Judeo-Arabic ( Judeo-Arabic : ערביה יהודיה , romanized: ‘Arabiya Yahūdiya ; Arabic : عربية يهودية , romanized : ʿArabiya Yahūdiya (listen) ; Hebrew : ערבית יהודית , romanized : ‘Aravít Yehudít (listen) ) is Arabic , in its formal and vernacular varieties, as it has been used by Jews , and refers to both written forms and spoken dialects. Although Jewish use of Arabic, which predates Islam , has been in some ways distinct from its use by other religious communities, it is not a uniform linguistic entity.
128-684: Varieties of Arabic formerly spoken by Jews throughout the Arab world have been, in modern times, classified as distinct ethnolects . Under the ISO 639 international standard for language codes, Judeo-Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage under the code jrb, encompassing four languages: Judeo-Moroccan Arabic (aju), Judeo-Yemeni Arabic (jye), Judeo-Egyptian Arabic (yhd), and Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic (yud). Judeo-Arabic, particularly in its later forms, contains distinctive features and elements of Hebrew and Aramaic. Many significant Jewish works, including
256-689: A Dominican friar , toward the end of the 13th century, in a work entitled Pugio fidei adversus Mauros et Judaeos ("The Dagger of Faith against the Moors and the Jews"). During the reign of Queen Helena , two bronze dogs were placed at the entrance of the Temple in Jerusalem, to deter intruders from stealing the secret of the Shem HaMephorash , the ineffable name of God . If an intruder learned
384-557: A heretical Judaism , seduced women, and died a shameful death. Interestingly, the author also shows a paradoxical respect for Jesus. Perhaps surprisingly, instead of denying the miracles the New Testament claims Jesus had performed, Toledot Yeshu doubles down. The difference, of course, is that in this polemic his powers are chalked up to sacrilegious sorcery, while the authors of the New Testament portrayed these events as proof of divine power. In some versions of Toledot Yeshu, Jesus
512-583: A lingua franca (e.g., Turkey , Iran , Cyprus , Chad , Nigeria and Eritrea )– are particularly divergent in some respects, especially in their vocabularies, since they are less influenced by classical Arabic. However, historically they fall within the same dialect classifications as the varieties that are spoken in countries where Arabic is the dominant language. Because most of these peripheral dialects are located in Muslim majority countries, they are now influenced by Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic,
640-533: A Latin translation, as Historia Jeschuae Nazareni by "Johannes Jocabus Huldricus". This was based on a Hebrew manuscript, now lost, and has its own unique variants. A summary of it is presented by Rev. Sabine Baring-Gould, The Lost and Hostile Gospels (1874, London) pages 102–115, who surmised (because of some of the errors and anecdotes) that it was of medieval German origin, perhaps not even predating Martin Luther (page 115). Baring-Gould noted (pages 69–71) that
768-523: A Latin-based alphabet. It is the only Semitic language among the official languages of the European Union . Arabic-based pidgins (which have a limited vocabulary consisting mostly of Arabic words, but lack most Arabic morphological features) are in widespread use along the southern edge of the Sahara, and have been for a long time. In the eleventh century, the medieval geographer al-Bakri records
896-517: A bandit and one possessed. At a later age, these obscenities were compiled in the infamous Toledot Yeshu . The first textual evidence consists of fragments of Aramaic manuscripts discovered in Cairo. A recent study reports that more than 100 manuscripts of the Toledot exist, almost all of them late medieval (the oldest manuscript being from the 11th century). The earliest stratum of composition
1024-495: A certain dialect may be associated with backwardness and does not carry mainstream prestige—yet it will continue to be used as it carries a kind of covert prestige and serves to differentiate one group from another when necessary. A basic distinction that cuts across the entire geography of the Arabic-speaking world is between sedentary and nomadic varieties (often misleadingly called Bedouin ). The distinction stems from
1152-507: A colloquial variety to add a spontaneous comment or respond to a question. The ratio of MSA to colloquial varieties depends on the speaker, the topic, and the situation—amongst other factors. Today even the least educated citizens are exposed to MSA through public education and exposure to mass media, and so tend to use elements of it in speaking to others. This is an example of what linguistics researchers call diglossia . See Linguistic register . Egyptian linguist Al-Said Badawi proposed
1280-414: A common ancestry, and incipient immigrant pidgins. Arabic is characterized by a wide number of varieties; however, Arabic speakers are often able to manipulate the way they speak based on the circumstances. There can be a number of motives for changing one's speech: the formality of a situation, the need to communicate with people with different dialects, to get social approval, to differentiate oneself from
1408-619: A common dialect. Baghdad Jewish Arabic is reminiscent of the dialect of Mosul . For example, "I said" is qeltu in the speech of Baghdadi Jews and Christians, as well as in Mosul and Syria, as against Muslim Baghdadi gilit . Some Judeo-Arabic writers, such as Maimonides, were able to switch between varieties of Judeo-Arabic and the Standard Arabic dialect. Like other Jewish languages and dialects, Judeo-Arabic languages contain borrowings from Hebrew and Aramaic . This feature
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#17328021237901536-419: A corpse to life, she released him. Accused again, the queen sent for his arrest. He asked his disciples not to resist. Using God's name he made birds of clay and caused them to fly. The sages then got Judah Iskarioto to learn the name. At a contest of miracles between the two, they both lost knowledge of the name. Yeshu was arrested and beaten with pomegranate staves. He was taken to Tiberias and bound to
1664-583: A dead man using the Shem HaMephorash as further proof. Though Helena is amazed at the miracle, the Jews are in uproar, and Jesus flees to the upper Galilee, where he sends word to the queen not to fight on his behalf. In the Galilee, Jesus makes a large millstone float in the sea to demonstrate his supposed power – and again, Helena is amazed, and commends Jesus' bravery. The elders of Israel ask Helena to request an audience with Jesus, and then allow
1792-466: A dialect relatively different from formal Arabic may carry more prestige than a dialect closer to the formal language—this is the case in Bahrain, for example. Language mixes and changes in different ways. Arabic speakers often use more than one variety of Arabic within a conversation or even a sentence. This process is referred to as code-switching . For example, a woman on a TV program could appeal to
1920-710: A few kharjas with a combination of Hebrew and Arabic. During the 15th century, as Jews, especially in North Africa, gradually began to identify less with Arabs, Judeo-Arabic would undergo significant changes and become Later Judeo-Arabic. This coincided with increased isolation of Jewish communities and involved greater influence of Hebrew and Aramaic features. Some of the most important books of medieval Jewish thought were originally written in medieval Judeo-Arabic, as were certain halakhic works and biblical commentaries. Later they were translated into medieval Hebrew so that they could be read by contemporaries elsewhere in
2048-522: A fictional dialogue between a Christian and a Jew. In chapter 17 Justin claims that the Jews had sent out "chosen men" throughout the Roman Empire to polemicize against Christianity, calling it a "godless heresy". One early version of the Toledot Yeshu gave a milder description of Christianity. It did not cast aspersions on the characters of Mary and Jesus, instead it sought to undermine
2176-529: A filthy cistern in Jerusalem, and upon confirming this, the people of Ai rise in rebellion. To put down the revolt, Rabbi Judah allows Yeshu's uncle, Simeon, to learn the name of God and perform miracles in Yeshu's name. Ultimately, Yeshu's followers compile several books of lies , and their faith continues to expand. Realizing the rebellion has only grown, Simeon uses the name of God to fake an ascension into Heaven, during which he actually flies to Rome and implores
2304-458: A growing level of discussion on the text's possible scholarly use as a window into the early history of Jewish-Christian relations . Recent scholarship has drawn attention to the date of origin of the Toledot Yeshu . The earliest layers are considered to have been manufactured orally, and written source material of the Toledot Yeshu is much older than the work itself. As Flannery states: Most offensive to Christians were Jewish insults to
2432-406: A high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. Egyptian Arabic is one of the most widely understood Arabic dialects due to a thriving Egyptian television and movie industry, and Egypt's highly influential role in the region for much of
2560-404: A highly divergent Siculo-Arabic language descended from Maghrebi Arabic is also provided. True pronunciations differ; transliterations used approach an approximate demonstration. Also, the pronunciation of Modern Standard Arabic differs significantly from region to region. "Peripheral" varieties of Arabic – that is, varieties spoken in countries where Arabic is not a dominant language and
2688-429: A major distinction exists between the formal standardized language, found mostly in writing or in prepared speech, and the widely diverging vernaculars , used for everyday speaking situations. The latter vary from country to country, from speaker to speaker (according to personal preferences, education and culture), and depending on the topic and situation. In other words, Arabic in its natural environment usually occurs in
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#17328021237902816-402: A man named Juda Scariot into the Temple to learn the secret of the Shem HaMephorash . When Jesus comes to Helena, he flies upward using the Shem HaMephorash , but the elders command Juda to ascend after him. After wrestling in midair, Juda and Jesus plummet to the ground, where the latter breaks his arm. Injured and disoriented, Jesus is then beaten by a mob wielding pomegranate branches, and
2944-422: A more detailed classification for modern variants of the language, which is divided into five major groups: Peninsular , Mesopotamian , Levantine , Egypto-Sudanic or Nile Valley (including Egyptian and Sudanese ), and Maghrebi . These large regional groups do not correspond to borders of modern states. In the western parts of the Arab world , varieties are referred to as الدارجة ad-dārija , and in
3072-562: A number of common innovations from CA. This has led to the suggestion, first articulated by Charles Ferguson , that a simplified koiné language developed in the army staging camps in Iraq, whence the remaining parts of the modern Arab world were conquered. In general, the rural varieties are more conservative than the sedentary varieties and the rural varieties within the Arabian peninsula are even more conservative than those elsewhere. Within
3200-661: A number of religious writings by Saadia Gaon , Maimonides and Judah Halevi , were originally written in Judeo-Arabic, as this was the primary vernacular language of their authors. Jewish use of Arabic in Arabia predates Islam . There is evidence of a Jewish Arabic dialect, similar to general Arabic but including some Hebrew and Aramaic lexemes, called al-Yahūdiyya , predating Islam. Some of these Hebrew and Aramaic words may have passed into general usage, particularly in religion and culture, though this pre-Islamic Judeo-Arabic
3328-579: A rage and flees to the Galilee . Dejected, Yeshua adopts the name "Yeshu" to reflect the rabbis' curse over him, and begins preaching a heretical interpretation of the Torah. Over time he acquires five disciples: Simon, Mattai, Eliakim, Mordecai, and Jonathan, whose names he also changes to Simon Peter , Matthew , Luke , Mark , and John . Using the name of God, Yeshu performed several miracles, attracting many followers whom he would then baptize to bring into
3456-571: A situation of diglossia , which means that its native speakers often learn and use two linguistic forms substantially different from each other, the Modern Standard Arabic (often called MSA in English) as the official language and a local colloquial variety (called العامية , al-ʿāmmiyya in many Arab countries, meaning " slang " or "colloquial"; or called الدارجة , ad-dārija , meaning "common or everyday language" in
3584-464: A synagogue pillar. Vinegar was given to him to drink and a crown of thorns was put on his head. An argument broke out between the elders and Yeshu followers resulting in their escape to Antioch (or Egypt). On the day before the Passover , Yeshu decided to go to the Temple and recover the secret name. He entered Jerusalem riding on an ass , but one of his followers, Judah Iskarioto, told the sages he
3712-504: A text in an Arabic-based pidgin, probably one that was spoken in the region corresponding to modern Mauritania . In some regions, particularly around South Sudan , the pidgins have creolized (see the list below). Immigrant speakers of Arabic often incorporate a significant amount of vocabulary from the host-country language in their speech, in a situation analogous to Spanglish in the United States. Even within countries where
3840-468: A very weak grasp of the formal language. In another example, groups of educated speakers from different regions will often use dialectical forms that represent a middle ground between their dialects rather than trying to use the formal language, to make communication easier and more comprehensible. For example, to express the existential "there is" (as in, "there is a place where..."), Arabic speakers have access to many different words: In this case, /fiː/
3968-532: Is a Semitic language within the Afroasiatic family that originated in the Arabian Peninsula . There are considerable variations from region to region, with degrees of mutual intelligibility that are often related to geographical distance and some that are mutually unintelligible . Many aspects of the variability attested to in these modern variants can be found in the ancient Arabic dialects in
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4096-459: Is accused of sorcery by the Jews in front of Queen Helena of Jerusalem , but Jesus raises a man from the dead in front of the Queen's eyes and is released. Jesus goes to Galilee where he brings clay birds to life and makes a millstone float. (Klausner notes that the Toledot scarcely ever denies Gospel miracles, but merely changes good to evil.) Judas Iscariot , the hero of the tale, learns
4224-610: Is also Judeo-Arabic videos on YouTube . A collection of over 400,000 of Judeo-Arabic documents from the 6th-19th centuries was found in the Cairo Geniza . The movie Farewell Baghdad would be released in 2013 entirely in Judeo-Iraqi Arabic Judeo-Arabic orthography uses a modified version of the Hebrew alphabet called the Judeo-Arabic script. It is written from right to left horizontally like
4352-410: Is brought before Helena to plead his case. When Helena sees that the supposedly divine Jesus is so injured that he cannot even speak, she declares Jesus to be guilty of deceit, and allows the mob to punish him as they see fit. The wise men attempt to hang Jesus, but no tree can hold his weight, as Jesus had previously sworn by the Shem HaMephorash that no tree would allow him to be hanged. Instead, Jesus
4480-669: Is hanged from the sturdy stem of a grassy herb – the same herb that, every year, grows in the sanctuary of the Temple. In the Strassburg Manuscript, Mary was seduced by a soldier called Ben Pandera. The child Jesus shows great impudence by appearing bareheaded and disputing the Law with teachers. The miracle working powers of Jesus are attributed to having stolen the Name of God from the Temple . Jesus claims messianic dignity and
4608-540: Is learned as the speaker's first language whilst the formal language is subsequently learned in school. While vernacular varieties differ substantially, Fus'ha ( فصحى ), the formal register , is standardized and universally understood by those literate in Arabic. Western scholars make a distinction between Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic while speakers of Arabic generally do not consider CA and MSA to be different varieties. The largest differences between
4736-495: Is less marked in translations of the Bible , as the authors clearly took the view that the business of a translator is to translate. Most literature in Judeo-Arabic is of a Jewish nature and is intended for readership by Jewish audiences. There was also widespread translation of Jewish texts from languages like Yiddish and Ladino into Judeo-Arabic, and translation of liturgical texts from Aramaic and Hebrew into Judeo-Arabic. There
4864-523: Is most likely to be used as it is not associated with a particular region and is the closest to a dialectical middle ground for this group of speakers. Moreover, given the prevalence of movies and TV shows in Egyptian Arabic, the speakers are all likely to be familiar with it. Iraqi/Kuwaiti aku , Levantine fīh and North African kayn all evolve from Classical Arabic forms ( yakūn , fīhi , kā'in respectively), but now sound different. Sometimes
4992-435: Is moulded by this religious framework, reflecting the collective identity and adjusting to the intricate balance of belief systems. Religion in this context functions as a sociopolitical construct, inextricably linked to the authority of the state and its historical evolution. It speaks for the individual, often before they can express themselves, and thus, the interplay between faith and politics must be fully understood to grasp
5120-676: Is not really possible to keep this classification, partly because the modern dialects, especially urban variants, typically amalgamate features from both norms. Geographically, modern Arabic varieties are classified into five groups: Maghrebi , Egyptian (including Egyptian and Sudanese ), Mesopotamian , Levantine and Peninsular Arabic . Speakers from distant areas, across national borders, within countries and even between cities and villages, can struggle to understand each other's dialects. The greatest variations between kinds of Arabic are those between regional language groups. Arabic dialectologists formerly distinguished between just two groups:
5248-492: Is noted to have revived a man from the dead, turn clay statues into flying birds, and lift his arms like the wings of an eagle, ascending towards the heavens for an airborne battle with Judah Iskarioto. As Joseph Dan notes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica , "The narrative in all versions treats Jesus as an exceptional person who, from his youth, demonstrated unusual wit and wisdom, but disrespect toward his elders and
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5376-481: Is outraged at the incident and orders the execution of Pandera and his children, who then flee to Egypt. After some time, a famine in Egypt forces Pandera and his family to return to Israel. Pandera and Miriam move to Nazareth and change their names, while Yeshua comes of age and travels to Jerusalem to study under Rabbi Joshua ben Perachiah . During this time, he begins learning the secrets of Merkabah mysticism and
5504-689: Is pronounced as a voiced /ɡ/ in the urban varieties of the Arabian Peninsula (e.g. the Hejazi dialect in the ancient cities of Mecca and Medina ) as well as in the Bedouin dialects across all Arabic-speaking countries, but is voiceless mainly in post- Arabized urban centers as either /q/ (with [ɡ] being an allophone in a few words mostly in North African cities) or /ʔ/ (merging ⟨ ق ⟩ with ⟨ ء ⟩ ) in
5632-555: Is representative: This scurrilous fable of the life of Jesus is a medieval work, probably written down in the tenth century. [...] Though its contents enjoyed a certain currency in the oral traditions of the Jewish masses, it was almost totally ignored by official or scholarly Judaism. Antisemites have not failed to employ it as an illustration of the blasphemous character of the Synagogue . This disregard has recently shifted towards
5760-467: Is safe, Yeshu stays in the house of his in-laws, and begins preaching and performing miracles within the city. When Yom Kippur comes, Yeshu and his closest disciples do not fast, and engorge themselves on wine which had secretly been mixed with "waters of forgetfulness" . While unconscious, Yeshu is arrested by Herod's men, and imprisoned. When Yeshu's followers arrive at the Temple for the pilgrimage of Sukkot , they are ambushed and stoned to death outside
5888-420: Is the author, since the narrative itself has a number of different versions, which differ in terms of the story details and the attitude towards the central characters. Even individual versions seem to come from a number of storytellers. Some scholars assert that the source material is no earlier than the 6th century, and the compilation no earlier than the 9th century. Although individual anecdotes that make up
6016-462: Is the study of how language usage is affected by societal factors, e.g., cultural norms and contexts (see also pragmatics ). The following sections examine some of the ways that modern Arab societies influence how Arabic is spoken. In the Arab world, religion transcends the boundaries of personal belief, functioning as a pervasive and influential force in every facet of life. It is deeply embedded within
6144-570: Is used by Arabic speakers over the Internet or for sending messages via cellular phones when the Arabic alphabet is unavailable or difficult to use for technical reasons; this is also used in Modern Standard Arabic when Arabic speakers of different dialects communicate each other. Three scientific papers concluded, using various natural language processing techniques, that Levantine dialects (and especially Palestinian) were
6272-483: The Toledot Yeshu may all come from sources dating before the sixth century, there is no evidence that their gathering into a single narrative is that early. Some scholars, like Jeffrey Rubenstein, favour a later composition date, after the 7th century. The earliest known mention is an oblique mention by Agobard , archbishop of Lyon , c. 826 , and then another mention by his successor, Amulo , c. 849 . However, since Agobard does not refer to
6400-475: The Toledot Yeshu or its source material. In his Incredible Shrinking Son of Man , Robert M. Price states that the Toledot Yeshu is "dependent on second-century Jewish-Christian gospel", and Alexander argues that the oral traditions behind the written versions of the Toledot Yeshu might go all the way back to the formation of the canonical narratives themselves. It is unlikely that one person
6528-643: The Arabic alphabet . Vernacular Arabic was first recognized as a written language distinct from Classical Arabic in 17th century Ottoman Egypt , when the Cairo elite began to trend towards colloquial writing. A record of the Cairo vernacular of the time is found in the dictionary compiled by Yusuf al-Maghribi . More recently, many plays and poems, as well as a few other works exist in Lebanese Arabic and Egyptian Arabic ; books of poetry, at least, exist for most varieties. In Algeria , colloquial Maghrebi Arabic
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#17328021237906656-491: The Hebrew and Aramaic languages. Though they have features similar to each other, they are not a homogeneous unit and still belong philologically to the same family groupings as their non-Judeo counterpart varieties. There have been a number of Arabic-based pidgins and creoles throughout history, including a number of new ones emerging today. These may be broadly divided into the Sudanic pidgins and creoles, which share
6784-647: The Maghreb ), in different aspects of their lives. This situation is often compared in Western literature to the Latin language, which maintained a cultured variant and several vernacular versions for centuries, until it disappeared as a spoken language, while derived Romance languages became new languages, such as Italian , Catalan , Aragonese , Occitan , French , Arpitan , Spanish , Portuguese , Asturleonese , Romanian and more. The regionally prevalent variety
6912-481: The Maghrebi Arabic group, first-person singular verbs begin with a n- ( ن ). Further substantial differences exist between Bedouin and sedentary speech, the countryside and major cities, ethnic groups, religious groups, social classes, men and women, and the young and the old. These differences are to some degree bridgeable. Often, Arabic speakers can adjust their speech in a variety of ways according to
7040-618: The Mashriqi (eastern) dialects, east of Libya which includes the dialects of Arabian Peninsula , Mesopotamia , Levant , Egypt , Sudan , and the Maghrebi (western) dialects which includes the dialects of North Africa ( Maghreb ) west of Egypt . The mutual intelligibility is high within each of those two groups, while the intelligibility between the two groups is asymmetric : Maghrebi speakers are more likely to understand Mashriqi than vice versa. Arab dialectologists have now adopted
7168-542: The Messiah , claiming Isaiah 's "a virgin shall conceive and bear a son" and other prophets prophesied about him . Using God's name he healed a lame man, they worshipped him as the Messiah. The Sanhedrin decided to arrest him, and sent messengers to invite him to Jerusalem. They pretended to be his disciples to trick him. When he was brought, bound, before Queen Helen , the sages accused him of sorcery . When he brought
7296-786: The Nubian languages . Egyptian varieties are influenced by the Coptic language . Mesopotamian varieties are influenced by the Mesopotamian languages ( Sumerian , Akkadian , Mandaic , Eastern Aramaic ), Turkish language , and Iranian languages . Levantine varieties (ISO 639–3: apc ) are influenced Western Aramaic languages , and to a lesser extent, the Turkish language and Greek and Persian and Ancient Egyptian language : Some peninsular varieties are influenced by South Arabian Languages . Jewish varieties are influenced by
7424-461: The ascension . Some of the Talmudic anecdotes are clearly fictitious or absurd, and some seem incompatible with each other or with known historical fact. In some instances, the Talmudic source of the Toledot is very obscure or of doubtful authenticity, and may not originally have been relevant to Jesus. Significantly, the Toledot seems to know (although sometimes only superficially) of
7552-479: The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain such as Judah Halevi , composed poetry with Arabic. The muwaššaḥ , an Andalusi genre of strophic poetry, typically included kharjas , or closing lines often in a different language. About half of the corpus of the more than 250 known muwaššaḥāt in Hebrew have kharjas in Arabic, compared to roughly 50 with Hebrew kharjas , and about 25 with Romance. There are also
7680-399: The 13th century) refer to Christian festivals and observances that only originated after the 4th century. This does not account for all of the manuscripts and those that were created earlier do not mention the festivals. In Origen 's Contra Celsum (likely written in the 3rd century AD), Origen quotes Celsus as calling Jesus " son of Pantera ," which would point to Celsus' knowledge of
7808-595: The 1960s, Jewish speakers of Arabic in diaspora and their descendants gradually adopted the term 'Judeo-Arabic' and its equivalents in French and Hebrew. The 19th century rediscovery of the Cairo Geniza gave the study of Judeo-Arabic prominence within Judaic Studies , leading to publications such as Shelomo Dov Goitein's series A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in
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#17328021237907936-455: The 20th century. Another way that varieties of Arabic differ is that some are formal and others are colloquial (that is, vernacular). There are two formal varieties, or اللغة الفصحى al-lugha(t) al-fuṣḥá , One of these, known in English as Modern Standard Arabic ( MSA ), is used in contexts such as writing, broadcasting, interviewing, and speechmaking. The other, Classical Arabic, is
8064-470: The 4th–6th centuries AD. The attribution of Yeshu's paternity to a soldier named Pandera or Pantera can be traced to the second-century Greek philosopher Celsus , although Celsus himself was citing a Jewish contemporary in his account. Jews apparently polemicised actively against the new Christian religion, as can be inferred from the 2nd century Christian writer Justin Martyr 's Dialogue with Trypho ,
8192-499: The Arab world, both communities in Baghdad share Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) as the prestigious form of the language. However, the Muslim colloquial dialect is more closely associated with power and economic dominance, reflecting the greater influence of the Muslim community in the city. Consequently, Christians often adopt the Muslim dialect in formal or public contexts—such as a Christian school teacher addressing students—demonstrating
8320-564: The Arabic varieties of the Qur'an and their Arabic-speaking neighbours, respectively. Probably the most divergent non-creole Arabic variety is Cypriot Maronite Arabic , a nearly extinct variety that has been heavily influenced by Greek , and written in Greek and Latin alphabets. Maltese is descended from Siculo-Arabic . Its vocabulary has acquired a large number of loanwords from Sicilian , Italian and more recently English , and it uses only
8448-677: The Common, the Unique and the Problematic" ( הלשונות היהודיות – המשותף, המיוחד והבעייתי ) with articles from Chaim Menachem Rabin " מה מייחד את הלשונות היהודיות " ('What Distinguishes the Jewish Languages') and Yehoshua Blau " הערבית-היהודית הקלאסית " ('Classical Judeo-Arabic'). This project explicitly sought to describe the Arabic of Jews as a distinct, Jewish language, equating it with Yiddish . According to Esther-Miriam Wagner,
8576-500: The Divine Name as well, and Jesus and Judas fly through the sky engaged in aerial combat , with Judas victorious. The now powerless Jesus is arrested and put to death by being hung upon a carob tree, and buried. The body is taken away and his ascension is claimed by his apostles on the basis of the empty tomb. However, Jesus's body is found hidden in a garden and is dragged back to Jerusalem and shown to Queen Helena. Among
8704-616: The Documents of the Cairo Geniza . Shohat identifies linguist Yehoshua Blau as a key figure in the development of the notion of Judeo-Arabic, within what she describes as a Zionist linguistic project invested in prioritizing the uniqueness and separateness of isolatable ' Jewish languages '. Shohat cites the first issue of the Israeli journal Pe'amim , which featured a "Scholars’ Forum" ( בימת חוקרים ) on "The Jewish Languages –
8832-656: The Hebrew alphabet. By around 800 CE, most Jews within the Islamic Empire (90% of the world's Jews at the time) were native speakers of Arabic like the populations around them. This led to the development of early Judeo-Arabic. The language quickly became the central language of Jewish scholarship and communication, enabling Jews to participate in the greater epicenter of learning at the time, which meant that they could be active participants in secular scholarship and civilization. The widespread usage of Arabic not only unified
8960-454: The Hebrew script and also like the Hebrew script some letters contain final versions, used only when that letter is at the end of a word. It also uses the letters alef and waw or yodh to mark long or short vowels respectively. The order of the letters varies between alphabets. Varieties of Arabic Varieties of Arabic (or dialects or vernacular languages) are the linguistic systems that Arabic speakers speak natively. Arabic
9088-524: The Iraq War and the mass emigration of Iraqi Christians in the early 21st century. In Baghdad , notable differences exist between the Arabic spoken by Christian and Muslim residents. The Christian community in Baghdad is longstanding, and their dialect traces its roots to the sedentary vernacular of urban medieval Iraq. By contrast, the typical Muslim dialect of the city is a more recent development, originating from Bedouin speech patterns. As in other parts of
9216-466: The Jewish community located throughout the Islamic Empire but also facilitated greater communication with other ethnic and religious groups, which led to important manuscripts of polemic, like the Toledot Yeshu , being written or published in Arabic or Judeo-Arabic. By the 10th century Judeo-Arabic would transition from Early to Classical Judeo-Arabic. In al-Andalus , Jewish poets associated with
9344-513: The Jewish world, and by others who were literate in Hebrew. These include: Sharch ( šarḥ , pl. šurūḥ , šarḥanim ) is a literary genre consisting of the translation of sacred texts, such as Bible translations into Arabic , the Talmud or siddurim , which were composed in Hebrew and Aramaic, into Judeo-Arabic, prevalent starting in the 15th century, and exhibiting a number of mixed elements. The term sharḥ sometimes came to mean "Judeo-Arabic" in
9472-536: The Law of Moses, and the king acquiesces. Judah then goes undercover and ingratiates himself to Yeshu, making him believe that he is a loyal follower. Whilst lodging among the people of Ai , Yeshu takes a wife. After humiliating himself in exchange for a donkey and some bread, Yeshu rides for Jerusalem. Judah arrives ahead of Yeshu, convincing the people of the city to feign cooperation with Yeshu in order that he may let his guard down and be captured. Once finally convinced it
9600-462: The Middle East in the medieval period. A 15th-century Yemenite version of the text was titled Maaseh Yeshu , or the " Episode of Jesus ", in which Jesus is described either as being the son of Joseph or the son of Pantera . The account portrays Jesus as an impostor. The Toledot portrays Jesus (known as Yeshu by the author) as an illegitimate child who practiced sorcery , taught
9728-711: The Pentateuch. This period includes a wide array of literary works. Scholars assume that Jewish communities in Arabia spoke Arabic as their vernacular language, and some write that there is evidence of the presence of Hebrew and Aramaic words in their speech, as such words appear in the Quran and might have come from contact with these Arabic-speaking Jewish communities. Before the spread of Islam, Jewish communities in Mesopotamia and Syria spoke Aramaic, while those to
9856-522: The Sunni Arabs. This socio-political dynamic exerts a profound influence on the evolution of language in Bahrain, steering its development in line with the interests and cultural practices of the Sunni minority. The case of Iraq further exemplifies how religious affiliation can significantly influence linguistic variation within the Arab world. This observation is drawn from a study conducted prior to
9984-446: The Sunni population, which began migrating to the island in the 18th century. Despite being a minority, the Sunni population holds a dominant position, with the ruling family of Bahrain being Sunni. This dominance is reflected in the public sphere, where the colloquial language presented on television and in media is almost exclusively that of the Sunni community. As a result, power, prestige, and economic control are closely associated with
10112-731: The Wagenseil version contains historical references that place its 'Yeshu' at least a century before the Jesus and Pontius Pilate of the New Testament, and the Huldrich version contains references that place its 'Yeshu' at least a full century after the time of the Gospels. During the reign of Herod the Great , a woman of the Tribe of Benjamin named Miriam, sister of Simeon of Jerusalem ,
10240-647: The West spoke Romance and Berber . With the Early Muslim conquests , areas including Mesopotamia and the eastern and southern Mediterranean underwent Arabization , most rapidly in urban centers. Some isolated Jewish communities continued to speak Aramaic until the 10th century, and some communities never adopted Arabic as a vernacular language at all. Although urban Jewish communities were using Arabic as their spoken language, Jews kept Hebrew and Aramaic, traditional rabbinic languages, as their languages of writing during
10368-514: The authority of the formal language by using elements of it in her speech in order to prevent other speakers from cutting her off. Another process at work is "leveling", the "elimination of very localised dialectical features in favour of more regionally general ones." This can affect all linguistic levels—semantic, syntactic, phonological, etc. The change can be temporary, as when a group of speakers with substantially different Arabics communicate, or it can be permanent, as often happens when people from
10496-429: The case of Judeo-Arabic reified a Zionist 'Arab vs. Jew' dichotomy. The Arabic spoken by Jewish communities in the Arab world differed from the Arabic of their non-Jewish neighbors. Particularly in its later forms, Judeo-Arabic contains distinctive features and elements of Hebrew and Aramaic, such as grammar, vocabulary, orthography, and style. For example, most Jews in Egypt lived in Cairo and Alexandria and they shared
10624-575: The city. Jews all over the Roman Empire petition Herod not to execute Yeshu, that his suffering may be prolonged, but the king does not listen and has Yeshu hanged outside of Jerusalem just before Passover . However, the people of Ai refuse to accept his death and threatened to rebel. To stymie the city's discontent, an agent of Herod tells the people that Yeshu had been resurrected by a bout of heavenly fire three days after his execution. However, Rabbi Judah boasts that Yeshu's corpse still remains in
10752-601: The classical/standard and the colloquial Arabic are the loss of grammatical case ; a different and strict word order; the loss of the previous system of grammatical mood , along with the evolution of a new system; the loss of the inflected passive voice , except in a few relic varieties; restriction in the use of the dual number and (for most varieties) the loss of the distinctive conjugation and agreement for feminine plurals . Many Arabic dialects, Maghrebi Arabic in particular, also have significant vowel shifts and unusual consonant clusters . Unlike other dialect groups, in
10880-418: The closest colloquial varieties, in terms of lexical similarity , to Modern Standard Arabic: Harrat et al. (2015, comparing MSA to two Algerian dialects, Tunisian, Palestinian, and Syrian), El-Haj et al. (2018, comparing MSA to Egyptian, Levantine, Gulf, and North African Arabic), and Abu Kwaik et al. (2018, comparing MSA to Algerian, Tunisian, Palestinian, Syrian, Jordanian, and Egyptian). Sociolinguistics
11008-461: The complexities of the language and culture of the Arab world. Religion and politics here are intertwined to such a degree that they cannot be separated. Bahrain offers a clear example of the intricate relationship between religion, identity, and societal structures in the Arab world. A significant distinction exists between the Shiite population, Bahrain's oldest and most established community, and
11136-451: The context and to their intentions—for example, to speak with people from different regions, to demonstrate their level of education or to draw on the authority of the spoken language. In terms of typological classification, Arabic dialectologists distinguish between two basic norms: Bedouin and Sedentary. This is based on a set of phonological, morphological, and syntactic characteristics that distinguish between these two norms. However, it
11264-400: The context. This is not the only source of prestige, though. Many studies have shown that for most speakers, there is a prestige variety of vernacular Arabic. In Egypt, for non-Cairenes, the prestige dialect is Cairo Arabic. For Jordanian women from Bedouin or rural background, it may be the urban dialects of the big cities, especially including the capital Amman. Moreover, in certain contexts,
11392-415: The countryside move to the city and adopt the more prestigious urban dialect, possibly over a couple of generations. This process of accommodation sometimes appeals to the formal language, but often does not. For example, villagers in central Palestine may try to use the dialect of Jerusalem rather than their own when speaking with people with substantially different dialects, particularly since they may have
11520-710: The dental ⟨ض⟩ /dˤ/ . Toledot Yeshu Sefer Toledot Yeshu ( ספר תולדות ישו , The Book of the Generations/History/Life of Jesus ), often abbreviated as Toledot Yeshu , is a medieval text which presents an alternative, anti-christian view, as well as a disputed biography of Jesus Christ . It exists in a number of different versions, none of which is considered either canonical or normative within Rabbinic literature , but which appear to have been widely circulated in Europe and
11648-399: The eastern parts, as العامية al-ʿāmmiyya . Nearby varieties of Arabic are mostly mutually intelligible , but faraway varieties tend not to be. Varieties west of Egypt are particularly disparate, with Egyptian Arabic speakers claiming difficulty in understanding North African Arabic speakers, while North African Arabic speakers' ability to understand other Arabic speakers is mostly due to
11776-469: The entire group of Judeo-Arabic dialects being considered endangered languages . There remain small populations of speakers in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Lebanon, Yemen, the United States, and Israel. Cultural critic Ella Shohat notes that Jewish speakers of Arabic did not refer to their language as 'Judeo-Arabic' but simply as 'Arabic'. In the period of ' massive dislocation ' from the late 1940s through
11904-481: The extent to which language in Baghdad, and the wider Arab world, is shaped by the prevailing sociopolitical landscape. When it comes to phonetics the Arabic dialects differ in the pronunciation of the short vowels ( / a / , / u / and / i / ) and a number of selected consonants, mainly ⟨ق⟩ /q/ , ⟨ج⟩ /d͡ʒ/ and the interdental consonants ⟨ث⟩ /θ/ , ⟨ذ⟩ /ð/ and ⟨ظ⟩ /ðˤ/ , in addition to
12032-497: The first three centuries of Muslim rule, perhaps due to the presence of the Sura and Pumbedita yeshivas in rural areas where people spoke Aramaic. Jews in Arabic, Muslim majority countries wrote—sometimes in their dialects, sometimes in a more classical style—in a mildly adapted Hebrew alphabet rather than using the Arabic script , often including consonant dots from the Arabic alphabet to accommodate phonemes that did not exist in
12160-400: The fold. Learning that the son of Pandera still lived, Herod orders Yeshu's arrest. While he and most of his disciples are able to escape, Herod's men capture John and behead him . Now claiming to be the son of God and God incarnate, Yeshu extolls his followers to perform graver blasphemies. Three rabbis, led by one Judah ben Zechariah, petition Herod for permission to try Yeshu for violating
12288-464: The following distinctions between the different "levels of speech" involved when speakers of Egyptian Arabic switch between vernacular and formal Arabic varieties: Almost everyone in Egypt is able to use more than one of these levels of speech, and people often switch between them, sometimes within the same sentence. This is generally true in other Arabic-speaking countries as well. The spoken dialects of Arabic have occasionally been written, usually in
12416-466: The gardener confessed he had taken it to prevent his followers from stealing his body and claiming his ascension to heaven . Recovering the body, the sages tied it to a horse's tail and took it to the queen. Convinced he was a false prophet , she ridiculed his followers and commended the sages. A third major recension was published by Johann Jacob Huldreich (or Huldrich) in Leyden, Holland, in 1705, with
12544-590: The language of the Qur'an . It is rarely used except in reciting the Qur'an or quoting older classical texts. (Arabic speakers typically do not make an explicit distinction between MSA and Classical Arabic.) Modern Standard Arabic was deliberately developed in the early part of the 19th century as a modernized version of Classical Arabic. People often use a mixture of both colloquial and formal Arabic. For example, interviewers or speechmakers generally use MSA in asking prepared questions or making prepared remarks, then switch to
12672-465: The listener, when citing a written text to differentiate between personal and professional or general matters, to clarify a point, and to shift to a new topic. An important factor in the mixing or changing of Arabic is the concept of a prestige dialect . This refers to the level of respect accorded to a language or dialect within a speech community. The formal Arabic language carries a considerable prestige in most Arabic-speaking communities, depending on
12800-525: The miracles of the canonical Gospels, and does not deny their occurrence, but instead attributes them to Yeshu's use of Egyptian magic, or his appropriation of the Ineffable Name (the Divine Name ), but not to diabolical incantations. Some of the anecdotes recounted in the Toledot seem to have been drawn from non-canonical early Christian writings known as apocryphal gospels , datable to
12928-564: The morrow may bring. [...] I copied it from three different pamphlets from three different countries, not just one, The contents of all these pamphlets were identical, except that I wrote it in the language of prudence [- namely, Hebrew, because Gentiles do not understand it]. Martin Luther quoted the Toledot (evidently the Strassburg version) at length in his general condemnation of Jews in his book Vom Schem Hamphoras in 1543. In
13056-555: The name of God. While playing near the Temple Mount , Yeshua becomes injured and removes his head covering. As such a thing was considered disrespectful, the Rabbis investigate Yeshua, and after traveling to Nazareth and learning from Miriam that he is a bastard , they expel him from the Temple after pronouncing a curse of damnatio memoriae over him. After learning the truth of his origins from his mother, Yeshua murders Pandera in
13184-744: The official language is Arabic, different varieties of Arabic are spoken. For example, within Syria, the Arabic spoken in Homs is recognized as different from the Arabic spoken in Damascus, but both are considered to be varieties of "Levantine" Arabic. And within Morocco, the Arabic of the city of Fes is considered different from the Arabic spoken elsewhere in the country. Geographically distant colloquial varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research by Trentman & Shiri indicates
13312-516: The peninsula. Likewise, many of the features that characterize (or distinguish) the various modern variants can be attributed to the original settler dialects as well as local native languages and dialects. Some organizations, such as SIL International , consider these approximately 30 different varieties to be separate languages, while others, such as the Library of Congress , consider them all to be dialects of Arabic. In terms of sociolinguistics ,
13440-450: The person of Christ, about which St. Justin, Tertullian, Eusebius, Hippolytus, and Origen complained [...] In his Against Celsus [A.D. 248], Origen provides an idea of the caliber of the insults: Jesus, illegitimate son of Panthera, a Roman legionary, was a charlatan and a magician killed by the Jews; after His death, marvels were invented by His disciples concerning Him. Other tales of a still lower grade circulated, in which Jesus figured as
13568-514: The precinct. In spreading knowledge of the Name, Jesus gathers 310 followers and declares that he is the Messiah, the son of a virgin birth, and the Son of God. When asked to prove his claims, Jesus uses the Shem HaMephorash to heal a lame man. As his follower base grows, Helena is appraised of the situation by concerned Jews. Jesus appears before Helena and says he is the prophesied Messiah, resurrecting
13696-505: The sages of his age." Robert Van Voorst calls the Toledot Yeshu a record of popular polemic "run wild." The Toledot 's profane portrayal of the person Christians consider divine has provided fodder for Christian antisemitism and anti-Judaism . Until the early 21st century (with few exceptions), mainstream Jewish and Christian scholars paid little attention to the Toledot Yeshu . The opinion of noted advocate of Christian-Jewish reconciliation, Father Edward H. Flannery ,
13824-682: The same way that "Targum" was sometimes used to mean the Aramaic language . The texts of the sharh are based on and dependent on Hebrew. The significant emigration of Judeo-Arabic speakers in the 1940s and 1950s to Israel, France, and North America has led to endangerment or near-extinction of the ethnolects. Judeo-Arabic was viewed negatively in Israel as all Arabic was viewed as an "enemy language". Their distinct Arabic dialects in turn did not thrive, and most of their descendants now speak French or Modern Hebrew almost exclusively; thus resulting in
13952-416: The secret of the Name and attempted to leave, the dogs would bark so ferociously that the intruder would forget the secret of the Name. Jesus of Nazareth came into the Temple in Jerusalem, and stole the secret of the Name, but circumvented the dogs by writing the letters of the Name on parchment, and then slipping this parchment into a self-inflicted wound on his leg, allowing him to smuggle the knowledge out of
14080-399: The sedentary varieties, the western varieties (particularly, Moroccan Arabic ) are less conservative than the eastern varieties. A number of cities in the Arabic world speak a "Bedouin" variety, which acquires prestige in that context. The following example illustrates similarities and differences between the literary, standardized varieties, and major urban dialects of Arabic. Maltese ,
14208-430: The settlement patterns in the wake of the Arab conquests. As regions were conquered, army camps were set up that eventually grew into cities, and settlement of the rural areas by nomadic Arabs gradually followed thereafter. In some areas, sedentary dialects are divided further into urban and rural variants. The most obvious phonetic difference between the two groups is the pronunciation of the letter ق qaf , which
14336-440: The social fabric, permeating language, politics, and cultural identity. From birth, individuals are not only given a name but are also ascribed a place within a specific religious order: whether as Muslims, divided into Sunni or Shia , or as Christians , Druze , or Jews . These religious identities are not fluid or optional; rather, they are firmly entrenched, shaping and defining the individual’s experience. Even language itself
14464-400: The source by name it cannot be certain that this is the Toledot . The source material for the Toledot can be said to derive from four sources: The largest source of input to the Toledot seems to be anecdotes gathered from various parts of the Talmud and Midrash . These appear to be popular adaptations of material aimed against two Christian doctrines: the virgin birth and
14592-521: The story of Simeon Kepha who is construed to be the Apostle Peter or Paul. Jesus is portrayed as a deceiver and a heretic , showing a connection to the traditions in Celsus and Justin Martyr (see above). A great misfortune struck Israel in the year 3651 ( c. 110 BC ). A man of the tribe of Judah , Joseph Pandera , lived near a widow who had a daughter called Miriam. This virgin
14720-489: The tenets of the Christian faith. The goal was to seek the return of apostates to the Jewish fold. In keeping with this, Paola Tartakoff believes that the Toledot may have been modified by Jews to fit into specific situations. From the 9th through the 20th centuries, the Toledot Yeshu has inflamed Christian hostility towards Jews. In 1405, the Toledot was banned by Church authorities. A book under this title
14848-479: The two centuries after Luther, the Toledot reached the height of its fame and was well sought after by scholars and travelers alike. In 1681 Professor Johann Christoph Wagenseil published an entire volume devoted to refuting the Toledot. Attitudes towards the work became more diversified during the Age of Enlightenment . Long unknown to Christians, the Toledot was first translated into Latin by Ramón Martí ,
14976-718: The urban centers of Egypt and the Levant . The latter were mostly Arabized after the Islamic Conquests . The other major phonetic difference is that the rural varieties preserve the Classical Arabic (CA) interdentals /θ/ ث and /ð/ ذ, and merge the CA emphatic sounds /ɮˤ/ ض and /ðˤ/ ظ into /ðˤ/ rather than sedentary /dˤ/ . The most significant differences between rural Arabic and non-rural Arabic are in syntax. The sedentary varieties in particular share
15104-592: The versions of the Toledot , the version published by Johann Christian Wagenseil is perhaps the most prominent. In 1681, Wagenseil, a professor at the University of Altdorf , published a Hebrew text of the Toledot Yeshu with a Latin translation, in a book titled "Satan's Flaming Arrow" ( Tela Ignea Satanae ). The first section treats Jesus's life; later sections deal with the exploits of his apostles . Supplementary chapters tell of Nestorius and his attempts to keep Christians obeying Jewish custom, and
15232-518: The widespread popularity of Egyptian and Levantine popular media (for example Syrian or Lebanese TV shows). This phenomenon is called asymmetric intelligibility . One factor in the differentiation of the varieties is the influence from other languages previously spoken or still presently spoken in the regions, such as Western varieties are influenced by the Berber languages , Punic and by Romance languages . Sudanese varieties are influenced by
15360-612: Was advocated for Lebanese Arabic by Said Aql , whose supporters published several books in his transcription. In 1944, Abdelaziz Pasha Fahmi, a member of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Egypt proposed the replacement of the Arabic alphabet with the Latin alphabet. His proposal was discussed in two sessions in the communion but was rejected, and faced strong opposition in cultural circles. The Latin alphabet (as " Arabizi ")
15488-598: Was betrothed to Yohanan, a Torah-learned and God-fearing man of the house of David . Before the end of a certain Sabbath , Joseph looked lustfully at Miriam, knocked on her door and pretended to be her husband, but she only submitted against her will. When Yohanan came later to see her, she was surprised how strange his behavior was. Thus they both knew of Pandera's crime and Miriam's fault. Without witnesses to punish Pandera, Yohanan left for Babylonia. Miriam gave birth to Yeshua , whose name later depreciated to Yeshu . When he
15616-504: Was in the Temple. On a day before the Passover, they tried to hang him on a tree; using the name, he caused it (and any tree they should use) to break. A cabbage stalk, not being a tree, was used successfully to hang him on, and he was buried. His followers on Sunday told the queen that he was not in his grave, that he ascended to heaven as he had prophesied. As a gardener took him from the grave, they searched it and could not find him. But
15744-436: Was married to a man named Pappos ben Yehuda. A man named Joseph Pandera lusted after Miriam, and after accosting her, took her from Jerusalem to Bethlehem and impregnated her. Several years passed, during which Miriam gave birth to a child named Yeshua and several more sons and daughters. After Pappos is informed by a traveler that his wife Miriam is alive and cohabiting with another man, he goes before Herod and complains. Herod
15872-668: Was not the basis of a literature. There were Jewish Pre-Islamic Arabic poets , such as al-Samawʾal ibn ʿĀdiyā , though surviving written records of such Jewish poets do not indicate anything that distinguishes their use of Arabic from non-Jewish use of it, and their work according to Geoffrey Khan is generally not referred to as Judeo-Arabic. This work is similar to and tends to follow Classical Arabic, and Benjamin Hary, who calls it Classical Judeo-Arabic, notes it still includes some dialectal features, such as in Saadia Gaon 's translation of
16000-510: Was old enough, she took him to study the Jewish tradition. One day he walked with his head uncovered, showing disrespect, in front of the sages. This betrayed his illegitimacy and Miriam admitted him as Pandera's son. Scandalised, he fled to Upper Galilee . Yeshu later went to the Jerusalem Temple and learned the letters of God's ineffable name (one could do anything desired by them). He gathered 310 young men and proclaimed himself
16128-641: Was probably in Aramaic. There are recensions extant in Hebrew , and later versions in Judeo-Persian and Arabic , as well as in Yiddish and Ladino (Judeo-Spanish). The date of composition cannot be determined with certainty and there are conflicting views as to what markers denote dates. For instance, some manuscripts of the Toledot (called the Helena-recension and unattested before
16256-718: Was strongly condemned by Francesc Eiximenis ( d. 1409) in his Vita Christi , but in 1614 it was largely reprinted by a Jewish convert to Christianity, Samuel Friedrich Brenz , in Nuremberg, as part of his book vilifying his former religion, titled Skin Shed by the Jewish Snake . An indirect witness to the Christian condemnation of the book can be found in one manuscript of the Toledot , which has this cautionary note in its introduction: [This booklet] should be shown only to people of discretion, for one never knows what
16384-398: Was taught as a separate subject under French colonization, and some textbooks exist. Mizrahi Jews throughout the Arab world who spoke Judeo-Arabic dialects rendered newspapers, letters, accounts, stories, and translations of some parts of their liturgy in the Hebrew alphabet , adding diacritics and other conventions for letters that exist in Judeo-Arabic but not Hebrew. The Latin alphabet
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