The Jikany Nuer are a section of the Nuer people who mainly live in the eastern part of Upper Nile state in South Sudan , particularly around Nasir in Nasir County .
89-687: During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005), between 1993 and 2004 the Lou Nuer and Jikany Nuer of Nasir County were in violent conflict. After that time, relations between the two groups were calmer until 2009, when they deteriorated sharply. Gordon Kong Chuol belongs to the Jikany Nuer and comes from Nasir. He became a militia leader of Thourjikany Forces, and a major-general in Anya Nya II in 1988. He then became
178-558: A United Nations report, an estimated 430 children were victims of sexual violence through military recruitment in South Sudan. USAID continues to work on educational initiatives, including granting 9,000 scholarships to boys and girls. They also have over a dozen educational projects and have constructed 140 primary-level schools and four secondary schools. Over 1.4 million students attend or are involved in USAID educational programs in
267-743: A commander and a member of the political and military high command of the SPLM/A. In August 1991 Riek Machar, Lam Akol and Gordon Kong announced that John Garang had been ejected from the SPLM. The breakaway faction, based in Nasir until 1995 and then in Waat and Ayod , was called the SPLM/A-Nasir faction from 1991 to 1993. In the first part of 1994, Gordon Kong became involved in a quarrel between Lou Nuer from Waat and Jikany Nuer in Nasir over fishing rights in
356-461: A growing number of SPLA members became wary of his rule, and began to conspire against him. In August 1991, internal dissent among the rebels led opponents of Garang's leadership, most importantly Riek Machar and Lam Akol , to attempt a coup against him. It failed, and the dissidents split off to form their own SPLA faction, the SPLA-Nasir . On 15 November 1991, Machar's SPLA-Nasir alongside
445-565: A north–south conflict. The SPLA, DUP, and Umma Parties were the key groups forming the NDA, along with several smaller parties and northern ethnic groups. In 1995, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Uganda stepped up their military assistance to the SPLA to the point of sending active troops into Sudan. Eritrean and Ethiopian military involvement weakened when the two countries entered a border conflict in 1998. Uganda's support weakened when it shifted its attention to
534-554: A peace initiative for Sudan under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), but results have been mixed. Despite that record, the IGAD initiative promulgated the 1994 Declaration of Principles (DOP) that aimed to identify the essential elements necessary to a just and comprehensive peace settlement; i.e. the relationship between religion and the state, power-sharing, wealth-sharing, and
623-540: A priority. Naguib himself was half-Sudanese, and had been born and raised in Khartoum. Under continued pressure, the United Kingdom conceded to Egypt's demands in 1953, with the governments of both Egypt and the United Kingdom agreeing to terminate the condominium, and grant Sudan independence in 1956. On 1 January 1956, Egyptian and British sovereignty over Sudan duly ended, and Sudan became independent. In 1820,
712-750: A single Egyptian-Sudanese state persisted when the Sultanate was re-titled the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan , but the British continued to frustrate these efforts. The failure of the government in Cairo to end the British occupation led to separate efforts for independence in Sudan itself, the first of which was led by a group of Sudanese military officers known as the White Flag League in 1924. The group
801-611: The Addis Ababa Agreement . Part of this agreement gave religious and cultural autonomy to the south. Despite this a number of mutinies by former Anyanya took place in 1974, 1975, and February 1976 with the March 1975 mutiny at Akobo seeing 200 killed, 150 soldiers executed, and 48 more sentenced to imprisonment for up to 15 years. The accords of the Addis Ababa Agreement had been incorporated in
890-642: The Constitution of Sudan ; the violation of the agreement led to the second civil war. The first violations occurred when President Gaafar Nimeiry attempted to take control of oil fields straddling the north–south border. Oil had been discovered in Bentiu in 1978, in southern Kurdufan and Upper Blue Nile in 1979, the Unity oilfields in 1980 and Adar oilfields in 1981, and in Heglig in 1982. Access to
979-470: The Egyptian Revolution of 1919 , prompting the United Kingdom to recognise Egyptian independence in 1922 as the Kingdom of Egypt . Egyptian nationalists, and Sudanese favouring union with Egypt, demanded that Sudan be included within the bounds of the kingdom, with the term "Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan" entering the nationalist vernacular. However, in the terms of the legal instrument by which
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#17327725118111068-659: The Ottoman Empire (to which he technically owed fealty ), and saw Sudan as a valuable addition to his Egyptian dominion. During his reign and that of his successors, Egypt and Sudan came to be administered as one political entity, with all ruling members of the Muhammad Ali dynasty seeking to preserve and extend the "unity of the Nile Valley ". This policy was expanded and intensified most notably by Muhammad Ali's grandson, Ismail Pasha , under whose reign most of
1157-640: The Popular Defense Forces (PDF) were used to attack and raid villages in the south and in the Nuba Mountains . Sudan's governments have a long history of using proxies in southern Sudan, and the north–south border areas, to fight their wars and preserve their regular forces. These militias were recruited locally, and with covert ties to the national government. Many of the Khartoum-aligned groups were created and then armed by
1246-542: The Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation (RCC) , a military junta of 15 military officers (reduced to 12 in 1991) assisted by a civilian cabinet. Now a General al-Bashir became: president, chief of state, prime minister, and chief of the armed forces. The RCC banned trade unions, political parties, and other "non-religious" institutions. About 78,000 members of the army, police, and civil administration were purged in order to reshape
1335-1181: The Sobat River . As commander of Waat and Nasir, Gordon Kong was ordered by Riek Machar to defend Nasir. Instead Gordon Kong left Nasir and launched an attack on Lou civilians. In response, the Lou called in Gordon Kong Banypiny for help, and he led a force of Lou men to Nasir, which they burned. Riek Machar arrested the commanders who had become involved in this fighting between SSIA sections and put them up for trial. Some were sentenced to imprisonment and others to death. Later they were pardoned. Sources Second Sudanese Civil War Stalemate [REDACTED] Sudan [REDACTED] SSDF [REDACTED] SPLA dissidents [REDACTED] Nuer White Army [REDACTED] Ugandan insurgents: [REDACTED] Zaire (1994– 1997 ) [REDACTED] al-Qaeda (1991–1996) [REDACTED] Iraq [REDACTED] China [REDACTED] SPLA [REDACTED] Tens of thousands The Second Sudanese Civil War
1424-682: The "Gathering"—the military council appointed an interim civilian cabinet, headed by Prime Minister Dr. Al-Jazuli Daf'allah . Elections were held in April 1986, and the transitional military council turned over power to a civilian government as promised. The government was headed by Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi of the Umma Party . It consisted of a coalition of the Umma Party, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) (formerly
1513-442: The British and Egyptian occupation of Sudan. Having abolished the monarchy in 1953, Egypt's new leaders, Muhammad Naguib , who was raised as the son of an Egyptian army officer in Sudan, and Gamal Abdel Nasser , believed the only way to end the British domination in Sudan was for Egypt itself to officially abandon its sovereignty over Sudan. Since the British claim to control in Sudan theoretically depended upon Egyptian sovereignty,
1602-521: The British bombarded Alexandria , Egypt's and Sudan's primary seaport, and subsequently invaded the country. British forces overthrew the Orabi government in Cairo , and proceeded to occupy the rest of Egypt and Sudan in 1882. Though officially the authority of Tewfik had been restored, in reality the British largely took control of Egyptian and Sudanese affairs. Tewfik's acquiescence to British occupation as
1691-512: The British decided to re-establish control over Sudan. Leading a joint Egyptian-British force, Kitchener led military campaigns from 1896 to 1898. Kitchener's campaigns culminated in the Battle of Atbara , and the Battle of Omdurman . Exercising the leverage which their military superiority provided, the British forced Abbas II to accept British control in Sudan. Whereas British influence in Egypt
1780-514: The British off-guard. The revolt culminated in the fall of Khartoum , and the death of the British General Charles George Gordon (Gordon of Khartoum) in 1885. Tewfik's Egyptian forces and those of the United Kingdom were forced to withdraw from almost all of Sudan, with Ahmad subsequently establishing a theocratic state. Ahmad's religious government imposed traditional Islamic laws upon Sudan, and stressed
1869-598: The Egyptian government abrogated the agreements underpinning the condominium, and declared that Egypt and Sudan were legally united as the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan, with King Farouk as the King of Egypt and the Sudan . This was superseded by the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 eight months later, which overthrew King Farouk. The new revolutionary government under Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser made Sudanese independence
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#17327725118111958-644: The Islamic fundamentalist NIF. In February 1989, the army presented Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi with an ultimatum: he could move toward peace or be removed. He chose to form a new government with the DUP, and approved the SPLA/DUP peace plan. A constitutional conference was tentatively planned for September 1989. On 30 June 1989, however, military officers under Col. Omar Hassan al-Bashir , with alleged NIF instigation and support, replaced Sadiq al-Mahdi's government with
2047-410: The Khartoum agreements that ended military conflict between the government and significant rebel factions. Many of those leaders then moved to Khartoum where they assumed marginal roles in the central government, or collaborated with the government in military engagements against the SPLA. These three agreements paralleled the terms and conditions of the IGAD agreement, calling for a degree of autonomy for
2136-516: The NIF in a deliberate 'divide and rule' strategy. The widespread activity of insurgent and pro-government militants and increasing lawlessness in southern Sudan resulted in the militarization of many communities. Ethnic violence became widespread, and all sides targeted civilians to destroy the power bases and recruitment centers of their rivals. Those who could formed self-defense groups, and these were often based on familial and tribal links as these were
2225-617: The National Unionist Party), the National Islamic Front (NIF) of Hassan al-Turabi , and several southern region parties. This coalition dissolved and reformed several times over the next few years, with Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi and his Umma Party always in a central role. In May 1986, the Sadiq al-Mahdi government coalition began peace negotiations with the SPLA led by Col. John Garang . In that year
2314-694: The Nuer White Army carried out the Bor massacre , killing an estimated 2000 Dinka civilians. In September 1992, William Nyuon Bany formed a second rebel faction, and in February 1993, Kerubino Kuanyin Bol formed a third rebel faction. On 5 April 1993, the three dissident rebel factions announced a coalition of their groups called SPLA United at a press conference in Nairobi , Kenya . During 1990 and 1991,
2403-649: The Ottoman Empire forced Egypt to return all Levantine and Arabian territory to the Ottomans upon Muhammad Ali's death. However, there was no such impediment to Egypt's southward expansion. During the reign of Muhammad Ali's grandson, Isma'il Pasha , Egypt consolidated and expanded its control of the Sudan as far south as the Great Lakes region , whilst simultaneously acquiring territory in modern-day Chad , Eritrea , Djibouti , and Somalia . Additionally,
2492-529: The Ottoman Empire, true power now rested with the United Kingdom's representative in Cairo . In the following decade, the United Kingdom reformed and remodelled the Egyptian military on British lines, and British and Egyptian forces gradually defeated the Mahdist rebels , and restored the nominal authority of the Egyptian Khedive in Sudan. However, as in Egypt proper, this authority was compromised by
2581-485: The SPLA and a number of Sudanese political parties met in Ethiopia and agreed to the " Koka Dam " declaration, which called for abolishing Islamic Sharia law and convening a constitutional conference. In 1988, the SPLA and the DUP agreed on a peace plan calling for the abolition of military pacts with Egypt and Libya , freezing of Sharia law, an end to the state of emergency, and a cease-fire. However, during this period
2670-535: The Second Sudanese Civil War. In May of 1983, the 1st Division's 105th Battalion in the Sudanese military mutinied in the towns of Bor, South Sudan and Pibor . Government soldiers moved to suppress the mutiny but were repulsed by the rebels. The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) was founded in 1983 as a rebel group , to reestablish an autonomous southern Sudan by fighting against
2759-467: The Sudan ", a recognition which the British were loath to grant, not least because Farouk was secretly negotiating with Mussolini for an Italian invasion. The defeat of this damaging démarche of 1940 for Anglo-Egyptian relations helped to turn the tide of the Second World War . It was the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 which finally set a series of events in motion which would eventually end
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2848-504: The Sudanese government supported Saddam Hussein in the Gulf War . This changed American attitudes toward the country. Bill Clinton 's administration prohibited American investment in the country and supplied money to neighbouring countries to repel Sudanese incursions. The US also began attempts to "isolate" Sudan and began referring to it as a rogue state . Since 1993, the leaders of Eritrea , Ethiopia, Uganda , and Kenya have pursued
2937-428: The Sudanese religious leader Muhammad Ahmad , the self-proclaimed Mahdi (Guided One), was both political and religious. Abdalla wished not only to expel the British, but to overthrow the monarchy, viewed as secular and Western-leaning, and replace it with what he viewed as a pure Islamic government. Whilst primarily a Sudanese figure, Abdalla even attracted the support of some Egyptian nationalists, and caught Tewfik and
3026-704: The United Kingdom declared Egypt to be a formal protectorate of the United Kingdom. Whilst Egypt was not annexed to the British Empire , with the British King never becoming sovereign of Egypt, Egypt's status as a protectorate precluded any actual independence for the sultanate. For all intents and purposes, the Sultanate of Egypt was as much controlled by the United Kingdom as the Khedivate of Egypt had been. Rising nationalist anger at British control led to
3115-503: The United Kingdom deposed the anti-British Abbas II in favour of his pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel . The legal aspect of the nominal Ottoman sovereignty was terminated, and the Sultanate of Egypt , destroyed by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, was re-established with Hussein Kamal as Sultan . Despite the restoration of the nominal sultanate, British power in Egypt and Sudan was undiminished, as
3204-452: The United Kingdom recognised Egyptian independence, it specifically reserved the issue of the governance of Sudan as a question to be resolved in the future. Defying Egyptian and Sudanese demands, the United Kingdom gradually assumed more control of the condominium, edging out Egypt almost completely by 1924. In the decades that followed, Egyptian and Sudanese discontent and anger at continued British rule in Sudan increased. On 16 October 1951,
3293-660: The United Kingdom through the Governor-General in Khartoum . For the remainder of his reign, this would be one of the flashpoints between the nationalist Khedive Abbas II and the United Kingdom, with Abbas seeking to arrest and reverse the process of increasing British control in Egypt and Sudan. Following the Ottoman Empire's entry in to the First World War as a member of the Central Powers in 1914,
3382-424: The United Kingdom, but in practice the structure of the condominium ensured effective British control over Sudan, with Egypt having limited local power and influence. In the meantime, Egypt itself fell under increasing British influence. Following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 , Egypt pushed for an end to the condominium, and the independence of Sudan. By agreement between Egypt and the United Kingdom in 1953, Sudan
3471-416: The army of Egyptian wāli Muhammad Ali Pasha , commanded by his son Ismail Pasha, gained control of Sudan. The region had longstanding linguistic, cultural, religious, and economic ties to Egypt, and had been partially under the same government at intermittent periods since the times of the pharaohs . Muhammad Ali was aggressively pursuing a policy of expanding his power with a view to possibly supplanting
3560-461: The central government expanding and dominating peoples of the periphery, raising allegations of marginalization . Kingdoms and great powers based along the Nile River have fought against the people of inland Sudan for centuries. Since at least the 18th century, central governments have attempted to regulate and exploit the undeveloped southern and inland regions of Sudan. Some sources describe
3649-469: The central government. While based in southern Sudan, it identified itself as a movement for all oppressed Sudanese citizens, and was led by John Garang . Initially, the SPLA campaigned for a united Sudan, criticizing the central government for policies that were leading to national "disintegration". In September 1985 the Government of Sudan announced the end of the state of emergency and dismantled
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3738-455: The conflict as an ethnoreligious one where the Arab - Muslim central government's pursuits to impose Sharia law in 1983 on non-Muslim southerners led to violence, and eventually to the civil war. Douglas Johnson has pointed to exploitative governance as the root cause. When the British governed Sudan as a colony they administered the northern and southern provinces separately. The south
3827-547: The conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo . By 1997, seven groups in the government camp, led by former Garang lieutenant Riek Machar , signed the Khartoum Peace Agreement with the NIF, thereby forming the largely symbolic South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF) umbrella. Furthermore, the government signed the Nuba Mountains , and Fashoda agreements with rebel factions. These included
3916-596: The country caused by his cripplingly expensive programmes of rapid modernisation. This led ultimately to the Great Powers deposing Isma'il in 1879 in favour of his son, Tewfik Pasha . Egypt thereafter withdrew from all territories outside of Sudan, and Egypt proper. Discontent with the rule of Tewfik sparked two revolts in 1881, the Mahdist Revolt in Sudan, and the Orabi Revolt in Egypt proper. Whilst
4005-471: The dominant regional power, Muhammad Ali declared himself Khedive , and expanded Egypt's borders both southwards into Sudan, and eastwards into the Levant and Arabia , the latter at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Territory in Sudan was annexed by Egypt, and governed as an integral part of the country, with Sudanese granted Egyptian citizenship. Ultimately, the intervention of the Great Powers in support of
4094-702: The edge of the Sahara desert, which is unsuitable for agricultural development. Oil revenues make up about 70% of Sudan's export earnings. Due to the numerous tributaries of the Nile river and heavier precipitation in the south of Sudan, it has superior water access and more fertile land. There has also been a significant amount of death from warring tribes in the south. Most of the conflict has been between Nuer and Dinka but other ethnic groups have also been involved. These tribal conflicts continued after South Sudanese independence. The first civil war ended in 1972, with
4183-402: The emergency courts but soon promulgated a new judiciary act, which continued many of the practices of the emergency courts. Despite Nimeiry's public assurances that the rights of non-Muslims would be respected, southerners and other non-Muslims remained deeply suspicious. On 6 April 1985, senior military officers led by General Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab mounted a coup. Among the first acts of
4272-471: The government. In March 1991, a new penal code, the Criminal Act of 1991 , instituted harsh punishments nationwide, including amputations and stoning . Although the southern states were officially exempt from these Islamic prohibitions and penalties, the 1991 act provided for a possible future application of Islamic Sharia law in the south. In 1993, the government transferred most non-Muslim judges from
4361-495: The hands of foreign powers greatly angered Egyptian and Sudanese nationalists who resented the ever-increasing influence of European governments and merchants in the affairs of the country. The situation was compounded by Tewfik's perceived corruption and mismanagement, ultimately culminating in the Orabi Revolt led by the nationalist head of the army, Ahmed Orabi . With the survival of his throne in dire jeopardy, Tewfik appealed for British assistance. In 1882, at Tewfik's invitation,
4450-622: The hitherto unsanctioned use of the title Khedive was formally approved by the Ottoman Sultan. Egypt was at the height of its power, with Isma'il seeking the establishment of a contiguous African empire that could be a bulwark against European expansion in Africa . Isma'il's grand ambitions were, however, cut short by Egypt's ruinous defeat in the Ethiopian-Egyptian War , which exacerbated pre-existing financial problems in
4539-501: The independence of South Sudan 6 years after the war ended. Roughly two million people died as a result of war, famine and disease caused by the conflict. Four million people in southern Sudan were displaced at least once, normally repeatedly during the war. The civilian death toll is one of the highest of any war since World War II and was marked by numerous human rights violations , including slavery and mass killings . Wars in Sudan are often characterized as fights between
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#17327725118114628-419: The infamous "White House" – the Giada barracks in Juba – alone. At the same time, the SPLA ruthlessly crushed all internal and external opposition as far as possible, including other rebel factions such as the Anyanya II insurgents and critics in its own ranks. Garang became infamous for his authoritarian leadership style, and ordered the torture and execution of several dissenting SPLA commanders. Over time,
4717-478: The joint initiative because it neglected to address issues of the relationship between religion and the state and failed to mention the right of self-determination. Some critics viewed it as more aimed at a resolution among northern political parties and protecting the perceived security interests of Egypt over the unity of Sudan. Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early 2004, although skirmishes in parts of
4806-418: The military intervention of the United Kingdom in 1882 crushed the Orabi Revolt, and restored Tewfik's nominal authority in Egypt proper, the Mahdist Revolt continued to expand, leaving Sudan under the effective rule of the Mahdist rebels. The British military presence in Egypt transformed the country into a virtual protectorate of the United Kingdom . Though it remained de jure a self-governing vassal state of
4895-524: The most damage is the agriculture sector. The conflict forced many farmers to escape the violence and abandon their farmland. Agriculture projects that were meant to improve cultivation methods, some that were funded by the United Nations , were terminated because they were destroyed or people stopped working; such projects include a pump-irrigation system. Additionally, the "animal wealth" of the farmers significantly decreased. Over six million cows , two million sheep , and one million goats were killed during
4984-436: The need to continue the armed struggle until the British had been completely expelled from the country, and all of Egypt and Sudan had been Incorporated under his Mahdiya. Though he died six months after the fall of Khartoum, Ahmad's call was fully echoed by his successor, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad , who invaded Ethiopia in 1887, and penetrated as far as Gondar , and the remainder of northern Sudan and Egypt in 1889. This invasion
5073-463: The new government was to suspend the 1983 constitution, rescind the decree declaring Sudan's intent to become an Islamic state, and disband Nimeiry's Sudanese Socialist Union . However, the " September laws " instituting Islamic Sharia law were not suspended. A 15-member transitional military council was named, chaired by al-Dahab, in 1985. In consultation with an informal conference of political parties, unions, and professional organizations—known as
5162-448: The oil fields meant significant economic benefit to whoever controlled them. Islamic fundamentalists in the north had been discontented with the Addis Ababa Agreement, which gave relative autonomy to the non-Islamic majority Southern Sudan Autonomous Region . The fundamentalists continued to grow in power, and in 1983 President Nimeiry declared all of Sudan an Islamic state , terminating the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region and starting
5251-745: The only ones most southern people could still rely on. In this way, groups like the Nuer White Army and Dinka Titweng ("cattle guard") militias came into existence. Even though they were originally intended to just defend civilian communities, they often became brutal gangs which targeted civilians of other ethnicities. The government and rebel groups exploited these tensions and self-defense groups, using them to destabilize their enemies. The Sudanese Armed Forces became infamous for brutally suppressing all civil dissidents. People suspected of disloyalty or rebel sympathies were arrested and taken to prisons and barracks, where they were tortured and executed. Hundreds, perhaps even thousands of people were murdered at
5340-416: The price for securing the monarchy was deeply detested by many throughout Egypt and Sudan. With the bulk of British forces stationed in northern Egypt, protecting Cairo, Alexandria, and the Suez Canal, opposition to Tewfik and his European protectors was stymied in Egypt. In contrast, the British military presence in Sudan was comparatively limited, and eventually revolt broke out. The rebellion in Sudan, led by
5429-406: The reality of effective British control. In 1899, the United Kingdom forced Abbas II , Tewfik's successor as Khedive, to transform Sudan from an integral part of Egypt into a condominium in which sovereignty would be shared between Egypt and the United Kingdom. Once established, the condominium witnessed ever-decreasing Egyptian control, and would for most of its existence be governed in practice by
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#17327725118115518-480: The region. Historically, disputes in Sudan have been over fertile land and water. Oil became a point of dispute following its discovery in Sudan. However, despite the availability of oil, Sudan experiences the paradox of the plenty , a phenomenon that occurs when a country has plentiful natural resources—in this case, oil—but struggles to fully compete economically. Because of displacement, refugees who fled their destroyed homes cut down forests to survive. They used
5607-507: The remainder of modern-day Sudan, and South Sudan was conquered. With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt and Sudan's economic and strategic importance increased enormously, attracting the imperial attentions of the Great Powers , particularly the United Kingdom. Ten years later in 1879, the immense foreign debt of Ismail Pasha's government served as the pretext for the Great Powers to force his abdication and replacement by his son Tewfik Pasha . The manner of Tewfik's ascension at
5696-402: The revolutionaries calculated that this tactic would leave the UK with no option but to withdraw. In addition, Nasser had known for some time that it would be problematic for Egypt to govern the impoverished Sudan. In 1943 a North Sudan Advisory Council was established bringing a level of self-governance to the northern provinces of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. At a conference held in Juba in 1947, it
5785-427: The right of self-determination for the south. The Sudanese Government did not sign the DOP until 1997 after major battlefield losses to the SPLA. In 1995, the opposition in the north united with parties from the south to create a coalition of opposition parties called the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). This development opened a northeastern front to the civil war, making it a Sudan wide conflict rather than simply
5874-564: The same year, only 35 percent of the teachers in South Sudan had a primary-level of education. An additional obstacles students face is the forced recruitment into armed militias and state military. According to a United Nations report, 50 percent of South Sudanese children do not attend school. Boys and girls, who are in schools, are abducted by soldiers and forced to join the military or armed rebel groups. When they are taken, most girls are raped by their captors and those who resist are killed. Boys are "castrated and sexually mutilated". According to
5963-411: The second civil war intensified in lethality, and the national economy continued to deteriorate. When prices of basic goods were increased in 1988, riots ensued, and the price increases were cancelled. When Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi refused to approve a peace plan reached by the DUP and the SPLA in November 1988, the DUP left the government. The new government consisted essentially of the Umma Party and
6052-488: The south and the right of self-determination. Nevertheless, the SPLA made major advances in 1997 due to the success of Operation Thunderbolt , an offensive during which the southern Sudanese separatists seized most of Central and Western Equatoria from the government. In July 2000, the Libyan/Egyptian Joint Initiative on the Sudan called for the establishment of an interim government, power-sharing, constitutional reform, and new elections. Southern critics objected to
6141-424: The south continued. A Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed on 9 January 2005 in Nairobi . The terms of the peace treaty were: The status of three central and eastern provinces was a point of contention in the negotiations. According to the SPLA, about 2 million people had died in southern Sudan alone due to the war. The Second Sudanese Civil War destroyed many sectors of economic activity. The sector with
6230-412: The south to the north, replacing them with Muslim judges in the south. The introduction of Public Order Police to enforce Sharia law resulted in the arrest, and treatment under Sharia penalties, of southerners and other non-Muslims living in the north. The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) was in control of large areas of Equatoria , Bahr al Ghazal , and Upper Nile provinces and also operated in
6319-417: The southern portions of Darfur , Kordofan , and Blue Nile provinces. The government controlled a number of the major southern towns and cities, including Juba , Wau , and Malakal . An informal cease-fire in May broke down in October 1989. In July 1992, a government offensive seized many parts of southern Sudan, and captured the SPLA headquarters in Torit . Both the government regular armed forces and
6408-602: The transitional period in the 1950s. In the post-colonial government of 1953, the Sudanization Committee had only six southerners in its 800 senior administrative positions. The second war was partially about natural resources. Between the north and the south lie significant oil fields and thus significant foreign interests (the oil revenue is privatized to Western interests as in Nigeria ). The northerners wanted to control these resources because they live on
6497-522: The war. A different sector that was affected by the conflict was the industrial sector , which consists of manufacturing and processing. Manufacturing facilities were unable to produce essential materials, including soap , textiles , sugar , and processed foods . Processed-foods facilities include the preservation of foods , such as canning fruits and vegetables, and vegetable oil production. Poverty continued to climb and significantly impacted people in rural areas. The destroyed agriculture sector
6586-487: The wood for fuel, building materials, and to find food. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Anglo-Egyptian Sudan ( Arabic : السودان الإنجليزي المصري as-Sūdān al-Inglīzī al-Maṣrī ) was a condominium of the United Kingdom and Egypt between 1899 and 1956, corresponding mostly to the territory of present-day South Sudan and Sudan . Legally, sovereignty and administration were shared between both Egypt and
6675-643: Was a conflict from 1983 to 2005 between the central Sudanese government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army . It was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil War of 1955 to 1972. Although it originated in southern Sudan, the civil war spread to the Nuba mountains and the Blue Nile . It lasted for almost 22 years and is one of the longest civil wars on record. The war resulted in
6764-599: Was decided to integrate the administration of the southern provinces with those of the north. Thirteen appointed representatives from the southern provinces took up seats in the Sudan Legislative Assembly in 1948. On 12 February 1953, an agreement was reached between Egypt, the United Kingdom and the political representatives of Sudan to transition from condominium to self-government. Sudan was granted self-government in March 1953 and Ismail al-Azhari became Chief Minister in 1954. A constituent assembly
6853-501: Was effectively administered as a British imperial possession. Pursuing a policy of divide and rule , the British were keen to reverse the process, started under Muhammad Ali , of uniting the Nile Valley under Egyptian leadership, and sought to frustrate all efforts to further unite the two countries. During World War I , the British invaded and incorporated Darfur into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1916. This policy
6942-625: Was formed and a transitional constitution was drafted. Sudanese representatives would be able to participate in the Afro-Asian Conference planned for April 1955. In October 1954, the governments of Egypt and the UK signed a treaty that would grant Sudan independence on 1 January 1956. Sudan become an independent sovereign state, the Republic of the Sudan , bringing to an end its nearly 136-year union with Egypt and its 56-year occupation by
7031-405: Was granted independence as the Republic of the Sudan on 1 January 1956. In 2011, the south of Sudan itself became independent as the Republic of South Sudan . In the 19th century, whilst nominally a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire , Egypt had acted as a virtually independent state since Muhammad Ali 's seizure of power in 1805. Seeking to supplant and ultimately replace the Ottoman Empire as
7120-429: Was halted by Tewfik's forces, and was followed later by withdrawal from Ethiopia. Abdullahi wrecked virtually all of the previous Egyptian, and Funj administrative systems, and gravely weakened Sudanese tribal unities. From 1885 to 1898, the population of Sudan collapsed from eight to three million due to war, famine, disease and persecution. After a series of Mahdist defeats, Tewfik's son and successor, Abbas II , and
7209-419: Was held to be more similar to the other east-African colonies – Kenya , Tanganyika , and Uganda – while northern Sudan was more similar to Arabic -speaking Egypt . Northern Arabs were prevented from holding positions of power in the south with its African traditions, and trade was discouraged between the two areas. However, in 1946, the British gave in to northern pressure to integrate the two areas. Arabic
7298-472: Was instructional. The continued British occupation of Sudan fuelled an increasingly strident nationalist backlash in Egypt, with Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and Sudan. With the formal end in 1914 of the legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty, Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt and Sudan. Upon his death in 1917, his brother Fuad succeeded him as Sultan Fuad I . The insistence of
7387-430: Was internalised within Sudan itself, with the British determined to exacerbate differences and frictions between Sudan's numerous different ethnic groups. From 1924 onwards, the British essentially divided Sudan into two separate territories–a predominantly Muslim Arabic-speaking north, and a predominantly Animist and Christian south, where the use of English was encouraged by Christian missionaries, whose main role
7476-495: Was led by first lieutenant Ali Abd al Latif and first lieutenant Abdul Fadil Almaz. The latter led an insurrection of the military training academy, which ended in their defeat and the death of Almaz after the British army blew up the military hospital where he was garrisoned. This defeat was alleged to have partially been the result of the Egyptian garrison in Khartoum North not supporting the insurrection with artillery as
7565-513: Was made the language of administration in the south, and northerners began to hold positions there. The southern elite, trained in English , resented the change as they were kept out of government. After decolonization most power was given to the northern elites based in Khartoum , causing unrest in the south. The British moved towards granting Sudan independence, but did not invite southern Sudanese leaders to participate in negotiations during
7654-404: Was officially advisory (though in reality it was far more direct), the British insisted that their role in Sudan be formalised. Thus, an agreement was reached in 1899 establishing Anglo-Egyptian rule (a condominium), under which Sudan was to be administered by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent. In reality, much to the revulsion of Egyptian and Sudanese nationalists, Sudan
7743-479: Was previously promised. Even when the British ended their occupation of Egypt in 1936 (with the exception of the Suez Canal Zone ), they maintained their forces in Sudan. Successive governments in Cairo, repeatedly declaring their abrogation of the condominium agreement, declared the British presence in Sudan to be illegitimate, and insisted on full British recognition of King Farouk as " King of Egypt and
7832-438: Was reduced and reallocated to military and security forces. Sudan's military spending increased from 10 percent to 20 percent, while reducing education spending and other areas. Following the war, education was less likely to be funded, less educators were available due to death or injury, and education facilities were destroyed. As of 2015 42 percent of South Sudan's budget is allocated to military and security expenditures. In
7921-545: Was the primary source of income for about 8 out of 10 households. Living in a rural region is also associated with a lower quality of life because residents lack access to basic services and economic opportunities and job opportunities. Before the war, Sudan did not have a comprehensive infrastructure system. It lacked roads, bridges, and communications, and led to the existing infrastructure being destroyed. Critical infrastructure, like waterways and canals, were destroyed by airstrikes . When Sudan entered war, education funding
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