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111-564: In August 2001, Jiangsu Technology University (江苏理工大学), Zhenjiang Medical College (镇江医学院), and Zhenjiang Teachers Vocational School (镇江师范专科学校) merged to form Jiangsu University. Jiangsu University was established through the combination of Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang Medical College and Zhenjiang Teachers’ College, under the permission of the Chinese Ministry of Education in August, 2001. Its main institution

222-465: A seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction . Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 to 500 km (250 to 310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what

333-505: A specialist , or watchful observation. A follow-up may be advised. Depending upon the health insurance plan and the managed care system, various forms of " utilization review ", such as prior authorization of tests, may place barriers on accessing expensive services. The medical decision-making (MDM) process includes the analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain

444-576: A case of the Mean Value theorem in his commentaries on Govindasvāmi and Bhāskara II . The Yuktibhāṣā was written by Jyeshtadeva in 1530. The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas , religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of

555-407: A combination of all three. Most tribal societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those who can afford to pay for it, have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract), or may be covered by care financed directly by the government or tribe. Transparency of information is another factor defining

666-429: A combination of art and science (both basic and applied , under the umbrella of medical science ). For example, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine, now known as traditional medicine or folk medicine , remain commonly used in

777-500: A decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time-consuming. Surgical subspecialties include those a physician may specialize in after undergoing general surgery residency training as well as several surgical fields with separate residency training. Surgical subspecialties that one may pursue following general surgery residency training: Other surgical specialties within medicine with their own individual residency training: Internal medicine

888-553: A definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem. On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, lab or imaging results, or specialist consultations . Contemporary medicine is, in general, conducted within health care systems . Legal, credentialing , and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have

999-494: A delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice of patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US healthcare system has come under fire for its lack of openness, new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and

1110-513: A few minutes or a few weeks, depending on the complexity of the issue. The components of the medical interview and encounter are: The physical examination is the examination of the patient for medical signs of disease that are objective and observable, in contrast to symptoms that are volunteered by the patient and are not necessarily objectively observable. The healthcare provider uses sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (e.g., in infection, uremia , diabetic ketoacidosis ). Four actions are

1221-463: A part of it became independent and moved to Zhenjiang next year and later became Jiangsu University of Science and Technology. It renamed Jiangsu University when merged with two colleges in the same city in 2001. Jiangsu University (JSU) was founded in 1902 as a part of Sanjiang Normal University. It was retitled as Jiangsu University by integrating Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang Medical College and Zhenjiang Teachers’ College with

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1332-448: A patient to investigate or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury , to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example, a perforated ear drum ). Surgeons must also manage pre-operative, post-operative, and potential surgical candidates on the hospital wards. In some centers, anesthesiology is part of the division of surgery (for historical and logistical reasons), although it

1443-640: A period of initial urban development in the Preclassical period , the Classic Maya civilization (c. 250 CE – c. 900 CE) built on the shared heritage of the Olmecs by developing the most sophisticated systems of writing , astronomy , calendrical science , and mathematics among Mesoamerican peoples. The Maya developed a positional numeral system with a base of 20 that included the use of zero for constructing their calendars. Maya writing, which

1554-480: A period of supervised practice or internship , or residency . This can be followed by postgraduate vocational training. A variety of teaching methods have been employed in medical education, still itself a focus of active research. In Canada and the United States of America, a Doctor of Medicine degree, often abbreviated M.D., or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree, often abbreviated as D.O. and unique to

1665-589: A person became ill, doctors prescribed magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal treatments. The earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur ( c. 2112 BCE – c. 2004 BCE). The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū , or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa , during

1776-666: A physician, nurse and patient necessary for recovery to health. An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft , economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta , who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350–283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analyzed and documented. Roger Boesche describes

1887-687: A refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian A. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways." To the Babylonians and other Near Eastern cultures, messages from

1998-587: A secondary care setting. Tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include trauma centers , burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants , high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology , etc. Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means . In low-income countries, modern healthcare

2109-561: A significant impact on the way medical care is provided. From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals, and the Catholic Church today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world. Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the United States ) and many developing countries provide medical services through

2220-410: A system of universal health care that aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer health care system or compulsory private or cooperative health insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices, state-owned hospitals and clinics, or charities, most commonly

2331-542: A wide range of different backgrounds and cultures. Historians of science increasingly see their field as part of a global history of exchange, conflict and collaboration. The relationship between science and religion has been variously characterized in terms of "conflict", "harmony", "complexity", and "mutual independence", among others. Events in Europe such as the Galileo affair of the early-17th century – associated with

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2442-450: Is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories. Primary care medical services are provided by physicians , physician assistants , nurse practitioners , or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care. These occur in physician offices, clinics , nursing homes , schools, home visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by

2553-530: Is derived from Latin medicus , meaning "a physician". Medical availability and clinical practice vary across the world due to regional differences in culture and technology . Modern scientific medicine is highly developed in the Western world , while in developing countries such as parts of Africa or Asia, the population may rely more heavily on traditional medicine with limited evidence and efficacy and no required formal training for practitioners. In

2664-461: Is necessary for agreement on claims about nature. In this light, the 1660 establishment of the Royal Society and its code of experiment – trustworthy because witnessed by its members – has become an important chapter in the historiography of science. Many people in modern history (typically women and persons of color) were excluded from elite scientific communities and characterized by

2775-595: Is not a surgical discipline. Other medical specialties may employ surgical procedures, such as ophthalmology and dermatology , but are not considered surgical sub-specialties per se. Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than

2886-455: Is now modern Gansu ). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. There are many notable contributors to early Chinese disciplines, inventions, and practices throughout the ages. One of

2997-400: Is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain. Separation of prescribing and dispensing is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the physician who provides a medical prescription is independent from

3108-443: Is organized into the following schools and departments. Medicine This is an accepted version of this page Medicine is the science and practice of caring for patients, managing the diagnosis , prognosis , prevention , treatment , palliation of their injury or disease , and promoting their health . Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by

3219-599: Is recorded from the 4th century BCE and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BCE. In 125 CE Zhang Heng used water power to rotate the sphere in real time. This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic. By 1270 they had incorporated the principles of the Arab torquetum . In the Song Empire (960–1279) of Imperial China , Chinese scholar-officials unearthed, studied, and cataloged ancient artifacts. To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented

3330-462: Is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases. According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied. In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called "internists". Elsewhere, especially in Commonwealth nations, such specialists are often called physicians . These terms, internist or physician (in

3441-559: The Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analyzing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good." The development of Indian logic dates back to the Chandahsutra of Pingala and anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE);

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3552-681: The Greek and the Chinese logic . The Indian tradition continued to develop through early to modern times, in the form of the Navya-Nyāya school of logic. In the 2nd century, the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna refined the Catuskoti form of logic. The Catuskoti is also often glossed Tetralemma (Greek) which is the name for a largely comparable, but not equatable, 'four corner argument' within

3663-532: The Islamic Golden Age . The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West. Traditions of early science were also developed in ancient India and separately in ancient China , the Chinese model having influenced Vietnam , Korea and Japan before Western exploration . Among

3774-756: The Islamic world , introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic world by the 9th century. Narayana Pandita ( Sanskrit : नारायण पण्डित ) (1340–1400 ) was an Indian mathematician . Plofker writes that his texts were the most significant Sanskrit mathematics treatises after those of Bhaskara II , other than the Kerala school . He wrote the Ganita Kaumudi (lit. "Moonlight of mathematics") in 1356 about mathematical operations. The work anticipated many developments in combinatorics . During

3885-690: The Pre-Columbian peoples of Mesoamerica , the Zapotec civilization established their first known traditions of astronomy and mathematics for producing calendars , followed by other civilizations such as the Maya . Natural philosophy was transformed during the Scientific Revolution in 16th- to 17th-century Europe, as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The New Science that emerged

3996-592: The Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini (c. 5th century BCE); the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism (c. 6th century BCE to 2nd century BCE); the analysis of inference by Gotama (c. 6th century BC to 2nd century CE), founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy ; and the tetralemma of Nagarjuna (c. 2nd century CE). Indian logic stands as one of the three original traditions of logic , alongside

4107-644: The Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 CE by Ch'in Chiu-shao . Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian . Although the first attempts at an axiomatization of geometry appear in the Mohist canon in 330 BCE, Liu Hui developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century CE and also calculated pi to 5 significant figures. In 480, Zu Chongzhi improved this by discovering

4218-451: The conservation of energy , age of Earth , and evolution came into focus. And in the 20th century, new discoveries in genetics and physics laid the foundations for new sub disciplines such as molecular biology and particle physics . Moreover, industrial and military concerns as well as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors ushered in the era of " big science ," particularly after World War II . The nature of

4329-517: The developed world , evidence-based medicine is not universally used in clinical practice; for example, a 2007 survey of literature reviews found that about 49% of the interventions lacked sufficient evidence to support either benefit or harm. In modern clinical practice, physicians and physician assistants personally assess patients to diagnose , prognose, treat, and prevent disease using clinical judgment. The doctor-patient relationship typically begins with an interaction with an examination of

4440-706: The fall of the Western Roman Empire , knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Latin -speaking Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages , but continued to thrive in the Greek -speaking Byzantine Empire . Aided by translations of Greek texts, the Hellenistic worldview was preserved and absorbed into the Arabic -speaking Muslim world during

4551-555: The morpheme and the root . The Tolkāppiyam text, composed in the early centuries of the common era, is a comprehensive text on Tamil grammar, which includes sutras on orthography, phonology, etymology, morphology, semantics, prosody, sentence structure and the significance of context in language. Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. The ancient text Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta describes procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty ,

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4662-918: The pharmacist who provides the prescription drug . In the Western world there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs. Working together as an interdisciplinary team , many highly trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include: nurses , emergency medical technicians and paramedics , laboratory scientists, pharmacists , podiatrists , physiotherapists , respiratory therapists , speech therapists , occupational therapists , radiographers, dietitians , and bioengineers , medical physicists , surgeons , surgeon's assistant , surgical technologist . The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. A patient admitted to

4773-513: The prevention and treatment of illness . Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences , biomedical research , genetics , and medical technology to diagnose , treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery , but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy , external splints and traction , medical devices , biologics , and ionizing radiation , amongst others. Medicine has been practiced since prehistoric times , and for most of this time it

4884-420: The raised-relief map , toilet paper, the efficient harness, along with contributions in logic , astronomy , medicine , and other fields. However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into "modern science". According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature: It

4995-455: The sine function in trigonometry and the number 0 [mathematics] . In 628 CE, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit , along with the Hindu–Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in

5106-410: The 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama led advancement in analysis by providing the infinite and taylor series expansion of some trigonometric functions and pi approximation. Parameshvara (1380–1460), presents

5217-606: The 2500–1200 BCE, the ancient Egyptians believed that disease was mainly caused by the invasion of bodies by evil forces or spirits. Thus, in addition to using medicines , their healing therapies included prayer , incantation , and ritual. The Ebers Papyrus , written in around 1600 BCE, contains medical recipes for treating diseases related to the eyes, mouth, skin, internal organs, and extremities, as well as abscesses, wounds, burns, ulcers, swollen glands, tumors, headaches, and even bad breath. The Edwin Smith papyrus , written at about

5328-458: The Age of Enlightenment . Science's earliest roots can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia around 3000 to 1200 BCE . These civilizations' contributions to mathematics , astronomy , and medicine influenced later Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity , wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes. After

5439-636: The Aryabhatan model for the interior planets, Mercury, and Venus and the equation that he specified for the center of these planets was more accurate than the ones in European or Islamic astronomy until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century. Jai Singh II of Jaipur constructed five observatories called Jantar Mantars in total, in New Delhi , Jaipur , Ujjain , Mathura and Varanasi ; they were completed between 1724 and 1735. Some of

5550-646: The Babylonian calendar or the ones used in Greek city-states at the time, the official Egyptian calendar was much simpler as it was fixed and did not take lunar and solar cycles into consideration. The ancient Mesopotamians had extensive knowledge about the chemical properties of clay, sand, metal ore, bitumen , stone, and other natural materials, and applied this knowledge to practical use in manufacturing pottery , faience , glass, soap, metals, lime plaster , and waterproofing. Metallurgy required knowledge about

5661-692: The Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred and seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BCE, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem . Cubic equations were solved in

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5772-651: The European Union, the profession of doctor of medicine is regulated. A profession is said to be regulated when access and exercise is subject to the possession of a specific professional qualification. The regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for doctor of medicine in the EU member states, EEA countries and Switzerland. This list is covered by the Directive 2005/36/EC . History of science The history of science covers

5883-470: The UK where all doctors are now required by law to work less than 48 hours per week on average. The following are some major medical specialties that do not directly fit into any of the above-mentioned groups: Some interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine include: Medical education and training varies around the world. It typically involves entry level education at a university medical school , followed by

5994-487: The United States, can be searched at http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/ Archived 4 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine . In most countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to be licensed or registered. In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the applicant to pass exams. This restricts

6105-473: The United States, must be completed in and delivered from a recognized university. Since knowledge, techniques, and medical technology continue to evolve at a rapid rate, many regulatory authorities require continuing medical education . Medical practitioners upgrade their knowledge in various ways, including medical journals , seminars, conferences, and online programs. A database of objectives covering medical knowledge, as suggested by national societies across

6216-446: The absence of scientific medicine and are thus called alternative medicine . Alternative treatments outside of scientific medicine with ethical, safety and efficacy concerns are termed quackery . Medicine ( UK : / ˈ m ɛ d s ɪ n / , US : / ˈ m ɛ d ɪ s ɪ n / ) is the science and practice of the diagnosis , prognosis , treatment , and prevention of disease . The word "medicine"

6327-850: The approval of the Ministry of Education of China in August, 2001. JSU offers 88 undergraduate programs, 170 master programs, and 42 PhD programs in 10 academic fields: Engineering, Science, Management, Economics, Medicine , Law, Education, Literature and History. The university has 13 post-doctoral research stations. JSU has 5,763 staff members (including those of Affiliated Hospital). 2,475 are faculty members, including 450 professors. 54% of them have got Ph.D degrees and over 24% have experience of overseas study. The current total enrollment of full-time students amounts to over 33,000, including 10,000 postgraduates, 842 international students from 74 countries. Jingjiang College of Jiangsu University has an enrollment of about 10,000 full-time students. The university

6438-589: The basis of physical examination: inspection , palpation (feel), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen), generally in that order, although auscultation occurs prior to percussion and palpation for abdominal assessments. The clinical examination involves the study of: It is to likely focus on areas of interest highlighted in the medical history and may not include everything listed above. The treatment plan may include ordering additional medical laboratory tests and medical imaging studies, starting therapy, referral to

6549-419: The best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic -needle compass used for navigation , discovered the concept of true north , improved the design of the astronomical gnomon , armillary sphere , sight tube, and clepsydra , and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of

6660-509: The broadest meaning of "medicine", there are many different specialties. In the UK, most specialities have their own body or college, which has its own entrance examination. These are collectively known as the Royal Colleges, although not all currently use the term "Royal". The development of a speciality is often driven by new technology (such as the development of effective anaesthetics) or ways of working (such as emergency departments);

6771-515: The changing length of daylight in the course of the year, predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets, and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of Kidinnu , a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars. Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving

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6882-459: The considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards. It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against charlatans that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain. While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in "evidence based", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health. In

6993-552: The development of science from ancient times to the present . It encompasses all three major branches of science : natural , social , and formal . Protoscience , early sciences , and natural philosophies such as alchemy and astrology during the Bronze Age , Iron Age , classical antiquity , and the Middle Ages declined during the early modern period after the establishment of formal disciplines of science in

7104-522: The domestication of maize for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern Mexico , before the development of writing systems . Similarly, archaeological evidence indicates the development of astronomical knowledge in preliterate societies. The oral tradition of preliterate societies had several features, the first of which was its fluidity. New information was constantly absorbed and adjusted to new circumstances or community needs. There were no archives or reports. This fluidity

7215-467: The earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India (1st millennium BCE) with the analysis of Sanskrit for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was Pāṇini (c. 520–460 BCE), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules for Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme ,

7326-518: The eighteenth-century BCE, records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13) ..., hinting that the ancient Mesopotamians might have been aware of the Pythagorean theorem over a millennium before Pythagoras. Mathematical achievements from Mesopotamia had some influence on the development of mathematics in India, and there were confirmed transmissions of mathematical ideas between India and China, which were bidirectional. Nevertheless,

7437-788: The examination for the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) or the equivalent college in Scotland or Ireland. "Surgery" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in General Surgery, which in the UK leads to membership of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (MRCS). At present, some specialties of medicine do not fit easily into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia. Most of these have branched from one or other of

7548-417: The expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, emergency departments , intensive care medicine , surgery services, physical therapy , labor and delivery , endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in

7659-626: The extent to which philosophy and science would flourish in ancient times depended on the efficiency of a writing system (e.g., use of alphabets). The earliest roots of science can be traced to the Ancient Near East , in particular Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Starting in around 3000 BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a numbering system that was decimal in character and had oriented their knowledge of geometry to solving practical problems such as those of surveyors and builders. Their development of geometry

7770-468: The gods or omens were concealed in all natural phenomena that could be deciphered and interpreted by those who are adept. Hence, it was believed that the gods could speak through all terrestrial objects (e.g., animal entrails, dreams, malformed births, or even the color of a dog urinating on a person) and celestial phenomena. Moreover, Babylonian astrology was inseparable from Babylonian astronomy. The Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 , dating to

7881-571: The greater Asian region in general can be traced to the scientific activities of Jesuit missionaries who were interested in studying the region's flora and fauna during the 16th to 17th century. The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 4th millennium BCE ~ c. 3rd millennium BCE). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in

7992-653: The gut and the kidneys. In the Commonwealth of Nations and some other countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians (or internists) who have subspecialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Elsewhere, especially in North America, general pediatrics is often a form of primary care . There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine : Training in internal medicine (as opposed to surgical training), varies considerably across

8103-454: The history of science is a topic of debate (as is, by implication, the definition of science itself). The history of science is often seen as a linear story of progress but historians have come to see the story as more complex. Alfred Edward Taylor has characterised lean periods in the advance of scientific discovery as "periodical bankruptcies of science". Science is a human activity, and scientific contributions have come from people from

8214-553: The hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g., the cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g., surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications/developments. Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in. The main branches of medicine are: In

8325-434: The information provided. During the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the same general procedure, and specialists follow a similar process. The diagnosis and treatment may take only

8436-590: The inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology . He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an , Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with

8547-508: The inventor of movable type printing , Bi Sheng (990–1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a treatise related to botany , zoology , mineralogy , and metallurgy , and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere , his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and

8658-548: The knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favor in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun. From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from 940 was drawn using a cylindrical ( Mercator ) projection. The use of an armillary sphere

8769-565: The mathematical and scientific achievements in India and particularly in China occurred largely independently from those of Europe and the confirmed early influences that these two civilizations had on the development of science in Europe in the pre-modern era were indirect, with Mesopotamia and later the Islamic World acting as intermediaries. The arrival of modern science, which grew out of the Scientific Revolution , in India and China and

8880-773: The narrow sense, common outside North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities. Because their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such general physicians would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less common. In modern urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to problems of one organ system or to one particular area of medical knowledge. For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of

8991-504: The new specialty leads to the formation of a unifying body of doctors and the prestige of administering their own examination. Within medical circles, specialities usually fit into one of two broad categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery". "Medicine" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most of its subspecialties require preliminary training in Internal Medicine. In the UK, this was traditionally evidenced by passing

9102-477: The patient's medical history and medical record , followed by a medical interview and a physical examination . Basic diagnostic medical devices (e.g., stethoscope , tongue depressor ) are typically used. After examining for signs and interviewing for symptoms , the doctor may order medical tests (e.g., blood tests ), take a biopsy , or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on

9213-464: The planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it. In the Tantrasangraha treatise, Nilakantha Somayaji 's updated

9324-440: The possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other. The health professionals who provide care in medicine comprise multiple professions , such as medics , nurses , physiotherapists , and psychologists . These professions will have their own ethical standards , professional education, and bodies. The medical profession has been conceptualized from a sociological perspective . Provision of medical care

9435-432: The primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes. Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient. Referrals are made for those patients who required

9546-476: The properties of metals. Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information and were far more interested in studying the manner in which the gods had ordered the universe . Biology of non-human organisms was generally only written about in the context of mainstream academic disciplines. Animal physiology

9657-833: The proportion 4:2:1, which is favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler —whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimeters) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. The Bakhshali manuscript contains problems involving arithmetic , algebra and geometry , including mensuration . The topics covered include fractions, square roots, arithmetic and geometric progressions , solutions of simple equations, simultaneous linear equations , quadratic equations and indeterminate equations of

9768-446: The ratio 355 113 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {355}{113}}} which remained the most accurate value for 1200 years. Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilization and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BCE), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but

9879-785: The reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 BCE). In East Semitic cultures, the main medicinal authority was a kind of exorcist-healer known as an āšipu . The profession was generally passed down from father to son and was held in extremely high regard. Of less frequent recourse was another kind of healer known as an asu , who corresponds more closely to a modern physician and treated physical symptoms using primarily folk remedies composed of various herbs, animal products, and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or poultices . These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced prophylaxis and took measures to prevent

9990-399: The repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy , cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures. The Charaka Samhita of Charaka describes ancient theories on human body, etiology , symptomology and therapeutics for a wide range of diseases. It also includes sections on the importance of diet, hygiene, prevention, medical education, and the teamwork of

10101-459: The same time, contains a surgical manual for treating wounds, fractures, and dislocations. The Egyptians believed that the effectiveness of their medicines depended on the preparation and administration under appropriate rituals. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective. Both the Ebers and Edwin Smith papyri applied the following components to

10212-525: The science establishment as inferior . Historians in the 1980s and 1990s described the structural barriers to participation and began to recover the contributions of overlooked individuals. Historians have also investigated the mundane practices of science such as fieldwork and specimen collection, correspondence, drawing, record-keeping, and the use of laboratory and field equipment. In prehistoric times, knowledge and technique were passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition . For instance,

10323-604: The scientific revolution and the Age of Enlightenment – led scholars such as John William Draper to postulate ( c.  1874 ) a conflict thesis , suggesting that religion and science have been in conflict methodologically, factually and politically throughout history. The "conflict thesis" has since lost favor among the majority of contemporary scientists and historians of science. However, some contemporary philosophers and scientists, such as Richard Dawkins , still subscribe to this thesis. Historians have emphasized that trust

10434-538: The second degree. In the 3rd century BCE, Pingala presents the Pingala-sutras, the earliest known treatise on Sanskrit prosody . He also presents a numerical system by adding one to the sum of place values . Pingala's work also includes material related to the Fibonacci numbers , called mātrāmeru . Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced

10545-413: The spread of disease. In Babylonian astronomy , records of the motions of the stars , planets , and the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes . Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in Western calendars such as the solar year and the lunar month . Using this data, they developed mathematical methods to compute

10656-451: The tradition of Classical logic . Navya-Nyāya developed a sophisticated language and conceptual scheme that allowed it to raise, analyse, and solve problems in logic and epistemology. It systematised all the Nyāya concepts into four main categories: sense or perception (pratyakşa), inference (anumāna), comparison or similarity ( upamāna ), and testimony (sound or word; śabda). From the earliest

10767-403: The treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science and, according to G.E.R. Lloyd, played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The ancient Egyptians even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year. Unlike

10878-568: The two camps above; for example anaesthesia developed first as a faculty of the Royal College of Surgeons (for which MRCS/FRCS would have been required) before becoming the Royal College of Anaesthetists and membership of the college is attained by sitting for the examination of the Fellowship of the Royal College of Anesthetists (FRCA). Surgery is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on

10989-664: The universe as they intuited it. During the Middle Formative Period (c. 900 BCE – c. 300 BCE) of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica , the Zapotec civilization , heavily influenced by the Olmec civilization , established the first known full writing system of the region (possibly predated by the Olmec Cascajal Block ), as well as the first known astronomical calendar in Mesoamerica . Following

11100-510: The universe, the spherical self-supporting earth , and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani , written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of

11211-422: The world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive . The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science

11322-418: The world: see the articles on medical education for more details. In North America, it requires at least three years of residency training after medical school, which can then be followed by a one- to three-year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week in the US. This difference does not apply in

11433-419: Was an art (an area of creativity and skill), frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a medicine man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher and physician would apply bloodletting according to the theories of humorism . In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science , most medicine has become

11544-450: Was an inclination to unquestioningly accept explanations that might be deemed implausible in more modern times while at the same time not being aware that such credulous behaviors could have posed problems. The development of writing enabled humans to store and communicate knowledge across generations with much greater accuracy. Its invention was a prerequisite for the development of philosophy and later science in ancient times . Moreover,

11655-567: Was closely related to the practical need to explain and justify a present state of affairs. Another feature was the tendency to describe the universe as just sky and earth, with a potential underworld . They were also prone to identify causes with beginnings, thereby providing a historical origin with an explanation. There was also a reliance on a " medicine man " or " wise woman " for healing, knowledge of divine or demonic causes of diseases, and in more extreme cases, for rituals such as exorcism , divination , songs, and incantations . Finally, there

11766-570: Was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), dry docks , sliding calipers , the double-action piston pump , the blast furnace , the multi-tube seed drill , the wheelbarrow , the suspension bridge , the winnowing machine , gunpowder ,

11877-538: Was itself a necessary development of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland , which was flooded annually by the Nile River. The 3-4-5 right triangle and other rules of geometry were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean . Based on the medical papyri written in

11988-411: Was more mechanistic in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined scientific method . More "revolutions" in subsequent centuries soon followed. The chemical revolution of the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements for chemistry . In the 19th century , new perspectives regarding

12099-423: Was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The Taoists , indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of

12210-529: Was studied extensively for the purpose of divination ; the anatomy of the liver , which was seen as an important organ in haruspicy , was studied in particularly intensive detail. Animal behavior was also studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally without being written down, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived. The ancient Mesopotamians had no distinction between "rational science" and magic . When

12321-753: Was the former Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, which was one of the 88 key universities designated by the State Council in 1978. Its history began with Sanjiang Normal School founded in 1902, which evolved and renamed Liangjiang Normal School in 1906, Nanjing Higher Normal School in 1915, National Southeastern University in 1921, Disi Zhongshan University in 1927, Jiangsu University in February and Central University in March 1928, and Nanjing University in 1949. Nanjing University Engineering College became Nanjing Polytechnic Institute in 1952 and then in 1960

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