin de Plancy seemed best known, "his tact, courtesy, and refined manners" and as one who excelled in "issues of etiquette... but who rarely ventured into the realm of general ideas". In Seoul he became known for his charming garden parties. Particularly well-received were his "chrysanthemum festivals" held every autumn in the gardens of

1260-525: The French legation, during which guest strolled the peaceful grounds in the midst of the budding capital, admiring the park with its greenhouses of flowers. In 1896 De Plancy had constructed an elegant European style compound for the French legation, filling it with antiques from the Château de Chenonceaux. He was himself a collector; his respectable assortment of Asian art and ceramics was eventually donated to

1323-542: The Gando issue. In 1962, North Korea and China signed the Sino–North Korean Border Treaty , which set the Korean border at Yalu and Tumen, effectively foregoing territorial claims to Gando. South Korea also recognizes this as the boundary between Korea and China. Today, none of the governments involved (North Korea, South Korea, China, or Japan) make the claim that Gando is Korean territory. In addition, there

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1386-628: The Japanese built the Tumen River Bridge , where the Quan River meets the Tumen River, between the villages of Wonjong (Hunchun) and Quanhe. Important cities and towns on the river are Hoeryong and Onsong in North Korea, Tumen and Nanping ( 南坪镇 , in the county-level city of Helong ) in China's Jilin province. In 1995, the People's Republic of China , Mongolia , Russia, North Korea and South Korea signed three agreements to create

1449-516: The Japanese government actively encouraged (or forced) Korean settlement in order to colonize and develop the region. The Japanese also moved to suppress resistance in the region. Within three and half years (from September 1931 to March 1935), Japanese regular forces and police murdered 4520 people. During and after the 1930s, many ethnic Koreans in the region joined and participated in the Chinese Communist Party. In December 1938,

1512-612: The Korean porcelain industry. But France's most visible representative, behind Collin de Plancy himself, was undoubtedly E. Clemencet, who had been brought to Korea in 1898, shortly after Korea's entrance into the International Postal Union, to organize a modern Korean postal service. Upon the bureau's opening in January 1900 Clemencet sent the first international letter to Collin de Plancy (then on leave in France), as

1575-525: The Musée Guimet in Paris where it forms a core part of the Korean collection. Victor Collin de Plancy never married. Collin de Plancy's diplomatic acumen proved a boon for French interests in Korea during the last decade or so of the 19th century. He became occupied in procuring the concession for of the Seoul - Uiju line for Five-Lilles, personally negotiating with the Korean foreign minister. Along with

1638-571: The Paris International Exposition to display Korean traditional items and promote them to the world. At that time, one of the Korean books he displayed at the Korean Pavilion at the Paris International Exposition was Jikji , the oldest existing metal type printed book. In addition, he accurately recorded the value of Jikji in 'Joseon Seoji'. His accumulated books became part of the core of the Korean collection of

1701-652: The Russian legation opposed an invasion because this might cause the loss of Russian territory. In 1901, Korea deployed police in Jiandao, and this continued until 1906. The Korean Government sent Yi Beom-yun , who was not part of the Imperial Korean Army , as a Jiandao observer to invade Jiandao in 1903. In Jiandao, Yi established Sa-po dae, which was a militia consisting of both a righteous army , and Imperial Korean Army. This army fought against Japan during

1764-664: The Sea of Japan. The river forms much of the southern border of Jilin Province in Northeast China and the northern borders of North Korea's North Hamgyong and Ryanggang provinces. Paektu Mountain on the Chinese-North Korean border is the source of the river, as well as of the Yalu River . The two rivers and the region of Paektu Mountain between their headwaters form the border between North Korea and China. The name of

1827-612: The Tang, while Korea emphasizes that Balhae was a successor state and a cultural extension of Goguryeo. Balhae was destroyed by the Khitan Liao dynasty in 926, and was formally annexed in 936. Over the next nine to ten centuries the region was administered by the Liao (Khitans), Jin ( Jurchens ), Yuan ( Mongols ), Ming and then the Qing . In 1712, the border between Qing and Joseon

1890-579: The Tumen River Economic Development Area. Noktundo , a former island (now effectively a peninsula) at the mouth of the Tumen, has been a boundary contention between Russia and North Korea. The Qing Dynasty ceded the island to Russia as part of the Primorsky Maritimes ( East Tartary ) in the 1860 Treaty of Peking . In 1990, the former Soviet Union and North Korea signed a border treaty which made

1953-431: The Yalu and Tumen rivers at Baekdu Mountain . Owing to Pak's age, they agreed for Mukedeng's team to ascend the summit alone. Mukedeng's team quickly identified the source of the Yalu, but identification for the Tumen proved more complicated. At last a spot was decided, and a stele was erected as a boundary marker. Over the next year, a fence was built to demarcate the areas where the Tumen river ran underground. Pak Kwon

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2016-461: The above railway concession he also successfully petitioned for mining rights on behalf of French companies along the proposed railroad. However, other efforts spearheaded by Collin de Plancy to gain railway concessions to Mokpo and Wonsan were not so successful. Collin de Plancy was successful in raising the French visibility and prestige in other realms more successfully than in railroads and mining. As chief French diplomat in Korea, and enjoying

2079-618: The area during ancient times. These included Buyeo , Goguryeo and Goguryeo's successor state Balhae . Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea , controlled northern Korea and southern Manchuria, including the territory known as Gando/Jiandao. Balhae was a state that existed in the area during the Tang dynasty in China and the Unified Silla Period in Korea. China emphasizes Balhae's temporary tributary relationship to

2142-436: The area remained under significant Japanese influence. Despite the agreement, Koreans in Jiandao continued to be a source of friction between the Chinese and Japanese governments. Japan maintained that all ethnic Koreans were Japanese nationals, subject to Japanese jurisdiction and law, and demanded rights to patrol and police the area. The Qing and subsequent local Chinese governments insisted on its territorial sovereignty over

2205-896: The area, left these lands north of the Tumen River relatively undeveloped and the region was sparsely populated by Manchu tribes for a long time. Qing officials regularly inspected this region and occasional Korean intruders were detained and sent back to Korea. However, by the late 19th century, peasants in northern Korea were migrating to northeast China to flee famine and poverty. More arrived as refugees when Japan invaded Korea in 1894. From 1901, The Korean Empire prepared to take control of Jiandao. In 1901, Korean General Yi Hak-gyun , Diplomat Sands in Korea, and captain Payeur were sent to observe Jiandao. The French envoy, Victor Collin de Plancy , reported that Korean government would benefit by taxing Jiandao's inhabitants, and would increase jobs and influence by sending officials there. He also reported that

2268-404: The area. It was apparent that despite the decreed punishment, severe droughts in northern Korea had motivated Korean farmers to seek new lands. The Jilin general-governor Ming-An's official response was to lodge a protest to the Joseon government and offer to allow the Korean population to stay if they agreed to become Qing subjects and adopt Qing customs and dress. Joseon's response was to encourage

2331-471: The border along Tumen River that had existed before the invasion. The Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of present-day Jilin Province covers roughly the same region as historical Jiandao. The prefecture is approximately 42,000 square kilometers in size and is home to about 810,000 ethnic Koreans. In China, Yanbian is the name used, and Jiandao is not used, due to its association with Japanese colonial occupation. Both North Korea and South Korea recognize

2394-643: The border area because of the attacks. The history of conflict in the area (examples include incidents during the Battle of Lake Khasan ) was alluded to in singer Kim Jeong-gu's song 'Tearful Tumen River (눈물 젖은 두만강)', which became an ode to families separated by such tragedies and by defections during the Korean War. The humanitarian crisis along the Tumen River was dramatized in the 2010 feature-length film Dooman River . Victor Collin de Plancy Victor Émile Marie Joseph Collin de Plancy (1853–1924)

2457-408: The border run through the center of the river, leaving territory of the former island on Russian side. South Korea refuses to acknowledge the treaty and demanded that Russia return the territory to Korea. There are several popular species of fish endemic to Tumen river, such as Tumen lenok and bighead gudgeon . In 2016, China released 800,000 salmon seedlings into Tumen river in order to expand

2520-513: The current political situation makes this a faint possibility at best. Also, some scholars claim that China's efforts to incorporate the history of Goguryeo and Balhae into Chinese history is an effectively pre-emptive move to squash any territorial disputes that might arise regarding Gando before a unified Korea can claim such or the Korean ethnic minority in the Manchuria region claim to become part of Korea. The following maps, made by Korea from

2583-510: The diplomatic corps, he was posted instead to Peking as a junior interpreter, often a preliminary step to seeking consular duties. Prevented by his stationing in Peking from taking the requisite exam for consular assignment (administered only at Paris), it was 1883 before he finally received his coveted consular position, when he was named consul second class at Peking. In 1884 he was promoted to acting French consul at Shanghai, where he served during

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2646-419: The farmers not to register as Qing subjects but to return to Korea within the year. The farmers, unwilling to abandon their homes, argued that because of the ambiguity in the naming of the Tumen river, they were actually already in Korean territory. The Yalu River boundary is of little dispute, but the interpretation of the Tumen River boundary 土門 (토문) causes problems. The name of the river itself originates from

2709-650: The first is explicitly stated as a map of "Quan-Tong Province" (now Liaoning province, China) and Kau-li (Korea), and the second is stated as a map of the Chinese Tartary ( la Tartarie Chinoise ). Compared to the Korean-made maps above, the coastlines and rivers are also significantly less accurate, but the Sino-Korean border is not placed at the Yalu/Amnok River, which is quite clear in the following maps: Note that two almost identical versions of

2772-428: The latter interpretation and declared that the region did not belong to China. Joseon and Qing officials met in 1885 and 1887 to resolve the dispute, but with little result. Korean officials suggested on starting from the stele and tracing the river downwards, while Qing officials proposed starting at the mouth of the Tumen River and moving upstream. From 1905 onwards, Korea came under the influence and control of Japan and

2835-518: The next 150 years. Cross-border movements were forbidden, and was punishable by death after trespassers were detained and repatriated back to their respective countries. In the 1870s the Qing government reversed its policy of prohibiting entry to Manchuria , and began allowing Han Chinese settlers into the territory in response to growing Russian encroachment. The area around Gando was opened up to settlement in 1881, but Chinese settlers quickly discovered some Korean farming communities already settled in

2898-480: The one used for the modern border. However, it is uncertain which modern river the Korean claim corresponds to, as there is no modern tributary of the Songhua River with that name: [REDACTED] This interpretation of the boundary gradually developed into Joseon official policy. O Yunjung, a Korean official appointed to review the claims made by the farmers and investigate the sources of the river, adopted

2961-567: The region as a part of the People's Republic of China, but there are some liberal and left-wing nationalist elements in South Korea that endorse the idea that the region should be a part of modern-day Korea. These groups claim what happened in Jiandao between 1907–1909 (Japan's invasion and subsequent withdrawal) was an illegal transfer of Korean territory between Japan and China. Many different states and tribes succeeded each other in ruling

3024-541: The region. After the Mukden Incident of 1931, the Japanese military (the Kwantung Army) invaded Manchuria. Between 1931 and 1945, Manchuria was under the control of Manchukuo , a Japanese puppet state. From 1934 the area formed a new Jiandao Province of Manchukuo after the old Jilin Province was split into Binjiang , Jiandao and a rump Jilin. This period initiated a new wave of Korean immigration, as

3087-462: The regional fishing industry and meet the increasing demand for sea products. The Tumen has been crossed for years by North Korean refugees defecting across the Chinese border. Most refugees from North Korea during the 1990s famine crossed it, and most recent refugees have also used it, as it is far easier than crossing the Amnok River . The Tumen is the preferred crossing because, unlike

3150-533: The regions the Japanese targeted was Jiandao (known in Korean as Gando). The Japanese claimed that Jiandao included territory of four counties (Yanji, Wangqing, Helong and Hunchun) of Jilin Province. The Japanese further claimed ethnic Koreans living in this region should be placed under the jurisdiction of Imperial Japan. The Japanese first infiltrated Jiandao in April 1907 to collect information and data. On August 7, 1907, Japanese troops invaded Jiandao and claimed that

3213-614: The resident French consul in that country. Except for extended sick leaves in 1899–1900 and 1905–1906, Collin de Plancy would spend the years from 1896 to 1906 in Seoul, where he would eventually be promoted full minister. He would serve only briefly as French minister to Bangkok in 1906 before requesting full retirement 1907. The young Collin de Plancy was described alternately as laborious, impartial and instructed, while being lauded as well for his more social qualities — charm, elegance of manners, impeccable taste and perhaps most importantly, amiability. The introduction to his collected papers in

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3276-493: The river comes from the Mongolian word tümen , meaning "ten thousand" or a myriad . This river is badly polluted by the nearby factories of North Korea and China; however, it still remains a major tourist attraction in the area. In Tumen, Jilin , a riverfront promenade has restaurants where patrons can gaze across the river into North Korea. The Russian name of the river is Tumannaya , literally meaning foggy . In 1938

3339-493: The strict laws of lineage Victor's father had illicitly added the "de Plancy" to his family name of Collin in a move that would later bring accusations against the son. As a very young man Victor Collin de Plancy studied in Paris at the Ecole de l'Immaculée Conception before gaining entrance to the prestigious École des Langues Orientales Vivantes, where he trained in Chinese, graduating in 1877. Though he had ambitions for entering

3402-450: The swift, deep and broad Amnok River that runs along most of the border between the two countries, the Tumen is shallow and narrow. In some areas it can be crossed on foot, or by short swims. It freezes in winter, allowing dry crossings. Defectors wishing to cross the Tumen often ignore its pollutants and dangerous border patrol, and spend weeks if not months or years waiting for the perfect opportunity to cross. "Long, desolate stretches of

3465-475: Was a French diplomat, bibliophile and art collector. He was a career French diplomat who served most of his working life in Korea and whose private collection of Far Eastern art and antiquities went on to form the core of the Korean collection at the Musée Guimet in Paris. Collin de Plancy served for nearly a decade starting in 1884 as French Minister to Korea. He was the first French Minister to Korea and published three volumes of "Joseon Seoji" while working as

3528-570: Was also brought in through Collin de Plancy's efforts to assess the state of the Korean arsenal and make recommendations as to its improvement and the establishment of a Korean arms industry. Eventually the French, represented by Vidal, would join with the Russians in a mutual campaign to reorganize the Korean arsenal. Collin de Plancy also brought in an expert from the Sèvres Ceramic Works to recommend ways of modernizing and expanding

3591-782: Was an important landmark for immigrants from the Korean Peninsula looking for settlements across the river. As the number of immigrants increased, the area covered by the name "Jiandao" gradually changed to reflect the areas of Korean settlement. In the early 20th century, an expanding Japanese Empire argued that ethnic Koreans living in this area should be placed under its jurisdiction. As one of its first set of attempts to annex northeast China and conquer other parts of mainland China, Imperial Japanese forces in Korea invaded Jiandao in 1907, but Japan withdrew its forces to Korea in 1909 and, under diplomatic pressure from China, recognized

3654-445: Was first nominally part of the Republic of China 's new Songjiang Province but with the communist seizure of power in 1949, Sonjiang's borders were changed and Jiandao became part of Jilin . The area is now the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in Jilin. The claims by some of the Korean irredentists over Gando stem from what is perceived as an ambiguity in the original Sino-Korean boundary agreement. After several attempts by

3717-415: Was formally demarcated. For years, Qing officials did not allow people to move to Northeastern China , as it believed that should a Han majority government rise again in parts of China south of the Great Wall, the Manchus could retreat to their original homeland. Joseon officials also did not allow its subjects to move to Northeastern China. These governmental regulations, with the general marshy nature of

3780-416: Was incorporated as a district into the Dongman Consolidated Province but this district was itself abolished on 28 May 1945 and Jiandao was once again a province. After World War II and the liberation of Korea, many Korean expatriates in the region moved back to Korea, but a significant number remained in Manchuria; descendants of these people form much of the Korean ethnic minority in China today. The area

3843-408: Was instructed by the Joseon government to retain all territory south of the Yalu and Tumen rivers, a goal he accomplished. However, some Korean officials lamented the loss of claims on areas north of the river and criticized Pak Kwon for not accompanying Mukedeng to the summit. The territorial claims stem from the territories held by Goguryeo and Balhae. Nonetheless, the border remained uncontentious for

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3906-407: Was null and void. The resultant controversy and strong negative reaction from the PRC led to a retraction of the statement, along with an explanation that its issuance was an "administrative error." A small number of South Korean activists believe that under a unified Korea, the treaties signed by North Korea can be deemed null, allowing the unified Korea to actively seek regress for Gando. However,

3969-474: Was unable to effectively pursue these claims. After the liberation of Korea in 1945, some Koreans believed that Jiandao should be given to Korean rule, but the military control by United States of America in the south and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in the north hindered any unified Korean claim to the territory. The chaos of the Korean War and the geopolitical situation of the Cold War effectively diminished any opportunity for Koreans to highlight

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